Political Geography

Chapter 8

Introduction

Political geography helps explain the cultural and physical factors that underlie political unrest

Political geographers study how people have organized Earth’s land surface into countries and alliances, the reasons for doing so, and the conflicts that can erupt from the organization

Where are States Located?

Almost all land on the Earth belongs to a country

Not true as recently as 1940s – only about 50 countries then Now there are 192 members of the UN

State- an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established gov. that has control over its internal and foreign affairs Occupies a defined territory and has a

permanent population

continued

Sovereignty- independence from control of its internal affairs by other states

States are examples of formal regions because the entire territory is ruled by a common gov., laws, military etc.

Country and state are synonyms

Problems of Defining States

Antarctica is the only large landmass on Earth that is not part of a state Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New

Zealand, Norway, and the UK all claim portions of Antarctica

The US and Russia do not recognize these claims

The Treaty of Antarctica 1959 (1991) says states may establish research stations but may not have a military presence

continued

There is some disagreement about the number of sovereign states around the world

Korea, China, and Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic) are examples of places that test the definition of state

Korea: One State or Two?

After Japan was defeated in WWII, Korea was divided into two occupation zones by the US and Russia

Division was made at 38 degrees N. Latitude

N. Korea invaded South Korea in 1950

After 3 years, a cease-fire was agreed upon near the 38th parallel

continued

Both gov. are committed to reunification In 2000 they agreed to exchange visits of

families separated for more than 50 years and for increased economic cooperation Progress slowed by N. Korea’s decision to

build nuclear weapons even though the country can’t provide its citizens with food, electricity, etc.

Both countries were admitted into the UN in 1992

China and Taiwan: One State or Two?

In 1949 the ruling gov. of China lost a civil war and fled to the island of Taiwan They claimed to still be the rightful gov. of

China and that they were waiting for the defeat of the communists so they could return to the mainland

Communist China claimed Taiwan and vice versa They agreed there was only 1 states, but not

about who ruled it

continued

In 1999, Taiwan decided to claim itself a separate sovereign state

In the 1950s and 1960s the US did not recognize communist China as a country

Not until 1971 did the US recognize communist China—they were awarded the UN seat formerly held by the Taiwanese gov.

Taiwan is now the most populous country not in the UN

Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)

Most African countries recognize as a sovereign state

Morocco does not They claim the territory and built a 3,000

kilometer wall around it to keep out rebels The territory was controlled by Spain until

1976 when they withdrew An independent state was declared, but

Morocco and Mauritania annexed the Northern and Southern portions

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After 3 years, Mauritania withdrew and Morocco claimed the entire territory Today Morocco controls most of the territory However, there is a gov. group that operates in the

sparsely populated deserts (esp. the 1/5 of territory outside the wall)

A cease-fire was signed in 1991 and a UN peacekeeping force upholds it

While all of this is going on, Spain controls 2 cities in Morocco—the were annexed into Spain 500 years ago and the combined 140,000 residents favor remaining part of Spain

Varying Size of States

Largest – Russia= 6.6 million sq. miles 11% of total land area

China, Canada, United States, Brazil, and Australia are the only other states of more than 2.9 million sq. miles

Microstates- states with very small land areas

Smallest is Monaco=0.6 square miles Many microstates are small islands

Development of the State Concept

Relatively recent concept Before the 1800s Earth was organized in

other ways City-states, empires, and tribes

Ancient States

The first states to develop in the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia) were city-states

A sovereign state that compromises a town and the surrounding countryside

City was walled for protection and surrounding countryside was used for agriculture

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Sometimes one city-state would assert dominance in the area and create an empire Ex. Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians

About the same time the Egyptians were forming an Empire along the Nile River Valley

Early European States

Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and SW Asia

Spanned from England in the North to Egypt in the South and from Spain in the West to Iran in the East

After the fall of the Empire, Europe was broken up into large estates owned by Kings, Dukes, etc.

