PracticalSu¥sm

AnAkbarianFoundationforaLiberalTheologyofDifference

VincentJ.Cornell

AmongthecriticismsleveledattheSu¥traditionbyitsmodernMuslimopponents,twostandoutasmostprominent.The¥rstisthatSu¥smdoesnotrepresentauthenticIslam.Thisisalleg-edlybecauseitsteachingsdonotcomedirectlyfromtheQur¤an,theProphetMuhammad,andthe¥rstgenerationsofMuslims(al-Salafal-Salih).Accordingtothis“Sala¥”argument,Su¥smisaTrojanhorseforunwarrantedinnovationsthatowetheiroriginstonon-MuslimcivilizationssuchasGreece,Persia,andIndia.TheSala¥polemicbeganearlyinthehistoryofSu¥sm,andisoftenassociatedwiththeanti-Su¥argumentsofHanbalischolars,suchasIbnal-Jawzi(d.1201)inTalbisIblisorIbnTaymi-yya(d.1328)inhiscritiquesofIbn¡Arabi.1ItwasgivenanewleaseonlifeinthetwentiethcenturybythemodernistreformerMuhammadRashidRida(d.1935),whoeditedIbnTaymiyya’sworksandin¦uencedlaterSala¥ideologuessuchasHasanal-Banna(d.1949),thefounderoftheMuslimBrotherhood.2Al-thoughBannasawsomevalueinwhathecalled“pure”Su¥sm,hecondemnedtheSu¥traditionasawholeforincorporatingforeignideas,suchas“thesciencesofphilosophyandlogicandtheheritageandthoughtofancientnations.”Asaresult,he

1. SeeAlexanderD.Knysh,Ibn¡ArabiintheLaterIslamicTradition:theMakingofaPolemicalImageinMedievalIslam(Albany,NewYork,1999),pp.87–112.

2. Ibid.,p.90.SeealsoRichardP.Mitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers(NewYorkandOxford,1993reprintof1969¥rstedn),p.5.BannaBrothersBrotherswasafrequentvisitortotheSala¥yyabookstoreinCairoandtheMuslimBrotherhoodpublishedthe¥naleditionofRida’sjournal,al-Manar(ibid.al-Manaral-Manarpp.321–2).

2 VincentJ.Cornell

asserted,“Widegapswereopenedforeveryatheist,apostate,andcorrupterofopinionandfaithtoenterbythedoorinthenameofSu¥sm.”3

InthegenerationafterBanna’sdeath,Sala¥modernism,rep-resentedbytheMuslimBrotherhoodandalliedgroupssuchasPakistan’sJamaat-iIslam,contractedamarriageofconveniencewithSala¥traditionalism,representedbytheWahhabisectofSaudi¡Arabia.Theresultofthisunionwasthebirthin1962oftheMuslimWorldLeague(Rabitatal-¡Alamal-IslamiMuslimWorldLeague(MuslimWorldLeague( ),whichprovided¥nancialandinstitutionalsupportforSala¥missionaryactivi-tiesintheMuslimworldandbeyond.4TheworldwidespreadofSala¥smwasaccompaniedbyasystematiccampaignagainstIslamictraditionalism(exceptforHanbalitraditionalism)thathasseriouslyunderminedSu¥smasaviablespiritualalternativeinMuslimcountries.InthewordsofSayyidQutb(d.1966),theformerheadoftheMuslimBrotherhood’sSectionforthePropa-gationoftheMessage,theal-Salafal-Salih“createdageneration–thegenerationoftheCompanionsoftheProphet,mayGodbepleasedwiththem–withoutcomparisoninthehistoryofIslam,evenintheentirehistoryofman.Afterthis,noothergenera-tionofthiscaliberwaseveragaintobefound.”5AccordingtoQutb,traditionalIslamalloweditselftobereconqueredbytheveryignorance,depravity,andmisguidance(jahiliyyaveryignorance,depravity,andmisguidance(veryignorance,depravity,andmisguidance( )thattheoriginalmessageofIslamhadsoughttoovercome.Su¥smsup-posedlyhelpedtoperpetuatethisnewjahiliyyabecauseitwasa

3. Mitchell,MuslimBrothers,p.214.4. The¥rstcounciloftheMuslimWorldLeague,whichmetinDecember

1962,washeadedbyMuhammadibnIbråhimibnAlal-Shaykh,adirectlin-ealdescendantofMuhammadibn¡Abdal-Wahhab(d.1791),thefounderofWahhabism,andincludedSaidRamadan,theson-in-lawofHasanal-Banna.SeeHamidAlgar,Wahabbism:ACriticalEssay(Oneonta,NewYork,2002),Wahabbism:ACriticalEssayWahabbism:ACriticalEssayp.49.SaidRamadanwasstrippedofhiscitizenshipbytherevolutionarygovernmentofEgyptin1953.Hehadlongbeenakey¥gureintheMuslimBrotherhood’sinternationalbureauandwasin¦uentialintheestablishmentoftheBrotherhoodinSyria.HesubsequentlyreceivedpoliticalasyluminSwitzerland,wherehisson,theprominentEuropeanIslamicintellectualTariqRamadan,wasborn.SeealsoMitchell,MuslimBrothers,pp.141–2.

5. SeyyidQutb,Milestones(Damascus,Englishtrans.of1962Arabicedn,n.d.),p.15.

3PracticalSufism

remnantofthe“feudalages”:itstraditionalismwasanobstacletoprogressandreform,anditadvocatedaspiritualwithdrawalfromlifethatledtotheevilofasociallyuselessexistence.ForQutb,Su¥smwasthe¥rstblowtobestruckattheintegrityofIslamicthoughtandtheexistenceofthe“Islamicnation.”6

SayyidQutb’spolemicexempli¥esthesecondmajorcriticismofSu¥sminthemodernera,thatitisimpracticalandsociallyirrelevant.Thiscritiquehasbeennearlyasharmfultothereputa-tionofSu¥smastheaccusationofinauthenticity.ForHasanal-Banna,Su¥smfosteredan“isolatedspirituality”(ruhaniyyai¤tizaliyya)thatleadstopoliticalandsocialquietism.Thistendencyrunscountertothe“socially-consciousspirituality”(ruhaniyyaijtima¤iyya)ofIslamicactivism,whichpromotespracticeovertheoryandcallsforopenresistanceagainstpoliticalandsocialinjustice.7Banna’ssuccessorswereevenmoreextremeintheircriticismsofSu¥sm’srelevance.ForQutbandMuhammadal-Ghazali(d.1996),Su¥smwasamedievalrelic.UnscrupulouspoliticiansusedSu¥doctrinesto“drugthemasses”and“exploitthepeople”bycausingvictimizedMuslimstoresignthemselvestotheireconomicandsocialfate.UnlikeBanna,whomaintainedamicablerelationswithsomeSu¥orders,theysawtheSu¥tariqaasaprimecauseofMuslimdisunity.8

Today,leadersofSala¥organizationsroutinelyusethesecri-tiquestoturnMuslimsawayfromtheSu¥message.Inmanycommunities,anti-Su¥attitudeshaveledtoa“tyrannyofthemajority”thatadverselyaffectsthelivesofMuslimswhofol-lowtheSu¥way.ThistyrannycanbeobservedeveninliberaldemocraticcountriessuchastheUnitedStates.TheAmericanMuslim,awidelydistributedmagazinepublishedbytheMuslimAmericanSocietyofFallsChurch,Virginia,containsanadvicecolumninwhicha“Sheikh”namedMuhammadal-HanootigivesfatwasonvariousaspectsofMuslimlifeandpractice.IntheSeptember2003issue,awomanwhohasbeenapproachedby“agoodMuslimman”formarriageinquiresabouthersuitor’s

6. Mitchell,MuslimBrothers,p.216.7. Ibid.Mitchelltranslatesruhaniyyaijtima¤iyyaas“socialspirituality”.ruhaniyyaijtima¤iyyaruhaniyyaijtima¤iyya8. Ibid.

