POWER AND INFLUENCE IN ORGANIZATIONSProject Management and Leadership – 2016

Before I served as a consultant to Kennedy, I had believed, like most academics,that the process of decision-making was largely intellectual and all one had to dowas walk into the President’s office and convince him of the correctness of one’sview.

This perspective I soon realized is as dangerously immature as it is widely held.

Henry Kissinger

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

Informal approaches to gaining power through means other thanmerit or luck (aka WORKPLACE POLITICS, OFFICE POLITICS).

(mod. DUBRIN 2010, p.210)

90% of survey respondents thought politics was common in organizations

89% indicated that successful executives must be good politicians

76%: political behavior increases as one rises higher in an organization.

55% felt that politics is detrimental to efficiency

48.6%: top management should attempt to rid organizations of political behavior

(GANDZ & MURRAY 1980 in GRIFFIN & O’LEARY-KELLY 2004, p.240)

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Workplace politics may be perceived negatively because politicalbehavior impedes or obstructs rational decision making and blurs therelationship between effort and subsequent reward

(HALL et al. in GRIFFIN & O’LEARY-KELLY 2004, p.237)

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WHY IS IT REGARDED NEGATIVELY?

1. People generally do not like to consider the means that are often necessaryto get things done

2. People have learned in school that success in life is a matter of individualeffort, ability, and achievement and is not accomplished in cooperation withothers

3. People believe that intellectual analysis, leading to right and wrong answers,can be used to solve, and judge solutions to, problems in a world wherethings are seldom clear-cut, obvious, and knowable with any real certainty.

“It is as if we know that power and politics exist, and we grudgingly admit thatthey are necessary to individual success, but we nevertheless don’t like them”

(PFEFFER 1992 in GRIFFIN & O’LEARY-KELLY 2004, pp.241-242)

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GENERAL STIMULATING FACTORS

Pyramid-shaped organization structure

Subjective standards of performance

Environmental uncertainty and turbulence

Emotional insecurity

Encouraging admiration from subordinates

(DUBRIN 2010, pp.210-212)

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PROJECT-SPECIFIC FACTORS

Ambiguity in respect to actions, planning, and decisions

The frequently insufficient allocation of vital resources

Dependence on stakeholders with inconsistent interests and objectives.

(mod. SOLGA et al 2015 in WASTIAN et al. 2015, p.129)

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ZONE OF ORGANIZATIONAL UNCERTAINTY

The situation of ambiguity in a project due toVague mission and goalFragmentary and inconsistent informationAbsence of clear-cut assignments for team membersSuperficial support from management.

Leads to a lack of reliable actions, planning, or decisions.

Provides the opportunity to push through individual ideas and interests.

(NEUBERGER 2006 in WASTIAN et al. 2015, p.130)

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HIGHLIGHTS: ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

1. ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS IS A FACT OF LIFE

2. IT EXISTS, PARTLY, DUE TO AN ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN, AND, PARTLY, DUE TOREDUCIBLE ORGANIZATIONAL UNCERTAINTIES

POWER

The potential or ability to influence decisions and control resources.

POSITION POWER stems from a person’s position in an organizationPERSONAL POWER stem from characteristics or behaviors of the power actor

POSITION POWER

LEGITIMATE. The lawful right to decide and expect compliance

REWARD. The authority to give rewards for compliance

COERCIVE. The power to punish for noncompliance;

INFORMATION. The power stemming from formal control over theinformation people need to do their work.

(DUBRIN 2010, p.198-199)

PERSONAL POWER

REFERENT. The ability to influence through one’s desirable traits andcharacteristics

EXPERT. … through specialized knowledge, skills, or abilities

PRESTIGE. Stems from a person’s status and reputation

(DUBRIN 2010, p.198-199)

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR CONSIDERED ETHICAL

1. To gain power

2. To build relationships

3. To avoid political blunders

TO GAIN POWER

Develop power contacts

Control vital information

Control lines of communication

Bring in outside experts

Make a quick showing

Be the first to accept reasonable changes

Do what the political environment demands.

