point of entry: the preschool-to-prison pipeline

8/20/2019 Point of Entry: The Preschool-to-Prison Pipeline

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Point of Entry

The Preschool-to-Prison Pipeline

By Maryam Adamu and Lauren Hogan October 2015


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Point of EntryThe Preschool-to-Prison Pipeline

By Maryam Adamu and Lauren Hogan October 2015


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1 Introduction and summary

4 Background

12 Policy recommendations

17 Conclusion

19 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Point of Entry

Introduction and summary

Te erm “school-o-prison pipeline” has become a powerul meaphor o capure

he processes by which childrenypically low-income children o colorare

pushed ou o school and ino he criminal jusice sysem. While exac definiions

o suspension and expulsion vary across saes and school disrics, i is clear ha

wha were inended o be las resor and occasional disciplinary ools have become

wildly overused and disproporionaely applied o children o color, resuling in

dramaically negaive long-erm effecs.1

Daa rom he U.S. Deparmen o Educaion show ha Arican American school-

children o all ages are more han hree imes more likely o be suspended and

expelled han heir non-Hispanic whie peers.2 American Indian/Alaska Naive,

or AI/AN, youh are similarly overrepresened in school discipline daa: Tey

accoun or 0.5 percen o oal enrollmen bu 3 percen o oal expulsions.3

While all boys accoun or wo ou o hree suspensions, girls o color are also

overrepresened in he remaining one-hird o suspensions. Arican American girls

are suspended a a rae ha surpasses boys o nearly every racial group wih he

excepion o Arican American and AI/AN boys. Likewise, he suspension rae o

AI/AN girls oupaces ha o non-Hispanic whie boys.4

A he same ime ha many saes and communiies across he counry are

commiting o expanding high-qualiy early learning opporuniies, alarming

saisics sugges ha early childhood learning environmens are a poin o enry

o he school-o-prison pipeline, paricularly or Arican American children.

Preschoolerschildren ages 3 o 5are especially vulnerable o puniive and

non-developmenally appropriae disciplinary measures. A naional sudy by

Waler S. Gilliam ound ha preschoolers are expelled a a weighed rae o more

han hree imes ha o K-12 sudens.5

Furhermore, while Arican Americanchildren make up only 18 percen o preschool enrollmen, hey accoun or 42

percen o preschool suspensions.6 Comparaively, non-Hispanic whie preschool-

ers make up 43 percen o enrollmen bu 28 percen o preschool suspensions.


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Te pracice o suspending and expelling childrenparicularly hose younger

han age 5rom early childhood setings can have proound consequences.

Tese puniive measures come a a ime when children are supposed o be orm-

ing he oundaion o posiive relaionships wih peers, eachers, and he school

insiuion. Insead, hey are experiencing school as a place where hey are no

welcome or suppored, which serves as a roubling indicaor o wha is o come.Research shows ha when young sudens are suspended or expelled rom school,

hey are several imes more likely o experience disciplinary acion laer in heir

academic career; drop ou or ail ou o high school; repor eeling disconneced

rom school; and be incarceraed laer in lie.7

Tis repor highlighs he rends around preschool discipline. I firs deails he

inerconneced acors ha augmen hese rends, including he rise o zero-

olerance policies and menal healh issues in young children while also exploring

some o he acors ha cause suspensions and expulsions. Tese acors include

he implici biases o eachers and school adminisraors and how hese biasesaffec heir percepions o challenging behaviors; he lack o suppor and resources

or eachers; and he effec o eacher-suden relaionships. Finally, his repor will

provide recommendaions and approaches o increase he proecive acors avail-

able o ensure ha young children say in school and reap he ull benefis o early

learning while simulaneously supporing schools and eachers o acively resis

he criminalizaion o Arican American youh.

Te specific recommendaions include:

• Prohibiing suspensions and expulsions across early childhood setings

• Improving eacher preparaion and educaion wih an eye oward culural

responsiveness and racial equiy

• Expanding access o in-school behavioral and emoional suppor services,

including early childhood menal healh consulaion, or ECMHC

• Increasing unding or he Maernal, Inan, and Early Childhood Home Visiing

Program, or MIECHV

• Supporing a diverse eacher workorce and pipeline

• Promoing meaningul amily engagemen sraegies


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High-qualiy early childhood educaion has he poenial o improve long-erm

lie oucomes or all childrenparicularly hose born ino challenging circum-

sances such as povery.8 In order or sudens o learn, however, hey have o acu-

ally be in he classroom. As such, i is ime o change he naion’s approaches and

acions relaed o school discipline.