4 VincentJ.Cornell

practiceofSu¥sm(p.38).ShewondersaboutthesuitabilityofaSu¥formarriagebecauseshedoes“notwanttoendupwithsomeonewhodoessomethingwrongagainstIslam.”Hanooti’sresponseclearlyillustratesthedangerthatSala¥ideasposeforSu¥swhowishtoremainactiveintheircommunities.“IdonotknowwhatsortofSu¥heis,”saysHanooti,“but,ingeneral,IadviseyoutomarryapersonwhohasgoodknowledgeofIslam,andonewhoisnotmerelyfollowingcultureandtradition.Ingeneral,IwouldcautionyouagainstmarryingaSu¥,foragreatmanyofthemdonothaveagoodknowledgeofIslamandaretiltedtowardlivesofinconvenience.”BycounselingthewomantonotmarryaSu¥,HanootiisineffectsayingthatSu¥sarenotMuslimsandthattheQur¤anicbanagainstaMuslimwoman’smarriagetoanon-Muslimappliesnotonlytothefollowersofotherreligions,buttoSu¥saswell.

Su¥smandAuthenticTradition

ThosewhoarewellacquaintedwiththedoctrinesandhistoryofSu¥smknowthatbothofthecritiquesdetailedabovearefalse.Firstofall,Su¥sm,likemostreligiousinstitutionsinSunniIslam,tracesitsoriginstotheQur¤an,theSunnaoftheProphetMuhammad,andthewayofal-Salafal-Salih.Thus,Su¥smhasjustasmuchrighttobecalled“Sala¥”asitsopponents.MostoftheearlysystematizersofSu¥sm,suchasAb¬¡Abdal-Rahmanal-Sulami(d.1021),Ab¬Nu¤aymal-Isfahani(d.1038–9),andAb¬al-Qasimal-Qushayri(d.1074),weretrainedinSha¥¤ijurispru-dence,whichwas“Sala¥”tothecore.AhmadibnHanbal(d.855),thefounderoftheHanbalitradition,wasastudentofImamal-Sha¥¤i(d.820),andtheHanbaliandSha¥¤ilegalschoolsdonotdifferonessentialmatters.AlthoughSala¥opponentsofSu¥smhavetherighttoobjecttoSu¥doctrinesandpractices,theydonothaveawarranttoclaimthatSu¥smhasnoauthenticity.Infact,itiseasiertoclaimthatSu¥sm,notSala¥sm,isthemoreauthentic,becauseitstraditionsaremoreconsistentwiththehistoricalcontoursofIslamicthought.Itismuchmoredif¥culttomaintain,asSala¥modernistsdo,thatnearlyallofIslamicthoughtbetweenthe¥rstcenturyofIslamandthenineteenth

5PracticalSufism

ortwentiethcenturyoftheCommonEraisadistortionof“true”Islam.

TheaccusationthatSu¥smisimpracticalorsociallyirrelevantisequallyfalse.IntheSu¥tradition,oneoftheearliesttermsfor“saint”wassalih.Thisisthesametermusedinthephrase,al-Salafal-Salih,whichdenotesthesupposedforerunnersoftoday’sSala¥s.TheQur¤anmentionsthesalihin,alongwithmartyrsandpropagatorsoftheIslamicmessage,aspeoplewhomAllahhasfavored(4:69).Asalih(fem.saliha)isamorallyupstandingandsociallyconstructivepersonwhoperformsrighteousworks(salah)andstrivesfortheimprovement(islah)ofoneselfandone’sfel-lowhumanbeings.9SinceamajorroleoftheSu¥salihistomaketheworldabetterplace,itishardtoarguethatsuchapersonissociallyirrelevant.Theretreatsandperiodsofmeditationprac-ticedbySu¥salihinweremeanstospeci¥cends;theywerenotendsinthemselves.ManySu¥semergedfromtheirretreatstobecomeactiveintheirsocieties.Sometimesthisactivismwasmanifestedoutwardly,asamongthefamousactivistshaykhsofNorthAfrica.10Atothertimesitwasmanifestedinwardly,suchaswhenHarithibnAsadal-MuhasibiofBaghdad(d.837)formulatedtheSu¥doctrineofthetripartitesoul(nafs).11ArewetoconcludethatMuhasibi’sideaswerenotrelevantbecausehepreferredtolookforthecausesofsocialproblemssuchasmurder,suicide,andtyrannyintheindividualpsycheratherthaninsocietyatlarge?IsaSu¥“psychologist”suchasMuhasibilesssociallyuse-fulthanamodernSala¥politician?

Inthepresent-dayculturewarthatpitsSala¥andotherforms

9. OntheconceptofsalahseeVincentJ.Cornell,RealmoftheSaint:PowerandAuthorityinMoroccanSu¥sm¥¥ (Austin,Texas,1998),p.6.

10. Ibid.SeeespeciallythechaptersonAb¬al-¡Abbasal-Sabti(d.1204),pp.79–92,andMuhammadibnSulaymanal-Jazuli(d.1465),pp.155–229.Inhisyouth,Hasanal-BannajoinedasociallyactiveSu¥orderknownastheHasa¥yya.Hewasinvolvedwiththisorderfortwentyyears,andclaimedthattheHasa¥yyaSocietyforCharitywastheinspirationfortheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers.Mitchell,MuslimBrothers,pp.2–6.

11. OnMuhasibi’stheoryofpersonality,seeMargaretSmith,AnEarlyMysticofBaghdad:AStudyoftheLifeandTeachingofHarithB.Asadal-Muha-sibi,A.D:781–857(London,1977reprintof1935¥rstedn),pp.86–110.sibi,A.D:781–857sibi,A.D:781–857

6 VincentJ.Cornell

ofIslamicactivismagainstanideologicallydemonizedWest,andthatpitsaresurgentWesternpositivismandculturalimperial-ismagainstanideologicallydemonizedIslam,theperspectivesofSu¥smandothermajortraditionsofclassicalIslamaremoreimportantthanever.ThewholesalerejectionofthehistoricaltraditionsofIslamicthoughtbySala¥modernistideologuescon-stitutesamassiveexampleofthefallacyoftheexcludedmiddle.Toallintentsandpurposes,thereareno“middleages”forSala¥Islam.Instead,theidealizedmemoryofapristine“originalage”providesthebasisforautopianpoliticalideologywhosevaunted“Islamicsystem”wasneverpartoftraditionalIslamicsociety.Thereisnohistoricalauthenticityinsuchacombinationofmythandfantasy.AlthoughSala¥ideologuesareoftennostalgicforthepastgloryofIslamiccivilization,theyseldommentionthatthisglorywasbuiltonfoundations–suchasthoseprovidedbySu¥smandothertraditionalIslamicdisciplineslikeKalamandFalsafa–thathavemostlybeenrejectedbypresent-dayreformers.Suchapositionisbothlogicallyandhistoricallyuntenable.InthestudyofHadith,atraditionisconsideredinauthentic(marfu¤)ifthechainoftransmissionbetweentheProphetMuhammadandthepresentisbroken.Howthen,canSala¥modernism,whichwillfullyrejectstwelvecenturiesofIslamicdevelopmentbetweentheProphetandthepresentage,claimtobeauthenticwhenitsowntraditionismarfu¤aswell?

Commentingonthecontradictionsoftheearlymodernage,theMoroccanSu¥Ridwanibn¡Abdallahal-Januwi(d.1583)warnedhiscontemporaries:“Soonyouwillsee,whenthedustclears,whetherahorseoranassisbeneathyou!”12Today’scon-tradictionswithinIslamaremorelethal;itisabomb,notanass,whichSala¥ideologuesmayberidingintothefuture.Theextremist tendencyofSala¥utopianismhasbecomeall toovisiblesinceSeptember11,2001.Itssingle-mindedhubrishastransformedaregionalproblemintoaglobalcrisis.IfMuslimscannotacceptdoctrinaldifferencesamongthemselves,howcantheyhopetoliveinaglobalizedworld,inwhichculturaland

12. MuhammadibnYusufas-Sijilmasi,Tuhfatal-ikhwanwamawahibal-imtinan¥manaqibSidiRidwanibn¡Abdallahal-Januwi(Rabat:BibliothèquemanaqibSidiRidwanibn¡Abdallahal-JanuwimanaqibSidiRidwanibn¡Abdallahal-JanuwiGénérale,ms.114K),p.86.

7PracticalSufism

religiousdifferencesarenormsratherthanexceptions?Anau-thenticIslamictheologyofdifferenceisneededtomakesenseofapluralisticworld.Suchatheologymustbepremisedontherealizationthatthepresentstateofreligiousdiversityre¦ectsthewillofGodandthatIslamallowsdifferentpathstoanunder-standingofthedivinewill.