They fought each other and some consolidated lands into Kingdoms

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Around 1100, powerful Kings began to emerge as they consolidated large estates England, France, and Spain Germany and Italy however were not

consolidated until the 1800s

Colonies

Def.- a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent

Usually sparsely populated before the colony is established

Colonialism- the effort by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on a territory

continued

European states created colonies for three reasons

1. To promote Christianity

2. To gain valuable resources

3. To show their relative power

GOD, GOLD, and GLORY

continued

Europeans first started colonizing in the late 1400s—Americas

Most of those colonies declared independence by 1824 and Europe turned to Africa and Asia

Imperialism- control of territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society

continued

UK created largest colonial empire “sun never set” on British empire France also had a large empire- colonies

concentrated in West Africa and SE Asia

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France attempted to assimilate its colonies into French culture and educate an elite group to provide local leadership

After independence most French colonies remained close to France

The British created different gov. policies in each of its colonies

Allowed local inhabitants to maintain their diverse cultures and local customs

British colonies made peaceful transitions to independence in most cases

concluded

Most African and Asian colonies became independent after WWII

Only a handful of colonies still exist Most are islands in the Pacific or Caribbean Most populous is Puerto Rico

Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?

Boundary- an invisible line marking the extent of a state’s territory

Can be natural physical features or cultural features such as religion and language

Boundary locations often generate conflict because the lines are the only place two neighboring countries must have physical contact

Shapes of States

Shape of a state controls the length of its boundaries with other states

Shape also can influence the ease or difficulty of internal administration and can affect social unity

There are 5 basic shapes: Compact Prorupted Elongated Fragmented Perforated

Compact States: Efficient

Def.- state where the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly

Ideal compact state would be a circle with the capital in the center

Allows for good communications from all regions

Ex’s Burundi, Kenya, Uganda

Prorupted States: Access or Disruption

Def. – an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension

Proruptions are created for 2 reasons1. To provide a state with access to a resource

such as water (Congo stretches to Atlantic Ocean) (why Cabinda is separated from the rest of Angola)

2. To separate two states that would otherwise share a border (Afghanistan separates Russia from Pakistan)

Elongated States: Potential Isolation

Def.- states with a long narrow shape Only a handful of these Ex. Chile – over 2500 miles long, but only 90

miles wide Italy is a less extreme example 700 by 120

miles Gambia is an elongated state on an East-

West orientation (300 miles wide by15 miles long) by that is completely surrounded by Senegal

continued

May suffer from poor internal communication and some regions may be isolated from the capital which is usually near the center

Fragmented States: Problematic

Def.- state with several discontinuous pieces of territory

Technically, any state that has offshore islands is considered fragmented – fragmentation is particularly significant for some states

2 types:

1. Areas separated by water

2. Areas separated by an intervening state

continued

Indonesia is most extreme fragmented state 13,677 islands spread over 3,000 miles in the

Indian Ocean 80% of pop. lives on the two islands of Java

and Sumatra Fragmentation hinders communication and

makes integration of people living on remote islands nearly impossible

Indonesian gov. encourages migration from major pop. centers to more remote areas to encourage national integration

continued

The US, Russia, Angola, and Bangladesh are examples of countries with territory separated by other states

Kaliningrad is separated from the rest of Russia by 250 miles Important to Russia because it gives them

access to the Baltic sea The Tin Bigha corridor of India divides

Bangladesh

continued

Panama was a fragmented state while the US controlled the canal and the surrounding canal zone Now that the US has returned control of the

canal, Panama is now a elongated state

Perforated States: South Africa

Def.- a state that completely surrounds another one

South Africa is a great example It completely surrounds Lesotho

Lesotho dependent upon S. Africa for import and export of goods

Can You Identify Each Type of State?

Landlocked States

Landlocked states- a state that lacks a direct outlet to the sea because it is completely surrounded by several other countries 14 out of the 54 countries in Africa are

landlocked Remnant of European colonialism

continued

Access to a seaport is critical because it facilitates international trade Bulky goods are usually transported by ship Landlocked states are at the mercy of other

states for the use of their seaports

Types of Boundaries

•Historically, frontiers separated states

•-a zone where no state exercises complete political control

•Frontiers are tangible geographic areas

•Boundaries are thin, invisible, and imagined lines

•Boundaries have replaced frontiers almost everywhere on Earth

continued

Antarctica and the Arabian Peninsula are the only places that still have frontiers