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Background

Alhough suspensions and expulsions have long been a par o school-based

approaches o discipline, he recen rise in sudens being pushed ou o school

began in earnes wih he prolieraion o zero-olerance policies. Tis erminol-

ogy was originally coined o describe a mehod o exacing severe punishmen

or major offensesa mehod ha does no ake ino accoun he conex o he

offense or a suden’s previous disciplinary record.9 Te Gun-Free Schools Ac o

1994 signaled an unprecedened era o zero-olerance policies aimed a making

schools saer rom violence and drugs. Over ime, he definiion o wha con-siues a major offense has grown more nebulous and includes relaively minor

violaionsypically a he discreion o school adminisraors. In some cases,

schools uilize zero-olerance policies or inracions such as perceived disrespec

o auhoriy figures andraher counerinuiivelyruancy.10 A he same ime,

schools have shifed o rely on law enorcemen officials o enorce such policies.11

Te resul has been a rapid movemen oward he criminalizaion o youh a all

levels o heir educaional careers.

Beginning in he early 2000s, he disinc relaionship beween zero-olerance

school policies and he lie rajecories o oo many Arican American children was

idenified. Policymakers who discussed he school-o-prison pipeline charged ha

schools were complici in he overrepresenaion o people o colorwho primar-

ily were Arican American and Hispanicin he criminal jusice sysem. By 2005,

he Children’s Deense Fund had writen exensively abou a “cradle-o-prison”

pipeline, boh shedding ligh on he dispariies ha exis beore children even

ener a school building and exploring wha happens o hem when hey ge here.12

Prevalence and disproportionality of suspensions and expulsions

Zero-olerance policies ypically resul in an ou-o-school suspension or he firs

offense, which has led o an explosion in he naional suspension rae. In he 2011-

12 school year alone, more han 3 million children were suspendeddouble he

1974 suspension rae.13 O hese suspended children, more han 250,000 were


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reerred o law enorcemen officers. While all children are vulnerable under such

policies, children o color are more ofen arges o enorcemen. Te suspension

rae o non-Hispanic whie sudens grew rom 6 percen o 7.1 percen in he

same school year, bu or Arican American and Hispanic sudens, i more han

doubledrising rom 11.8 percen o 24.3 percen and rom 6.1 percen o 12

percen, respecively.14

Meanwhile, approaches o discipline ha cener on removalnow commonplace

or older school childrenare now known o affec children a younger ages.

While here are ew sudies ha quaniy he problem o suspensions and expul-

sions or young children, aken ogeher, hey provide some indicaor o he scope

o he issue. A Connecicu sudy o he 1999-00 kindergaren school year was

one o he firs o explore he issue.15 Ta year, more han 40,000 kindergarners

in Connecicu were suspended, mos or a period o as many as 10 consecuive

school days.16 Nearly our ou o five o hese suspended kindergareners were

male, and 87 percen o he suspended schoolchildren were Arican Americanor Hispanic. In addiion, mos o he suspended children came rom low-income

areas. Prior o his analysis, he overrepresenaion o children o color in school

discipline daa was documened or middle and high school sudens. Resuls

rom his sudy helped signal or researchers ha school discipline policies migh

be affecing children long beore hey reached high school.17 I was no unil a

2014 analysis rom he U.S. Deparmen o Educaion’s Office or Civil Righs

ha early local findings were confirmed across he naion. Te sudy ound ha

while Arican American children make up 18 percen o enrollmen in preschool,

hey accoun or 42 percen o ou-o-school suspensions and 48 percen o hose

receiving muliple suspensions.18

FIGURE 1

Who is getting suspended?

Suspension rates of preschoolers compared with enrollment, by race

Source: Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection: Data Snapshot (Early Childhood) (U.S. Department of Education, 2014), availableat http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-early-learning-snapshot.pdf.