FindingInterpretiveSpace

Thedialecticalprocessthroughwhichnewtheologiesarisere-quiresahermeneuticalspaceinwhichcriticalthinkingcantakeplace.TheSala¥regimesofpowerthatdominatecontemporarySunnidiscourserestrictsuchspacebybrandingallapproachesthatdonot¥ttheiragendaas“un-Islamic”.Itmakeslittledif-ferencewhetherthese“un-Islamic”responsesseekaneo-tradi-tionalistrevivalofthejuridical,philosophical,orSu¥approachesofthepast,orwhethertheyemploythetoolsofmoderncriti-caltheorytocomeupwithnewsolutions.TheSala¥responsetotheproblemofmakingIslamrelevantinthemodernworldistoproclaim,“Islamissimple”,andtoreducereligiouscon-sciousnesstoacalculusofritualobligations,externalsymbolsofgroupidentity(suchasmodern“Islamic”dress),andpoliticaldoctrinesthatpromoteculturalandcreedalexclusivism.13Theradicalsuper¥cialityofcontemporarySala¥thoughthasledtothedevelopmentofarestrictiveandhighlyideologizedsenseoforthodoxythatwhencombinedwiththeanti-traditionalismdescribedabove,hasturnedSala¥sm,ifnotthemajorityofSunniIslam,intomoreofasectariancultthananactualreligion.

Beforemoderntimes,fewMuslimscholarsofreputewoulddaretoassert,“Islamissimple”.Islam,asitwaslivedandinter-preted,wasassimpleorcomplexasitneededtobe,andthelevelatwhichitwasapproacheddependedonwhatcircumstances

13. In“TowardtheLight”,amanifestoforthereformationofEgyptsenttoKingFaruqin1947,Hasanal-Bannaincludedamongtheplanksofhispro-gram“Considerationofwaystoarrivegraduallyatauniformmodeofdressforthenation”.Hasanal-Banna¤,FiveTractsofHasanal-Banna¤(1906–1949):ASelectionfromtheMajmu¤atRasa¤ilal-Imamal-ShahidHasanal-Banna¤,trans.CharlesWendell(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon,1978),p.129.

8 VincentJ.Cornell

required.Theinstitutionofjurisprudence(¥qh),traditionallythemostimportantintellectualdisciplineinIslam,waspremisedontheneedtoapplytheShari¤ainamultiplicityofdifferentcon-texts,anddevelopedasophisticatedlogicforinterpretingtheLawindifferentsituations.ThecomplexityofIslaminpracticewasacknowledgedfurtherthroughtheestablishmentofIslamicjurisprudenceinseveralmethodologicalschools,whichdifferedintheirapproachtotextualsources,yetrecognizedeachother’srighttoexist.Thejuridicalhermeneuticalmethod,knownasta¤wil,wasthesubjectoftreatiseswithineachschoolandwasappliedtobothlegalandtheologicalinterpretation.14

Thewayinwhichta¤wilwasusedtocreateahermeneuticalspacefornewtheologicalpositionsisdescribedbyAb¬Hamidal-Ghazali(d.1111)inFaysalal-tafriqabaynal-Islamwaal-zandaqa(TheDecisiveCriterionforDistinguishingIslamfromHeresy).GhazaliwrotethisworktorefutethetendencyofMuslimschol-arsinhisowntimetocondemntheiropponentsasunbelieversorheretics.AccordingtoGhazali,sacredtextssuchasQur¤anandHadithareopentointerpretationon¥vedifferentlevels:(1)on-tological-existential(dhati),(2)experiential(hissi),(3)conceptual(khayali),(4)intellectual(¡aqli),and(5)metaphorical(shabahiormajazi).15Theselevelsofanalysismarktheboundariesofin-terpretivespaceinIslam:“EveryonewhointerpretsastatementoftheLawgiverinaccordancewithoneoftheprecedinglevelshasdeemedsuchstatementstobetrue...Itis[thus]impropertobrandasanunbelieveranyonewhoengagesinsuchinterpre-tation,aslongasheobservestherulesofhermeneutics(qanunal-ta¤wil).”16

14. AnimportantworkinthisgenreisAb¬BakrMuhammadIbnal-¡Arabial-Ma¤a¥ri(d.1149),Qanunal-Ta¤wil(TheRulesofHermeneutics),Qanunal-Ta¤wilQanunal-Ta¤wiled.Muhammadal-Slimani(Beirut,1990).ThisjuristfromSevilleinMuslimSpainwasnotrelatedtotheSu¥Ibn¡Arabi.

15. ShermanA.Jackson,OntheBoundariesofTheologicalToleranceinIslam:Ab¬Hamidal-Ghazali’sFaysalal-Tafriqabaynaal-Islamwaal-Zandaqa(OxfordandKarachi,2002).IhavealteredJackson’stranslationoftermsslightlyto¥tthepresentdiscussion.Ghazali’sfulldiscussionofthetermsmentionedabovecanbefoundonpp.94–100.

16. Ibid.,p.50.

9PracticalSufism

Ghazali’smethodofqanunal-ta¤wilwaspredicatedontheas-sumptionthatthejuristortheologianwillattimesbecompelledtoacknowledge“thelogicalimpossibilityoftheliteralmeaning(zahir)ofa[sacred]text.”zahirzahir 17Whenthishappens,hermeneuticalspacemustbemadeavailableforalternativeexplanations.Torenderaninterpretationvalid,onemustinterrogateeachofthe¥vehermeneuticalalternativessystematically,thusestablishingalogicalwarrantforthemethodthatonechoosestoemploy.18

Ghazalidoesnotclaimthatallinterpretationsofasacredtextareofequalvalue.Somemaybemisguidedorevencompletelywrong.However,wronginterpretationsshouldnotbesuppressedasheresy.Instead,theymustbedisproveddialectically.Anin-terpretationishereticalonlyifitdeniesthetruthofasacredtextonall¥vehermeneuticallevels.Epistemologically,theex-egesisofasacredtextconstitutesinformedopinion(zann)andnotabsolutetruth(haqq).Thus,noonemayclaimanexclusiverightofinterpretationandnosingleinterpretationisde¥nitive.Ghazali’smethodologyofqanunal-ta¤wilful¥llsanimportantneedincontemporaryIslamicthoughtbecauseitgrantsdissidentthinkerstherighttoexpresstheirviews.Inthisway,ithelpspreservealternativevoicesthatkeeptheprocessofinterpretationopen-ended.Intermsofmodernpoliticalphilosophy,itsspiritconformstotheliberalidealoffreedomofspeechbyconcedingtojuristsandtheologianstherighttobewrong.

AnAkbarianApproachtoReligiousDifference

ThewarranttointerpretsacredtextsonmorethanonelevelisnecessaryifMuslimtheologiansaretoengageconstructivelywiththeologiansofotherreligions.ContemporaryMuslimsmustreexaminethefullpanoramaofIslamicreligiousthought,assessitssuccessesandfailures,andlistenonceagaintothevoicesthathavebeensilenced.Today,thesesilencedvoicesincludemostoftheintellectualtraditionsofmedievalIslam:philosophy,sys-tematictheology,theclassicaljurisprudentialtraditionofSunni

17. Ibid.,p.104.18. Ibid.

10 VincentJ.Cornell

Islam,andSu¥sm.AlthoughitwouldbeamistaketoconsiderallSu¥s“liberal”or“open-minded”,Su¥thinkersweremoreinclinedthantheirexotericcounterpartstoviewIslamfromawiderperspectiveanddealmeaningfullywithreligiousdiffer-ence.Inpart,thiswasbecausetheyunderstoodtheologyinitsoriginalsenseasthe“studyofthenatureofGod”,andfollowedtheirinquirieswhereverthisde¥nitiontookthem.SomeofthemostperceptiveSu¥writingsonreligiousdifferencecamefromtheschoolofIbn¡Arabi(d.1240),whowasoneofIslam’sgreat-estmetaphysicians.Manyofthetenetsof“Akbarian”theology,whichreferstoIbn¡Arabi’sdesignationas“TheGreatestMaster”(al-Shaykhal-Akbar)byhisfollowers,werecriticizedbyopponentsal-Shaykhal-Akbaral-Shaykhal-AkbarofSu¥smfornotadheringtothecreedalboundariesofmain-streamIslam.19Anexampleofsuchanalleged“innovation”canbefoundinthetreatiseentitled,al-Insanal-Kamil(ThePerfectMan),bytheIraqiSu¥¡Abdal-Karimal-Jili(d.1428).Jili,whowasoneofthemostimportantofIbn¡Arabi’sdoctrinalsuccessors,endsadiscussionontheoriginofreligiousdifferencewiththefollowingstatement:

Tensectsarethesourcesforallofthereligiousdifferences(whicharetoonumeroustocount),andalldifferencesrevolvearoundtheseten.Theyare:Polytheists,Naturalists,Philosophers,Dualists,Magians,Materialists,“Barhamites,”Jews,Christians,andMus-lims.ForeveryoneofthesesectsGodhascreatedpeoplewhosedestinyisHeavenandpeoplewhosedestinyistheFire.Haveyounotseenhowthepolytheistsofpastageswholivedinregionsnotreachedbytheprophetofthattimearedividedintothosewhodogood,whomGodrewards,andthosewhodoevil,whomGodrecompenseswith¥re?EachofthesesectsworshipsGod,asGoddesirestobeworshipped,forHecreatedthemforHimself,notforthemselves.Thus,theyexistjustastheywerefashioned.[God]mayHebeglori¥edandexalted,manifestsHisnamesandattributestothesesectsbymeansofHisessenceandallofthesectsworshipHim[intheirownway].20

19. SeeKnysh,Ibn¡ArabiintheLaterIslamicTradition,forafullaccountoftheseobjections.

20. ¡Abdal-Karimal-Jili,al-Insanal-kamil¥ma¤rifatal-awakhirwaal-awa¤il(Cairo,1981),vol.2,p.122.

11PracticalSufism

At¥rstglance,thispassageappearstodenythesigni¥canceofreligiousdifferenceandtopromoteanearlyversionofthe“tran-scendentunityofreligions”thesis.However,afteramorecarefulreading,onediscoversthatitisajusti¥able,ifunconventional,interpretationofcertainQur¤anicversesaccordingtoGhazali’smethodofQanunal-Ta¤wil:

ForeachoneofyouwehavemadeaLaw(shir¤a)andawayoflife(minhaj).IfGodhadwished,Hewouldhavemadeyouintoasinglecommunity.Instead,HehasdonethissothatHemaytryyouwithwhatHehasgivenyou.Sostriveagainsteachotheringoodworks,fortoGodisthereturnforallofyouandHewillinformyouaboutthatwhereinyoudiffer(5:48).

IfyourLordhadwilledit,everyoneonearthwouldhavebelieved.Wouldyouthenforcepeopletobecomebelievers?(10:99)

AlthoughJili’sexegesisoftheQur¤anwasinnovative,itwasfullyvalidaccordingtotherulesofhermeneuticsproposedbyGhazali.Jilibeganhisanalysisbytakingthesacredtextatitsliteralword.Startingfromtheliteralmeaning(zahir)oftheQur¤anicverses,heemployedthemethodofQanunal-Ta¤wilontheconceptualandintellectuallevelsofmeaning,withoutre-sortingtometaphor.ThenhetookanotherQur¤anicverse,“GoddoeswhateverHewishes”(2:253),andappliedthetheologicalnotionofdivinevoluntarismtotheempiricalfactofreligiousdiversity.TheconclusionsthatJilidrawsinal-Insanal-Kamil–thattheexistenceofreligiousdifferencesisGod’swill,andthatallhumanbeings,evenunbelievers,practicereligionasGodintendedthemtodo–followlogicallyfromthisprocessofinter-pretation.However,thisisnottosaythatJili’sinterpretationisthe“true”meaningoftheseQur¤anicverses.Itisonlytosaythathisinterpretationisasvalidasanyotherinterpretationderivedfromtheliteralmeaningofthesethreeverses.Evenmore,Jiliaf¥rmsthatIslamisthequintessentialreligionofGod.Lateroninthetext,whenhediscusseshow“eachsect¥ndspleasureinitstenets”(Qur¤an,30:32)hedoesnotabsolvetheunbelieversoftheirerrors.21ForJili,religionsarenotequalinvalue.However,

21. Ibid.,pp.122–4.

12 VincentJ.Cornell

whentheQur¤ancommands,“Thereisnocompulsioninre-ligion”(2:256),thismeansthatevenfalsereligionsshouldberespectedbyMuslimsbecauseallreligions,includingthosethatareinerror,existbyGod’swill.

ContemporaryMuslimsshouldcarefullyconsiderJili’sreason-ingandtheQur¤anicversesthatsupportit.Inthemodernage,thechiefproblemforIslamictheologyisnottheproliferationoflocalreligions,butthecompetitionofrivalworldreligions,mostofwhichhavehistorieslongerthanthatofIslamandhavedevelopedsophisticatedmeansofdefenseandinterpretation.IfGodhadtrulyintendedtosavetheworldthroughthemessageofChristalone,thenwhywouldHehaveallowedthetheologi-calchallengeofIslam?IfIslamresolvedallofthecontradictionsofChristiantheology,thenwhyisChristianitystillthelargestreligion?Partoftheanswertothesequestions,Jiliwouldassert,liesintherecognitionthateachreligioncontainsaportionofuniversaltruth,towhichpeoplerespondintheirownway.Theo-logicalhostilitycanneverbetransformedintotoleranceuntilthisfactisrecognized.Inarecentunpublishedpaper,MartinLings,commentingonMarkXII,30(“ThoushaltlovetheLordthyGodwithallthyheart,andwithallthysoul,andwithallthymind,andwithallthystrength”),notesthatMuslimandChristianreligiousauthoritieshavebeenmuchtooeagertorisk“withallthymind”forthesakeof“withallthysoulandwithallthystrength.”22

TheCreativeCommandandtheIslamicOriginalPosition

AccordingtoAkbarianmoraltheology,therearetwotypesofdivinecommand,whichentaildifferentkindsofhumanobliga-tions.Eachcommandimpliesadifferentwayofapproachingthereligiousother.The¥rsttypeofdivinecommandconceivesoftheotherinauniversalsense,asafellowdescendantofAdam,

22. MartinLings,“WithAllThyMind”,unpublishedpaperdisseminatedatthesecond“BuildingBridges”seminarhostedbyHisHighnesstheEmiroftheStateofQatarandArchbishopofCanterburyRowanWilliams,Doha,Qatar,7–9April2003.

13PracticalSufism

the¥rsthumanbeing.Accordingtothisperspective,allhumanbeingssharethesamenaturalrightsanddutiesthatderivefromthecovenantcontractedbetweenGodandhumanitybeforethecreationofAdam.Thesecondtypeofdivinecommandisad-dressedmorespeci¥callyandnarrowlytotheMuslimbeliever.ItgovernsobligationsthataredetailedintheShari¤a,andincludestheQur¤anicversesofdifferenceanddiscrimination,whichsepa-rateMuslimsfrombelieversinotherreligioustraditions.TheseversesdiscusstherelationsbetweentheMuslimcommunityandotherreligiouscommunities,thetheologicalrelationshipbe-tweenIslamandotherreligions,andtherulesofsocialinterac-tion,includingtherulesofwar.

Ibn¡Arabicallsthe¥rstandmostuniversaltypeofdivinecommandtheCreativeCommand(al-amral-takwini).23Thiscom-mandis“creative”becauseallofcreation,includinghumanity,isaproductofGod’sgoodnessandcreativity.TheQur¤anicversesthatbestcharacterizethiscommandare:“Mymercyencom-passeseverything”(7:156);and“[God’s]onlycommandwhenhedesiresathingistosaytoit‘Be!’anditis”(36:82).Thedivinenamesofmercy,al-Rahmanandal-Rahim,governtheCreativeCommandbecausetheactofdivinecreativity–thebestowalofexistenceuponnonexistence–isthemostmercifulactthatGodperforms.TheCreativeCommandislogicallypriortoallotherdivinecommandsbecauseitexpressesmostcompletelytheQur¤anicmessageofunity.Underthetermsofthiscommand,themostimportantdutyofthehumanbeingistorecognizethatinsofarassheishumanandcreated,shehasoneGod,oneorigin,oneancestor(Adam),onerace,andshareswithallotherhumanbeingsthesamenature,dignity,andreligion.ThisreligionisIslam,intheuniversalsenseofrecognizingandsubmittingtotheconsequencesofone’sontologicaldependenceonGod.