Saudi Arabia is separated from Qatar, UAE, Oman, and Yemen by frontiers

continued

Boundaries can be physical or cultural Physical boundaries can be seen on a map

and on the ground Neither type necessarily better than others Best boundaries are those that all affected

states agree upon

Mountain Boundaries

Serve as effective boundaries when they are difficult to cross

Also pretty permanent Argentina and Chile are separated by the

crest of the Andes Mountains They have had disagreements about where

exactly that crest lies

Desert Boundaries

Deserts are hard to cross and sparsely inhabited

Type of boundary common in Africa and Asia Sahara desert separates Libya, Algeria, and

Egypt from their southern neighbors Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad and the Sudan

Water Boundaries

Rivers, lakes, and oceans are often used to mark boundaries

Very common in East Africa Ex. Boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania,

and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria Boundaries are typically in the middle of the

water, but not always Water makes attack from neighbors more

difficult because of troop transport

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Water boundaries can cause some difficulties Position of water changes over time

Ex. Rio Grande along the US – Mexico border Ocean boundaries can also be problematic

Most states claim the boundary is not at the coastline, but out at sea

Done for defense and resources

The Law of the Sea (1983), signed by 117 countries, recognizes borders at 12 nautical miles – with exclusive fishing rights to 200 nautical miles

Cultural Boundaries

A nation-state exists when the boundaries of a state match the boundaries of the territory inhabited by an ethnic group

Geometric Boundaries

Part of US border with Canada is an arc that follows the 49th parallel for 1300 miles from Minnesota to Washington

Religious Boundaries

In a few cases religion has been used to select a boundary between states

The British split India into states based on religion Hindus in India, Muslims in Pakistan

Northern Ireland is majority Protestant and is part of the UK

Ireland is 95% Catholic and is independent from the UK

Language Boundaries

After WWI, language was the most important factor the Allies used in creating new states and changing the boundaries of existing states– esp. in Eastern and Southern Europe

Ex. Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created by

grouping people of similar languages together into one country– both separated into many countries in the 1990s

Cyprus’s “Green Line” Boundary

Read about this p. 271-272

Boundaries Inside States

Local gov. boundaries are sometimes drawn to separate different nationalities or ethnicities

In the US, they are sometimes drawn to provide an advantage to a political party

Unitary state- an internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of the central government officials

Federal state- an internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government

Unitary States

Works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity

Smaller states are more likely to adopt Common in Europe Some multinational states have adopted

unitary systems so the values of one nationality can be imposed on the others

Ex. Rwanda

Federal States Local governments have the authority to

adopt their own laws Multinational states may adopt federal

systems to empower different nationalities, esp. if they live in different regions of the country

Well suited for large states-most large countries are US, Russia, Canada, Brazil, and India

Electoral Geography

Legislative districts in the US are redrawn every 10 years to reflect relative population changes

In most European countries independent commissions are created to draw the districts

In the US, state legislatures are responsible for drawing congressional districts

Party in power attempts to draw lines to keep them in power

Gerrymandering

Def.- the process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power

Named for Elbridge Gerry, Gov. of Mass. 1810-1812 One of the districts he drew looked like a

salamander– critic called it a gerrymander

Types of Gerrymandering

Basically three types:

1. Wasted Vote- spreads opposition supporters across many districts in minority numbers

2. Excess Vote- concentrates opposition supporters into a few districts

3. Stacked Vote- links distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries

continued

Most gerrymandering in the Us is now “stacked vote” gerrymandering Leads to the party in

power owning a majority of support in a majority of the districts

Often used to create districts made up largely of ethnic minorities

Ex. 12th district in NC

continued

Supreme Court ruled Gerrymandering illegal in 1985, but doesn’t have the power to keep it from happening

Estimated that only 10% of congressional seats are actually competitive because of gerrymandering

Political and Military Cooperation

The United Nations was created to prevent the likelihood of a third World War

It was created at the end of WWII by the Allies

In 1945 there were 45 members, by 2007 there were 192

The UN replaced the failed League of Nations that was created after WWI

The United Nations

The UN has had three major expansionary periods 1955- 16 countries were added –mostly

European countries that had been liberated from Nazi Germany

1960- 17 new members added –mostly former British and French colonies in Africa

1990-1993- 26 countries were added—mostly from the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia

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UN members can vote to send a peacekeeping force into unstable areas Member countries send troops to make up the

force China, Russia, France, the UK, and the US

(permanent members of the UN Security Council) have the power to veto a peacekeeping force