Enrollment

Out-of-schoolsuspension

Multipleout-of-school

suspensions

White Black/African American Hispanic/Latino Asian

American Indian/Alaska Native

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Two or more races


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Te firs naionwide sudy o ocus specifically on preschool expulsion ound ha

preschoolers were expelled a more han hree imes he rae o K-12 sudens, wih

1 percen o all preschool eachers reporing an expulsion in heir class over he pre-

ceding year.19 Overall, wo-hirds o saes wih preschool programs eiher explicily

allowed sudens o be expelled or gave he provider he discreion o do so.20 In

his case, Arican American children were more han wice as likely o be expelledhan boh Hispanic and non-Hispanic whie children. In oal, he sudy idenified

10 saes where more han 10 per every 1,000 preschool sudens were expelled.21

What happens when children are suspended or expelled?

While much more research is needed on he effecs o early childhood disciplinary

pracices, suspension and expulsion during his ime period are associaed wih

suspension and expulsion in laer grades.22 Research ino he effecs o preschool

suspension and is links o expulsion in laer years poins o early childhoodsuspension as he firs o many issues wih schoolincluding soured eacher and

peer relaionships, decreased academic achievemen, ruancy, and school dropou.

Te breakdown o posiive relaionships beween schools and heir sudens can

begin in a number o ways. For example, some children are idenified early on as

difficul. A 2004 sudy showed ha by he ime hey had enered kindergaren,

sudens had learned o ideniy cerain peers who ell on a specrum o behaviors

rom poor sharing skills o exernalized aggression.23 Peer percepion o problem

behaviors has been shown o be relaively consisen wih eacher percepion.24

When a child is idenified early on as exhibiing problem behaviors, i becomes

clear why heir acions are likely o be perceived ha way in he uure. Tis label-

ing and soring can be counerproducive o creaing a sae and supporive edu-

caional climae. A growing body o research over he pas ew decades connecs

school climae o suden sel-percepion, abseneeism, and suspension.25

A daa analysis o chronic abseneeism in early learning setings ound haas

wih suspension and expulsionlow-income Arican American children are

overrepresened. Suspension and expulsion are ofen componens o chronic

abseneeism. When a child is ruan or consisenly absen or reasons ha includesuspension in he early years o heir educaion, he or she is more likely o expe-

rience hese problems in laer years as well. For low-income children, ruancy

ha begins in kindergaren is correlaed wih poor academic perormance all he

way hrough he fifh grade.26 By he ime a child is in sixh grade, ruancy is he


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mos reliable predicor o wheher he or she will graduae rom high school.27

Unsurprisingly, sudens wih he highes ruancy raes also have been shown o

have he lowes academic achievemen raes, as well as greaer school disciplin-

ary hisories. Tey are also mos a risk o dropping ou.28 In effec, suspensions

are he mos imporan iniial indicaor o longer-erm lie oucomes ha include

unemploymen, adul earnings poenial, and incarceraion.

Te long-erm consequences o suspension and expulsion are well documened.

Sudens who experience ou-o-school suspension and expulsion are 10 imes

more likely o drop ou o school han sudens who do no experience hese

punishmens.29 High school dropous can expec o make $400,000 less over heir

lieimes compared o heir peers who graduae.30 Tey are also eigh imes more

likely o be incarceraed laer in lie.31 I is no surprise hen ha Arican American

boyshe group suspended and expelled a he highes raesare also mos likely

o drop ou o school, be incarceraed laer in lie, and experience longer breaks in

labor orce paricipaion as aduls.32 Similarly, Arican American girls and womenare he ases-growing populaion in he juvenile and criminal jusice sysem. In

he juvenile jusice sysem, hey are more likely o receive harsher senences han

any oher group.33 Te roos o his disproporionaliy can be seen in he high

dispariy beween Arican American girls’ suspension raes and hose o heir non-

Hispanic whie emale peers, who are almos six imes less likely o be suspended. 34

For parens and careakers, suspension and expulsion presen a differen chal-

lenge. Public preschool setings in paricular ofen ac as affordable, high-qualiy

child care or amilies. Given ha 65 percen o children have all available parens

in he workorce, many parens need access o hese programs. 35 When sudens

are suspended or expelled, parens are lef scrambling o find alernaive child care

opions, ofen wih no assisance rom schools.

Why are children suspended and expelled?

In order o change he rends and address he dispariies, policymakers mus firs

undersand hem. Why are children suspended and expelled, and why do hese

disciplinary acions disproporionaely affec Arican American children?