23. WilliamC.Chittickcallsthisthe“engenderingcommand”,becauseitresultsfromthemanifestationofthedivinenameal-Rahman(TheEngender-ing).ThesourceforthisconceptisIbn¡Arabi’sal-Futuhatal-Makkiyyah(TheMeccanRevelations).SeeWilliamC.Chittick,ImaginalWorlds:Ibnal-¡ArabiandtheProblemofReligiousDiversity(Albany,NewYork,1994),p.142.ItandtheProblemofReligiousDiversityandtheProblemofReligiousDiversitymayalsobetranslatedasthe“formativecommand”,becausetheArabicterm,takwin,carriestheconnotationofformationordevelopment.

14 VincentJ.Cornell

TherelationshipbetweenGodandthehumanbeingthatisim-pliedintheCreativeCommandisformallyexpressedinthe¥rstpartoftheShahada,theIslamic“witnessing”ofultimatetruth:“ThereisnogodbutAllah”.ThisrelationshipalsoexpresseswhattheliberalmoralphilosopherJohnRawls(d.2002)mighthavecalledtheIslamic“OriginalPosition”.ThisisbecausetheCreativeCommandsetsthemostbasicandfundamentaltermsonwhichtherelationshipbetweenselfandotherispredicated.ForRawlsandIbn¡Arabialike,therelationshipbetweenselfandotheristhebasisofallnaturalduties,irrespectiveofwhetheritisbetweenthehumanbeingandGodorbetweenoneselfandanotherhumanbeing.24ThisrelationshipisepitomizedintheQur¤anbytheversethatdescribeshumanity’scovenantwithitsCreatorandLord:“WhenthyLorddrewforththeirdescendantsfromthechildrenofAdam,Hemadethemtestifyconcerningthemselves[saying]:‘AmInotyourLord?’Theyreplied,‘Yes,wedosotestify’”(7:172).Humanity’sassenttotheresponsibili-tiesimpliedinthiscovenantconstitutesthe“socialcontract”thatisthebasisoftheIslamicOriginalPosition.AlthoughtheQur¤anic“socialcontract”ishierarchical,andthusisnotexactlythesameasRawls’secularcontractbetweenontologicalequals,itstillmeetsthecriterionofequalitythatisnecessaryforalib-eraltheoryofjustice.ThisisbecausetheIslamicOriginalPosi-tionconceivesofallhumanbeingsasontologicallyandmorallyequivalentandassharingthesamenaturalrightsandduties.

ThenormalhumanconditionistoseeGodfromthestartingpointoftheworld.ToseeGodfromthisperspectiveistoseeGodastheLordandCreatorofeverything.ThisistheattitudeexpressedintheIslamicOriginalPositionwhenthehumanbeingrespondstoGod’squery,“AmInotyourLord?”with“Yes,Idosotestify.”Muslimexegetesinterpretthisassentashavingbeengivenbeforetheearthlycreationofthehumanbeing,whenallofAdam’sfuturedescendantsweresummonedtoacknowledgeGod’sLordshipandHisroleintheircreation.Thefactthatthiscovenantwascontractedbeforehumanswereonearthimplies

24. JohnRawls,ATheoryofJustice(Cambridge,MA,1999revisededn),ATheoryofJusticeATheoryofJusticepp.10–19.

15PracticalSufism

thathumanbeingshaveatranscendentsidetotheirnature,andthushavetheabilitytoriseabovetheirearthlyconditionandviewtheworldasiffromadistanceoraheight.25Thehigheronegoes,themoretheworldappearsasawhole,anddifferencesthatseemsigni¥cantonthegroundbecomeinsigni¥cantwhenviewedfromabove.Fromsuchavantagepoint,alloftheworld,includingallpeoplesandalloftheirdifferentbeliefs,arepartofthesamere¦ectionofGod,whose“face”willabideforever(55:27),for“HeistheFirstandtheLast,theOutwardandtheInward”(57:3).Thisuniversalisticworldview,inwhichselfandotherarepartofthesameunity,isanimportantcorollaryoftheCreativeCommandandgivesrisetothenaturaldutiesthatresultfromtheIslamicOriginalPosition:“Ohhumankind!KeepyourdutytoyourLord,whocreatedyoufromasinglesoul,andcreateditsmatefromitandfromwhomissuedforthmanymenandwomen.SoreveretheGodbywhomyoudemandrightsfromoneanotherandreveretherightsofkinship”(4:1).Asthisverseindicates,thedutytoabidebyGod’sCreativeCommandincludesreverencefortherightsofkinship(al-arham,literally,“thewombs”).Clearly,thisdutyappliestogenealogicalkinship,butitalsoappliestothegreaterkinshipofthehumanspecies,sinceallofhumankind,asthechildrenofEve,arebornfromthesamewomb.

ToreturntotheterminologyusedbyRawls,the“initialcon-tractualsituation”ofhumanity’scovenantwithGodisthestart-ing-pointfromwhichallconceptsofrightbegin,includingtherightsthatpeopledemandfromeachother.ThefactthatsuchrightsarebothmutualandreciprocalisalsopartoftheIslamicOriginalPositionandisaconsequenceofthesharedontologyofhumanity.Thisontologyincludesatranscendentaspect,whichisthespiritualpotentialofeachhumanbeing.TheQur¤ansaysthatGodbreathedHisspiritintoAdam(38:72),andthat“[God]createdtheheavensandtheearthwithtruthandright(bi-l-haqq),andfashioned[Adam]inthebestofforms”(64:3).Thus,humanbeings,whoarecomposedofbothspiritandmatter,haveanatural

25. ThiscouldbeusedasametaphoricalinterpretationofQur¤an,7:46,“AndontheHeightsaremenwhoknowallofthembytheirsigns.”

16 VincentJ.Cornell

dutytorespecttherightsofothers,becausebothselfandothersharethesamecombinationofmaterialbeingandspirit.Thisdutypertainsirrespectivelyofwhethertheotherisone’sbiologi-calkinorbelongstoanotherraceorreligion.Toobjectifyanddepersonalizeanotherhumanbeingbecauseofideologicalorreligiousdifferencesistoforgetthatallhumansaremadeupofthesamecombinationofspiritandclay.ThisisthemistakethatledSatan,intheformofIblis,todisrespectAdambysaying,“Iambetterthan[Adam].Youcreatedmefrom¥re,whereasyoucreatedhimfromclay”(7:12).

AccordingtoRawls,aconceptionofright“isasetofprin-ciples,generalinformanduniversalinapplication,thatistobepubliclyrecognizedasa¥nalcourtofappealfororganizingthecon¦ictingclaimsofmoralpersons.”26SuchaconceptionofrightmaybederiveddirectlyfromtheIslamicOriginalPosi-tion.AstheQur¤anremindsus,notonlywasAdamcreatedwithrights,buttheentirecosmologicaluniverse(“theheavensandtheearth”)wassimilarlycreatedwithhaqq,anArabictermthatcanmean“right”,“truth”,or“justice”.TheideathatallcreatedthingspossessrightsthatarepartoftheirontologicalnatureisfundamentaltotheIslamicconceptionofjustice.Thedutytorespecttheinherentrightsofothersisacorollaryofthispremise;humandignityisarightthatisnotexclusivetoMuslims.Thus,dignitydignitythetendencyofsomeMuslimideologuestodenymoralperson-hoodtonon-MuslimsordissentingMuslimsisbothalapseofunderstandingandabreachofGod’sCreativeCommand.