(mod. DUBRIN 2010, p.215-216)

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TO BUILD RELATIONSHIPS

Ask advice

Be courteous, pleasant, and positive

Display loyalty

Manage your impression

Ask satisfied customers to contact your boss

Send thank-you notes to numbers of people

Flatter others sensibly

(DUBRIN 2010, p.217-218)

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AVOID

Criticizing the boss in a public forum

Bypassing the boss

Declining an offer from top management

Being needlessly tactless

Not conforming to the company dress code

Writing embarrassing/incriminating messages.

(DUBRIN 2010, p.218-220)

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The ability to affect the behavior of others in a particular direction,whereas power is the potential or capacity to influence.

INFLUENCE

(DUBRIN 2010, p.230)

INFLUENCE TACTICS

(mod. HIGGINS et al. J. Organiz. Behav. 2003;24:89-106)

ASSERTIVENESS(aka PRESSURE)

Using a forceful manner to get what one wants

INGRATIATION Using behaviors designed to increase the target's liking ofoneself/to make oneself appear friendly to get what one wants

RATIONALITY(aka RATIONAL PERSUASION)

Using data and information to make a logical argumentsupporting one's request

EXCHANGE Making an explicit offer to do something for another inexchange for their doing what one wants

UPWARD APPEALS Calling in superiors to help get one's way

COALITIONS Mobilizing others to help in persuading the target individual

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ETHICAL INFLUENCE TACTICS

Using rational persuasion

Leading by example and respect

Exchanging favors and bargaining

Legitimating a request

Consultation with others

Forming coalitions

Making an inspirational appeal and emotional display

(DUBRIN 2010, pp.234-237)

INFL

UEN

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UNETHICAL INFLUENCE TACTICS

Deliberate Machiavellianism

Manipulation

Undue pressure

Debasement

Ingratiation

Upward appeal INFL

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INFLUENCE OUTCOMES

COMMITMENT The target of the influence attempt is enthusiastic aboutcarrying out the request and makes a full effort.

COMPLIANCE

RESISTANCE The target is making excuses for why the task cannot bedone, procrastinating, and outright refusing to do the task

The target person is not overjoyed (apathetic) aboutcarrying out the request and makes only a modest effort.

INFL

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EFFECTIVENESS OF TACTICS

Rational persuasion

Ingratiation

Inspirational appeal

Consultation

Exchange

Personal appeal

Coalition

Legitimating

Pressure

*

INFL

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POLITICAL SKILL

IS THE ABILITY AND READINESS

To understand others,

To control one’s own behavior in social networks and to adapt one’sbehavior to different and changing situational demands in a way,

that it appears sincere and trustworthy,that influences the behavior of others in favor of one’s ownobjectives

(mod. SOLGA et al 2015 in WASTIAN et al. 2015, p.139)

THE DIMENSIONS OF THE POLITICAL SKILL

SOCIAL ASTUTENESS

NETWORKING ABILITY

APPARENT SINCERITY

INTERPERSONAL INFLUENCE

(mod. SOLGA et al 2015 in WASTIAN et al. 2015, pp.139-140)

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS IS A SPECTRUM

Manipulative and acquisitive behavior at one end, spontaneity, self-reliant behavior, and wholehearted commitment to theorganizational goals at the other.

Between these two extremes lies the vast range of everyday politicalbehavior, such as stretching regulations, accepting white lies,cultivating relationships for a purpose, or flattery.

(mod. SOLGA et al 2015 in WASTIAN et al. 2015, p.133)

HIGHLIGHTS: ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

3. POWER COMES IN A VARIETY OF FORMS

4. NOBODY GRANTS YOU POWER—YOU DEVELOP IT

5. POLITICAL SKILL CAN BE DEVELOPED AS WELL

6. INFLUENCING OTHERS BE AS ETHICAL AS THE SITUATION PERMITS—BE ONTHE RIGHT SIDE OF THE SPECTRUM