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Implicit bias and addressing challenging behaviors

School discipline is ofen carried ou based on wheher a child appears o exhibi

so-called challenging behaviors, which can be inerpreed o mean anyhing rom

defiance o physically harming onesel or peers.36 Tese erms and behaviors can

ake on paricular meaning when applied o Arican American children. Child andamily psychologis Richard Weissbourd noes ha “popular images and sereo-

ypes have obscured he srong or exemplary moral qualiies o many poor chil-

dren and o immigran and Arican-American children across economic classes.”37

In paricular, Weissbourd wries ha his research “suggess ha Arican-American

kids have moral srenghs ha have been obscured by he sereoypes.” 38

Many non-Hispanic whie children describe Arican American children as more

hones, less hypocriical, more independen-minded, more willing o asser heir

views, and less concerned abou populariy han abou respec in comparison wih

heir peers.39 Ye eachers may perceive behavior such as independen-mindednessand a willingness o asser one’s views as being disrupive, defian, or aggressive

insead o recognizing hese rais as leadership srenghs and opporuniies.40

Tese atribues, when osered appropriaely, are indeed beneficial, and hey

should be recognized as such in he conex o early childhood, where children are

orming heir educaional oulook. In ac, developmenal psychology ells us ha

young children in general appropriaely push boundaries and learn how o prop-

erly navigae social ineracions.41 Tus, such qualiies should be expeced.

In many cases, i is no clear wheher children acually exhibi behavior ha neces-

siaes emoional and developmenal suppor or i hey are being unairly labeled.

Indeed, Arican American sudens who exhibi disrupive behavioreven i

i is he same behavior exhibied by heir non-Hispanic whie peersmigh be

perceived as more disrupive because o eachers’ biases.42 A 2014 sudy published

in he Journal of Personality and Social Psychology looked ino wheher idenifiers

ypically associaed wih children, such as “innocen” and “in need o proecion,”

are exended o Arican American children in equal measure as non-Hispanic

whie children, using boys as an index.43 Overall, Arican American children were

seen as less innocen and more deserving o punishmen han heir whie peers.44

In addiion, paricipans in he sudyhe majoriy o whom were whie adulsconinually overesimaed he age o Arican American children relaive o heir

whie and Laino peers.45 Essenially, his ells us ha Arican American children

are uniquely denied he benefi o being seen as innocen children, which migh

explain some o he harsher and more inappropriae reamen.


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Lack of access to high-quality early learning experiences

Over he pas decade, he number o children enrolled in sae-unded preschool

programs doubled o include 29 percen o 4-year-olds in he 2013-14 school

year.51 A he same ime, here has been a widespread push among early child-

hood advocaes o improve he qualiy o insrucion and learning environmens.52

Comprehensive early learning crieria, specialized eacher raining, and small

class sizes are ypically considered indicaors o qualiy. Looking a a naionally

represenaive sample o sudens, Arican American preschoolers were he mos

likely o be enrolled in low-qualiy preschool and he leas likely o be enrolled in

high-qualiy preschool.53

One o he mos imporan predicors o high-qualiy educaion, meanwhileando long-erm posiive oucomes or childrenis he eacher-suden relaionship.54

A 2001 sudy ound ha he qualiy o child-eacher ineracions in preschool

shaped academic and behavioral oucomes hrough he eighh grade.55 According

While many schools across the country are meeting the legal

requirements necessary to ensure a diverse population, only a hand-

ful of schools are actively developing substantive, race-consciouspolicies and practices with students, parents, teachers, and admin-

istrators. Recently, however, educational administration researchers

Jean Madsen, Mario Torres, and Jessica Yue of Texas A&M University

launched an in-depth survey and research project to explore the

effect of demographic change on the classroom and the various op-

portunities for improvement different stakeholders could produce by

working together.46

Surveying began with a number of Texas school districts, which are

important bellwethers for the nation since people of color already

drive population growth in Texas.47 Children of color make up morethan two-thirds of the state’s population, a demographic shift that is

not projected for many other parts of the country until at least 2040.48

In one of the survey districts—Austin Independent School Dist

children of color accounted for nearly 75 percent of total enroll

in the 2012-13 school year.49

Considering that the majority of teare white, this demographic gap between students and their te

will only become more meaningful as time goes on.50 The resea

ers—who focused on identifying and developing administratio

level champions of race-conscious school policy—hope that th

work will encourage the emergence of workable school engag

models. The urgency of rapidly shifting demographics could be

push that school districts need in order to institute strong socia

emotional curricula for students, as well as teacher preparation

that involves working through biases to achieve traditional ma

of school success. These markers include lower teacher turnove

reduced absenteeism, improved school climate, and higher achment rates for students overall.