AnotherbasicrightthatisderivedfromtheIslamicOriginalPositionistherighttolife:“Donottakeahumanlife,whichGodhasmadesacred,otherthanasaright;thisHehasenjoineduponyousothatyoumightthinkrationally”(6:151).Anotheristherightoffreechoice,withoutwhichdivinejudgmentwouldbemeaningless:“ThetruthisfromyourLord.Sowhosoeverwishesshallbelieve,andwhosoeverwishesshalldisbelieve”(18:29).ItwouldmakeamockeryoftheGod-givenrightsofdignity,life,andfreechoiceforMuslimstorestrictthesocialandpoliticalrightsofconfessionalminoritiesortoassigncollectiveguilttoa

26. Rawls,TheoryofJustice,p.117.TheoryofJusticeTheoryofJustice

17PracticalSufism

nationbecauseofitsreligionorsystemofgovernment.ThebasicrightsinIslam–therighttolife,therighttofree-

dom,andtherighttodignity–dependonasecondnaturaldutythatarisesfromtheIslamicOriginalPosition.Thisisthedutyofmercy(rahma),whichispriortoallotherdutiesinIslamexcepttheacknowledgementofhumanity’scommondepend-enceonGod.AllahsaysintheQur¤an,“Mymercyencompasseseverything”(7:156),andeverySuraoftheQur¤anexceptonebeginswiththeformula:“BythenameofGod,theBene¥cent(al-Rahman),theMerciful(al-Rahim)”.27MuslimreformerswhowishtoreformtheirsocietiesbymakingtheShari¤athebasisoftheirlegalsystemsoftenforgetthatthedutyofmercyappliestoeachandeveryobligationthatisenjoineduponhumanbeingsintheQur¤an.Whatthismeansinpracticeisthatwhentheperformanceofanobligationcallsforseverity,itisthedutyofMuslimstotemperseveritywithmercy.

TheCommandofObligationandIslamicJustice

Intermsofreligiouspractice,theconceptofobligationhasmoreofaday-to-dayimpactonthelivesofindividualMuslimsthantheconceptofright.Thus,itisnosurprisethatthetypeofdi-vinecommandmostoftendiscussedinIslamicliteratureistheCommandofObligation(al-amral-takli¥).28ThiscommandformsthebasisoftheIslamiclegalsystemandisdividedbyjuristsintoinjunctionscoveringactsofworship(¡ibadat)andinterpersonal¡ibadat¡ibadatbehavior(mu¤amalat).Thelattercategoryincludesbusinesstrans-mu¤amalatmu¤amalatactions,criminaljustice,andthelawsofnations.TheArabicterm,taklif,usedinthephrasetakliftaklif al-amral-takli¥,isalegalandmoralconceptthatreferstotheresponsibilityofindividualstocarryout

27. InFususal-hikam(TheRing-SettingsofWisdom)Ibn¡Arabicallsthistypeofmercythe“MercyoftheGratuitousGift”(rahmatal-imtinan).ItisamercywhichGodbestowsonthingssimplybecausetheyexist.ForIbn¡Arabi,allexistenceisultimatelygood,sinceitcomesfromGod.Evilisnon-existence(¡adam).SeeToshihikoIzutsu,Su¥smandTaoism:AComparative¥¥StudyofKeyPhilosophicalConcepts(BerkeleyandLondon,1983),p.121.StudyofKeyPhilosophicalConceptsStudyofKeyPhilosophicalConcepts

28. Chittickcallsthisthe“prescriptivecommand”.SeeIdem,ImaginalWorlds,p.142.

18 VincentJ.Cornell

theirobligations.TheCommandofObligationimposesspeci¥cobligationsonMuslims,eitherindividuallyorcollectively.ItisamatterofdebatewhethersuchobligationsshouldbeobeyedsimplybecausetheycomefromGodorbecausetheyaregoodintrinsically.Muslimmodernists,followingtheteachingsofMu-hammad¡Abduh(d.1905),assertthatalldivinecommandsaresubjecttoempiricalveri¥abilityandserveanecessaryfunctionthatcanbeprovenrationally.Literalists,suchastheWahhabisofSaudiArabia,consideritsacrilegioustoputGod’scommandstosuchatestandassertthatMuslimsshouldobeythemunques-tioningly,simplybecausetheycomefromGod.Whatisperhapsmostsigni¥cantisthatneithersideseemstohavediscussedthisquestionfromthestandpointofasystematicmoralphilosophy.WhereasthejuridicaltraditionofIslamdealtwithquestionsofmoralchoicepragmaticallyonacase-by-casebasis,itwasprima-rilythephilosophersandtheSu¥swhoattemptedtoassesstheIslamicconceptofobligationwithinthecontextofmoreuni-versalconceptionsofrightandjustice.29ThemarginalizationofphilosophyandSu¥smincontemporaryIslam,andtheresultinglackofdebateonthewiderphilosophicalissuessurroundingtheconceptofobligationhavebecomemajorcontributingfactorstotheriseofextremismintheMuslimworld.

ThedutythatgovernsthemoralobligationsofMuslimsundertheCommandofObligationisjustice.Analternativereadingoftheverse,“[God]createdtheheavensandtheearthwithtruthandright(bi-l-haqq),”is“Godcreatedtheheavensandtheearthwithjustice.”Justice,inthesenseofwhatisrightandproper,isasecondarymeaningoftheArabicterm,haqq.JusticeisenjoinedonhumanbeingsasanaturaldutyinanumberofQur¤anicverses:“Verily,Godcommandsjusticeandkindness”(16:90);“Makepeacebetweenthemwithjustice,andactequitably”(49:9).TheArabictermforjusticeintheseverses,¡adl,corre-spondscloselytotheAristoteliannotionofjustice,whichcarries

29. ThisisnottosaythatMuslimjuristsdidnotdiscusssuchquestions.However,thosewhodidsomostsuccessfully,suchasGhazaliandIbnRushd(d.1198),combinedtheirjuridicalbackgroundswithstudiesofSu¥smorphilosophy.

19PracticalSufism

theconnotationof“fairness”or“equity”.30ForRawls,allobliga-tionsarisefromtheprincipleoffairness,becausefairness“holdsthatapersonisunderanobligationtodohispartasspeci¥edbytherulesoftheinstitutionwheneverhehasvoluntarilyacceptedthebene¥tsofthescheme.”31InIslam,“voluntaryacceptanceofthescheme”isimpliedintheIslamicOriginalPositionasaconsequenceofthecovenantstruckbetweenGodandhuman-ity.JusticeisthusanaturaldutyinIslambecausehumanbeingsare“borninto”justicefrombeforetheircreation;theconceptis,ineffect“hard-wired”intothephysicalandsocialworldsthathumansoccupy.32ThemajorconceptsthatareincludedinthenotionofjusticeinIslamalsoappearasDivineNames.GodisthuscharacterizedasTheTruth(al-Haqq),Justice(al-¡Adl),andTheFairorEquitable(al-Muqsit).Thisisparticularlysigni¥cantal-Muqsital-MuqsitbecauseforIbn¡Arabiandhisschool,thequalitiesofexistenceareimpartedasmanifestationsoftheDivineNames.

Aproblemwithapplyingthenotionofjusticetospeci¥cob-ligationsinIslamisthatjusticeismostcommonlyunderstoodasamoralduty,whereastheCommandofObligationisun-derstoodasalegalrequirement.BecausetheexactrelationshipbetweendutiesandobligationshasnotbeenphilosophicallydeterminedincontemporaryIslam,thereisatendencytofallintoaconfusionofprioritiesintheattempttoapplyoneortheother.Ibn¡Arabi,whowasoneofthefewMuslimthinkerstoaddresstheproblemofdutyversusobligationsystematically,

30. AlasdairMacIntyre,WhoseJustice,WhichRationality?(NotreDame,WhoseJustice,WhichRationality?WhoseJustice,WhichRationality?IN,1988).Seeespeciallythechapterentitled,“AristotleonJustice”,pp.103–23.InAristotle,justiceisbasedonratios,andnotonequivalences.Theseratiosgoverntheprincipleoffairnessindistributivejusticeandretribu-tivejustice(or“justiceasrecti¥cation”).SeeAristotle,NicomacheanEthics,trans.MartinOswald(Indianapolis,1981reprintof1962¥rstedn),BookV,pp.111–30.

31. Rawls,TheoryofJustice,p.301.TheoryofJusticeTheoryofJustice32. Ibid.,p.302.ThefactthattheArabicterm,¡adl,connotesjustice,¡adl¡adl

fairness,andequityeliminatesRawls’problemofhavingtodrawalexicaldistinctionbetweenjusticeandfairness.InIslam(asinAristotle),onecan-notsaythatjusticeisqualitativelydifferentfromfairness,becausetheyareessentiallythesamething.