Happened often during the Cold War

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The UN is currently trying to separate warring groups in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa Ties to maintain neutrality b/w the two sides Not always possible, esp. in cases involving

genocide Ex. Bosnian Serbs were seen as the aggressor

versus Bosnian Muslims

Regional Military Alliances

In addition to the UN, many states also joined regional military alliances after WWII

Era of Two Superpowers

During the Cold War, the US and Soviet Union were the World’s two superpowers

Before this time, there were usually multiple powerful states, none of which could dominate on their own

Major states joined together for temporary alliances

Balance of power- condition of roughly equal strength between opposing countries or alliances of countries

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After WWII, the US and Soviet Union were the only powers left that were not battered to the point of losing there power status

During the Cold War, the world was split into allies of the US and allies of the Soviet Union

Both superpowers created military bases in ally countries around the world Therefore, they could maintain strength in

regions not near their own territory

Military Cooperation in Europe

2 military alliances were formed in Europe after WWII –NATO and the Warsaw Pact

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a military pact between the US, Canada, and 14 democratic European States

The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among 7 Communist countries in Eastern Europe

continued

NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created to maintain a bipolar balance of power in Europe

NATO wanted to prohibit the Soviets from taking over W. Germany and many smaller nations in Europe

The Warsaw Pact created a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and W. Germany

continued

After the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact disbanded and most of its former members joined NATO Which offers its members a sense of security

against Russian threats in the future

Other Regional Organizations

The Organization of American States (OAS) includes all 35 states in the W. Hemisphere Cuba has been suspended since 1962 Promotes social, cultural, political, and

economic links b/w member states The African Union (AU) was created in 2001

and has 53 members Tries to promote economic integration in Africa

Economic Cooperation

The need for a bipolar balance of power ended when the Soviet Union disbanded in 1992

We are now back to having more than 2 major powers—like before WWII, but with 2 diff.

1. Economic power becoming more important than military power—allows Japan and Germany to be considered powers

2. The leading power is not a single state, but an economic union in Europe led by Germany

European Union

Predecessor was established in 1958 with 6 members Originally designed to help Europe’s WWII scars heal Expanded to 12 countries in the 1980’s and now has

27 members with 2 more wanting to join (Croatia and Turkey)

Wants to promote development through economic cooperation Removes barriers to free trade– goods and services

and people can travel throughout the Union without stopping

Created a common currency (the Euro) Has become the World’s wealthiest market

Terrorism

Def- the systematic use of violence by a group to intimidate a population or coerce a gov. into granting its demands

Terrorism attacks usually target ordinary people rather than military or political leaders

Al-Qaeda

Terror network founded by Osama bin Laden Believed to be living in Afghanistan since

1994 Issued a declaration of war against the US

because of its support for Saudi Arabia and Israel

Al-Qaeda means “the foundation” Created around 1990 to unite jihad fighters

around the world—est. 20,000 members in 34 countries

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Network consists of a large number of autonomous cells who have little contact with other cells and other members of their own

Not all Muslims agree with the terror tactics of Al-Qaeda

Americans and Europeans have the challenge of distinguishing b/w peaceful Muslims and the handful of terrorists out of the 1.3 billion Muslims in the World

State Support of Terrorism

Several Middle Eastern states have provided support for terrorists—3 types

1. Providing sanctuary

2. Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence

3. Planning attacks using terrorists Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran have all

been accused by the US of supporting terrorism

Libya

1986- bombing of a night club popular with US service men in Berlin

Bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988

Bombing of UTA flight 772 over Niger in 1989 After 8 years of UN trade sanctions, Colonel

Muammar el-Qaddafi turned over flight 103 suspects and agreed to compensate survivors of the victims

Afghanistan

Sheltered Osama bin Laden and other terrorists after the attack on the World Trade Center in NY

Gov. known as the Taliban Strict Islamic Fundamentalist

Ruled for six years until the US expelled them in 2001

Iraq

US claimed Iraq was supporting terrorism and creating weapons of mass destruction

Invaded in 2003 and deposed longtime ruler Saddam Hussein

Iran

Hostility with the US began in 1979 when a revolution removed pro-US leader from office and placed the Ayatollah Khomeini as ruler

In Nov. of 1979, 62 Americans at the US embassy were kidnapped and held hostage until Jan. of 1981

US has accused Iran of harboring terrorists and of trying to develop nuclear weapons