Toward equity in the classroom


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o anoher sudy, or children o color in paricular, “eacher-repored closeness

wih sudens was posiively relaed o growh in children’s recepive vocabulary

and reading abiliies rom preschool o second grade.”56

FIGURE 2

Who has access to quality?

Proportion of preschoolers who have access to high-quality programs

Source: Authors' calculations are based on data from National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: Birth

Cohort (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

White

38%

Black

28%

Asian

31%

Hispanic

43%

Low-income sudens are less likely o have high-qualiy ineracions han heir

higher-income peers.57 Mos children o color younger han age 6 belong o low-

income amilies, including 69 percen o Arican American children, 69 percen o

American Indian/Alaska Naive children, and 66 percen o Hispanic children.58

Tis is consisen wih oher research ha has ound ha preschools ha serve

greaer proporions o high-povery children o color are less likely o expose heir

sudens o pracices ha yield social, emoional, and academic growh.59 Tese

rends sugges ha he children or whom early learning could be mos ransor-

maive run he highes risk o no being able o ully reap is benefis.

Inadequate resources and support for teachers

eachers ofen deal wih a number o srucural acors ha make i difficul o pro-

vide high-qualiy insrucion and suppor or each suden. Preschool eachers are

nooriously underpaid, which can lead o rapid urnover and low job saisacion.

Even hough preschool eaching is one o he mos rapidly growing proessions,

hese eachers’ median salary was $32,040 in 2014.60

Comparaively, in 2014, kin-dergaren and elemenary school eachers made a median salary o $56,830.61

As he number o preschool sudens increase, i is imporan o noe ha when

preschool eachers are overwhelmed by larger class sizes, he effeciveness o

insrucion can be compromised. Te Naional Insiue or Early Educaion


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Research, or NIEER, recommends a saff-o-child raio o 10-o-1 or beter.62 In

2005, almos 13 percen o eachers repored expulsions when he saff-o-child

raio was greaer han 12-o-1; he number o eachers reporing expulsions ell by

abou 5 percen when he saff-o-child raio was 8-o-1 or smaller.63 In 70 percen

o he saes ha expel more han 10 preschool sudens ou o every 1,000 su-

dens per year, sae preschool programs were no meeing he saff-o-child raioand oher benchmarks ha NIEER idenified.

Finally, children exis in a consellaion o amily, school, and heir broader com-

muniyall o which affec heir social and emoional developmen. Children in

low-income households, or example, ofen experience he sress ha comes wih

amily economic insabiliy. Repea exposure o such adversiy wihou posi-

ive suppors can inerrup healhy cogniive developmen.64 Te effecs o his

sress can play ou in a child’s behavior and academic perormance a school.65

Unorunaely, mos preschool programs lack he resources and mechanisms o

provide he emoional suppor ha would help children cope wih addiionalamily and communiy sressors. Tereore, when eachers ideniy behavioral

issues in heir sudens, mos have a limied number o opions or recourseand

sudens are aced wih suspension or expulsion as a resul.66


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Policy recommendations

Te naion’s early childhood educaion sysem mus do more o acively resis

suspensions and expulsions a he ouse o a child’s educaional experience.

Ye when seeking o eliminae he number o preschoolers pushed ou o school,

here mus be a balance beween miigaing acors ha conribue o eacher and

suden sress and equipping eachers wih he skills and resources necessary o

avoid reinorcing or conribuing o he marginalizaion o sudens. In 2014, he

U.S. Deparmen o Educaion and he U.S. Deparmen o Healh and HumanServices developed a policy saemen aimed a reducing he amoun o suspen-

sions and expulsions in early childhood programs.67 Wih so much evidence on

he negaive effecs o zero-olerance policies in early childhood setings, i is

ime o reimagine he concep o school discipline and commi o supporing he

healhy developmen o children and amilies inside and ouside o he classroom.

Tis can be achieved by implemening he ollowing policy recommendaions.