20 VincentJ.Cornell

prioritizedthetwoconceptsinlightofthetwotypesofdivinecommand.ThenaturaldutyofmercyisenjoineduponhumanbeingsthroughwhatIbn¡Arabicalledthe“MercyofObligation”(rahmatal-wujub),whichisanaspectoftheCommandofObliga-tion.33Unlikethealtruistic“MercyoftheGratuitousGift”(rahmatal-imtinan),whichispartoftheCreativeCommandandisanexpressionofdivineloveandcreativity,theMercyofObligationreferstothemercythatisrequiredineverymoralaction,accord-ingtotheQur¤anicverse:“YourLordhasprescribedmercyforHimself”(6:12).34Ibn¡Arabifurtherrelatestheconceptofmercytothedivinenamesal-Rahmanandal-Rahim,withtheMercyoftheGratuitousGiftcorrespondingtoal-RahmanandtheMercyofObligationtoal-Rahim.Becauseofthereciprocalnatureofjustice,anyactofmercybestowedbyonehumanbeinguponanotherconstitutesagiftforboththereceiverandthegiver.Forthereceiver,thegiftofmercycompensatesfortheseverityofjustice.Forthegiver,thedutytoactmercifullyisalsoagiftfromGodbecauseitcounteractsthetendencyoftheegotoindulgeinself-righteousness:

Godexercisesmercyasagratuitousactunderthenameal-Rahman(TheBene¥cent),whileheobligatesHimself(torequitewithmercy)underthenameal-Rahim(TheMerciful).ObligationispartoftheGratuitousGift,andsoal-Rahimiscontainedwithinal-Rahman.“GodhaswrittenuponHimselfmercy”insuchawaythatmercyofthiskindmaybeextendedtoHisservantsinrewardforthegoodactsdonebythemindividually–thosegoodworkswhicharemen-tionedintheQur¤an.ThiskindofmercyisanobligationuponGodwithwhichHehasboundHimselftowardthoseservants,andthelatterrightfullymeritthiskindofmercybytheirgoodworks.35

Tosummarize:thenaturaldutyofmercyispartoftheIslamicOriginalPositionbyvirtueoftheCreativeCommand,whichcorrespondstothedivinenameal-Rahman.Inlikemanner,the

33. Izutsu,Su¥smandTaoism¥¥ ,pp.121–2.34. Thispassagecouldalsobetranslatedas:“YourLordhaswritten

mercyuponHisownSpirit”.35. Izutsu,Su¥smandTaoism¥¥ ,p.122.ThisdiscussionisfoundinFusus

al-Hikam.

21PracticalSufism

CommandofObligationobligeshumanbeingstoactmercifullybyvirtueofthedivinenameal-Rahim.Justashumanmercy(rahma)isimplicitintheideaofmercyasauniversalprinciple(al-Rahim),sotheobligationtoactmercifullyonallpossibleoccasionsisanecessarycorollarytothenotionofmercyasanaturalduty.However,mostpeoplearenotawareofthelogicalpriorityofmercyandothernaturaldutiesthatarisefromtheCreativeCommand.Miredastheyareinaworldofdifferenceandsubjectivity,theyinterprettheCommandofObligationinanexclusivesense,andoverlookthelogicalpriorityofboththeCreativeCommandandthenaturaldutiesthatarisefromit:

Thedivineeffusionisvast,because[God]isvastinbestowal.ThereisnoshortcomingonHispart.ButyouhavenothingofHimex-ceptwhatyouressenceaccepts.Hence,yourownessencekeepstheVastawayfromyouandplacesyouinthemidstofconstraint.ThemeasureinwhichHisgovernanceoccurswithinyouisyour“Lord”.ItisHethatyouserveandHealonethatyourecognize.ThisisthemarkwithinwhichHewilltransmuteHimselftoyouonthedayofresurrection,byunveilingHimself.Inthisworld,thismarkisunseenformostpeople.Everyhumanbeingknowsitfromhimself,buthedoesnotknowthatitiswhatheknows.36

TheMuslimwhoviewstheworldfromanarrow,¥deisticperspectivecanonlyperceiveGodthroughhisorherpersonalexperiences.HowGodistobeconceivedandwhatHiscom-mandsentailarequestionswhoseanswersareconstrainedbythelimitationsofone’sunderstandingofselfandothers.ThesectarianinterpretationsthatthebelievergivesthecommandsofGodmaybejusti¥edinaquali¥edsense,buttheyarelikelytoleadtoinjusticeiftheyareapplieduniversallyanduncritically.Thisisbecausehumanunderstandingofthedivinecommandre¦ectsone’sownbiasedperspectivemorethanitre¦ectsatheo-logicalorphilosophicalunderstandingofGodasGodtrulyis.Inacommentaryonthefamoustradition,“Hewhoknowshimself,knowshisLord,”Ibn¡Arabistates:“Youaretheonewhobecomes

36. Chittick,ImaginalWorlds,p.152.ThispassageisfromFutuhat(IVFutuhatFutuhat62.23).

22 VincentJ.Cornell

manifesttoyourself,andthisgivesyounothingof[God]...Youdonotknowotherthanyourself.”37

EventheMuslimjurist,whoistrainedtoconsiderascripturalobligationaspriortoamoralduty,mustassesseachobligationaccordingtowhetherthedivinecommandthatgovernsitisgeneralorspeci¥cinitsapplication.Iftheapplicationisspeci¥c,hemustinquireaboutanylimitationstoitsapplicationthatmightarisethroughthehistoricalcontextofitsrevelation.38Adivinecommandmustnotbeapplieduniversallyifthecontextofitsrevelationdemonstratesconclusivelythatitsapplicationisspeci¥ctoaparticulartime,place,orsocialsituation.AnexampleofthisdualproblematicofprioritizationandcontextualizationcanbefoundinSuratal-Tawba(ChapteronRepentance),wheresomeofthemosthostileversesconcerningMuslimandnon-Muslimrelationsappear.HowisaMuslimtorespondwhentheQur¤ancommands:“FightagainstsuchofthosewhohavebeengiventheScriptureasbelievenotinAllahortheLastDay,andforbidnotthatwhichAllahhasforbiddenbyHismessenger,andfollownotthereligionoftruth,untiltheypaythetribute(jizyafollownotthereligionoftruth,untiltheypaythetribute(follownotthereligionoftruth,untiltheypaythetribute( )readily,beingbroughtlow”(9:29)?Certainly,itishelpfultoknowthatthereisalimitingcontext:thisdiscoursewasrevealedatatimewhenthepolytheistsandtheJewsinArabiahadbrokentheirtreatieswiththeMuslimsandbandedtogetheragainsttheProphetinwhatprovedtobethe¥nalassaultonMedina.How-ever,aslateasthemid-twentiethcentury,SayyidQutb,whowasfullyawareofthehistoricalbackgroundofthisverse,interpreteditasageneralobligationtocompelnon-Muslimminoritiestopaythejizya-tax.Evenmore,hede¥nedthejizyanotasanex-emptionfrommilitaryserviceasMuslimapologistshaveoftendone,butasaprotectiontaxandtokenofhumiliationthattem-porarilyexemptedJewsandChristiansfrompersecutionbytheIslamicstate.39Theprioritizationofrightsoverdutiesembodied

37. Ibid.,p.163.ThepassagecomesfromFutuhat(IV421.34).FutuhatFutuhat38. MohammadHashimKamali,PrinciplesofIslamicJurisprudence(Cam-PrinciplesofIslamicJurisprudencePrinciplesofIslamicJurisprudence

bridge,1991),pp.139–48.39. SayyidQutb,Fizilalal-Qur¤an(IntheShadeoftheQur¤an)(BeirutandFizilalal-Qur¤anFizilalal-Qur¤an

Cairo,1980),pp.1220–50.AlesssevereperspectivecanbefoundinAbdurRahmanI.Doi,Non-MuslimsunderShari¤ah(IslamicLaw)(Lahore,1981).

23PracticalSufism

inIbn¡Arabi’snotionofthedualnatureofthedivinecommandnotonlystrengthenstheliberalresponsetosuchdiscriminatoryinterpretations,butitalsosupportsthejuridicaltendencytopromotemercybyseekinglimitingexceptionstotheCommandofObligationwheneverpossible.

ABridgetoHospitalityandToleration

The¥rststeptowardanewIslamictheologyofdifferenceisforMuslimstorecognizethatultimately,everythinghappensbe-causeGodwantsittohappen.Thisincludesthefactofhumandiversity,whichtheQur¤anmentionsashavingbeencreatedforthepurposeofre¦ectionandlearning:

Among[God’s]signsarethecreationoftheheavensandtheearth,andthedifferencesofyourlanguagesandcolors.Hereinindeed,areportentsforthosewithknowledge(33:22).

Ohhumankind!Wehavecreatedyoumaleandfemale,andhavemadeyounationsandtribessothatyoumaycometoknowoneanother.Verily,thenoblestofyou,inthesightofGod,isthemostGod-consciousofyou.Verily,GodistheKnowingandtheAware(49:13).

IncludedwithinthediversityofwhichtheQur¤anspeaksaredifferencesinhumanideas,worldviews,andreligions,allofwhichexistbecauseofGod’sCreativeCommand.However,theacceptanceofpluralperspectivesontheAbsolutedoesnotmeanthatallreligionsareultimatelythesame,oreventhatsomereligionsmightnotbemoreeffectivepathstotheknowledgeofGodthanothers.Bythesametoken,prioritizingthenaturaldutyofmercybyacknowledgingthedignityofBuddhistsandChris-tiansoracceptingthedivineoriginsofJudaismandHinduismdoesnotmeanthatMuslimscannotopposetheunjustactionsofbelieversinotherreligions.Actionsshouldbeseenasevilwhen-evertheyunderminetheuniversalprinciplesoflife,dignity,freedomofchoice,andjusticethatareembodiedintheQur¤anandotherscriptures.Evilsshouldbeopposedinthemselves,andtheyshouldnotbeseenasinescapableconsequencesofalterna-tivereligiousbeliefs.AccordingtotheAkbarianperspective,no

24 VincentJ.Cornell

religionthatGodallowstoexistisbadperse,andnoonehastherighttoexcludeabelieverinanotherreligionfromthebrother-hoodoftheIslamicOriginalPosition.IndividualChristiansandHinduscandobadthings,butsocanMuslims.SayingthatJewsaretheeternalenemiesofIslamorthatAmericanforeignpolicyisnecessarilydrivenby“Crusader”intentionsisamoralandtheologicalerrorofprofoundproportions.Onthemorallevel,thiserroriscausedbyignoringthepriorityoftheCreativeCom-mandovertheCommandofObligation;onthetheologicallevel,itiscausedbyignoringthefullmeaningofthehumanbeingasGod’svicegerent(khalifa)onearth(2:30–33).

ForMuslims,theacceptanceofreligiousdifferencesdoesnothavetomeanabandoningone’sbeliefinthetheologicalsupe-riorityofIslamorfearingthatoneisactingagainstGod’swill.Infact,thesituationisquitetheopposite.ThepermissibilityofreligiouspluralismisclearlyindicatedinthefollowingQur¤anicpassage:“ForeachofyouwehavemadeaLawandawayoflife.IfGodhadwilled,Hewouldhavemadeyouintoasinglecommunity”(5:48).Inthisverse,“Law”(shir¤a)isasynonymforreligion,becauseitreferstothedutiesandobligationsthatprovideaframeworkforthemorallife.Inpre-modernIslam,thesubjectof“theLawbeforeIslam”constitutedwhatwetodaywouldcallthehistoryofreligions.40Inaddition,theversegoesontosay:“Striveagainsteachotheringoodworks,fortoGodisthereturnforallofyouandHewillinformyouaboutthatwhereinyoudiffer.”Evenaliteralinterpretationofthisstatementwouldsuggestthattheonlyinter-religiouscompetitionthatcountsinthesightofGodiscompetitioningoodworks,suchthatMuslimswouldcompetewithJews,Christians,andothersintheallevia-tionofhumansuffering.Thisisverydifferentfromthebelief,expressedbycontemporaryHamasandIslamicJihadextremists,thatstrappingonabombbeltandblowingupabusofIsraelischoolchildrenwillearnthemartyrarewardinheavenbecausethechildrenarepotentialIsraelisoldiers.

Allmorallysigni¥cantacts,whetherperformedbyMuslims

40. ThissubjectisdiscussedindetailinA.KevinReinhardt,BeforeRevela-tion:theBoundariesofMuslimMoralThought(Albany,NY,1995).tion:theBoundariesofMuslimMoralThoughttion:theBoundariesofMuslimMoralThought

25PracticalSufism

ornon-Muslims,mustbejudgedbyprioritizingtherightsanddutiesoftheCreativeCommandovertherequirementsoftheCommandofObligation.Eachmoralindividualisaresponsi-ble(mukallaf)person,whocarriesouthisorherobligationsinmukallafmukallafthecontextofthereligionormoralstandard(shir¤a)thatoneacceptsbyvirtueofeitherchoiceorbirth.MostMuslimsinter-prettheQur¤anicverse,“HeitiswhohassentHisMessengerwithguidanceandthereligionoftruthsothatitmayprevailoverallreligion,evenifthosewhoassignpartnerstoGoddisap-prove”(9:33),asanassuranceoftheultimatevictoryofIslamoverotherreligions.However,Ibn¡Arabi’steachingsremindusthatallhumanbeings,includingMuslims,“assignpartnerstoGod”invariousways.Onhisview,believersinallreligionsareequallyfarfromthe“religionoftruth”thatwillprevailattheendoftime.ThewillofGodisnotone-dimensional.Limitingthein-terpretationofGod’swordtoasinglelevelofunderstandingwastheologicallyuntenableinthepast,anditisevenmoreuntenabletoday,whenhumanknowledgehasnewtoolsforanalyzingandre¦ectingonthemeaningofrevelation.Fivecenturiesago,theSu¥andjuristAhmadZarruqofFez(d.1493)wrote:“HewhopracticesSu¥smwithouttheLawisaheretic;hewhopracticestheLawwithoutSu¥smisareprobate;buthewhocombinestheLawandSu¥smhasattainedthetruth.”41WhatZarruqmeantbythiswasthatthepracticeofscripturalhermeneuticsdemandsamulti-dimensionalperspective,inwhichindividualobligationsareviewedinthecontextofthecreativityofGod’swill,andinwhichtheouterwordoftheLawisinterpretedinlightofitsinnerspirit.

Asauniquecombinationofspiritandmatter,thehumanbeingisbynatureabuilderofbridgesbetweenconceptualworlds.Beneaththedifferencesthatobtainbetweenreligiousdoctrines,sacredlaws,andworldviews,allnormalhumanbeingssharetheabilitytotranscendtheirlimitations;allhavetheintellectualmeanstocommunicatewitheachotheracrossreligiousdivides.

41. Ab¬al-¡AbbasAhmadZarruq,Qawa¤idal-Tasawwuf(PrinciplesofQawa¤idal-TasawwufQawa¤idal-TasawwufSu¥sm),ed.MuhammadZuhrial-Najjarand¡AliMa¤bidFarghali(Beirut,1992),p.8.

26 VincentJ.Cornell

InlightofQur¤anicteachings,itisillogicaltoassumethatreli-giousmisunderstandingisnormalorthatreligiousdifferencescannotbebridged.Ifbelieversindifferentreligionsareunabletounderstandeachother,itmeansthatoneorbotharelackinginspiritualinsight,orthatoneorbothareinfundamentalerroraboutthenatureofGod.AmongtherightsbestoweduponusbyGod,therightnottounderstandisnowheretobefound.ThenotnotQur¤anwarnsMuslims:“BenotofthosewhoascribepartnerstoGod(mushrikun),whosplituptheirreligionandbecomeschis-matics,eachsectexultinginitsdoctrines”(33:31–32).Thiserrorispartofthetheologicalsinofshirk,atermusuallyde¥nedas“assigningpartnerstoGod”,butwhichliterallymeans,“shar-ing”.Inotherwords,itconsistsoflettingcontingentideas,con-cepts,andprejudicesshareinGod’swillandsovereignty,andassuch,isthegreatestimpedimenttotheologicalhospitalityandtheacceptanceofdifference.AlongwithIbn¡Arabi,allMuslimsshouldbecognizantofthewiderimplicationsoftheQur¤an’swarning:“Goddoesnotforgiveyourshirk,butheforgivesallelse,asHewills”(4:48).