Prohibit suspensions and expulsions across early childhood settings

Ensuring he effeciveness o early childhood educaion means making sure ha

children are consisenly in a supporive classroom environmen where hey are

sae, healhy, happy, and learning. While removing a child rom a classroom migh

seem o provide immediae classroom conrol benefis, overwhelming evidence

poins o he ac ha suspended or expelled childrenwho are ofen already

experiencing adversiyare worse off. 68 For young children, here are more devel-

opmenally appropriae courses o acion.69 eachers, principals, and direcors

should be equipped wih more posiive and effecive ools or inervenion when a

behavioral problem is idenified.

Some saes and disrics are leading he way in his work. Te Disric o

Columbia’s Ciy Council Commitee on Educaion, or example, unanimously

passed he Pre-K Suden Discipline Amendmen Ac o 2015, which would ban


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he suspension or expulsion o sudens rom all publicly unded pre-K programs

in Washingon, D.C., and require annual reporing o daa on suspensions and

expulsions rom each local educaion agency.70 In 2014, Chicago Public Schools

prohibied suspensions rom preschool hrough second grade and eliminaed cae-

gories ha promped suspensions based on behaviors such as “persisen defiance,”

a label ha has been disproporionaely applied o Arican American children.71

In addiion, he newly reauhorized Child Care and Developmen Block Gran

includes a ocus on reducing expulsions and allows he use o ederal qualiy

improvemen dollars o address he issue.72 While his bill is a sep in he righ

direcionand one ha has biparisan suppori does no include he neces-

sary unding o ake he seps ha would reduce suspensions and expulsions,

including insiuing suppor services or amilies and eachers.

Improve teacher preparation and education with an eyetoward equity

Sudies o diversiy requiremens in undergraduae early childhood eacher

educaion programs across he counry have shown ha he majoriy o programs

require limied coursework on diversiy issues, and only 7 percen require sudens

o be augh in setings wih ehnic, racial, or language diversiy.73 In addiion, a

lieraure review o exising sae early childhood educaor compeencies ound

a general weakness in he areas o compeencies in culural diversiy and dual- or

second-language learning.74

A he same ime, here is growing evidence o suppor he belie ha children’s

developmen and learning benefi rom culurally compeen eaching, which

reduces misundersandings beween sudens and eachers; provides a bridge

beween wha sudens know and wha hey are expeced o learn in school; and

may conribue o he developmen o ruswhich is crucial o he social-emo-

ional learning climae.75 o build oward a ully culurally compeen saff, schools

and preparaion programs need o prioriize proessional developmen opporuni-

ies and conversaions ha suppor difficul discussions abou race and culure.

Tis will help eachers learn he roles ha insiuional orms o racism and biasplay in children’s school experience. Schools and eachers mus do more o under-

sand his process as cenralraher han angenialo he academic oucomes


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or which hey srive. eachers, wih he suppor o adminisraors, mus be able

o creae a school climae where i is comorable o alk abou and address hese

issues as a core componen o he learning process.76

I is imporan o undersand ha he learning process canno and should no be

a one-size-fis-all approach. Much o Howard Universiy psychology proessor A. Wade Boykin’s research has ocused on culural acors ha help shape Arican

American sudens and how schools migh develop o assis hem. One o his

sudies ound ha 70 percen o Arican American children repored preerring

school conexs ha suppor communal learning, music and movemen, and

high-energy pedagogical and learning sraegies.77 As schools atemp o reduce

and eliminae suspensions and expulsions, i is more imporan han ever ha

early childhood educaors are able o ideniy and engage comorably in a range

o classroom managemen and relaionship-building sraegies ha suppor he

learning o Arican American sudensand, indeed, he diverse range o all su-

dens and heir amilies.

Expand access to in-school behavioral and emotional

support ser vices

I would be ill advised o prohibi suspensions and expulsions wihou also

increasing he suppor services available o eachers and schools. Te Universiy

o Caliornia, Los Angeles’ Cener or Menal Healh in Schools esimaes ha

anywhere rom 4 percen o 10 percen o young children exhibi emoional and

behavioral disabiliies.78 While some saes and schools have sared o inves in

effecive behavioral consulaion programs in order o deal wih his heighened

need, more han wo-hirds o preschool eachers do no have consisen access

o hese resources.79 Tis is highly significan: 2005 research by Waler S. Gilliam

ound he lowes expulsion raes in cases where preschool eachers had susained

access o classroom-based behavioral consulans.80

Early childhood menal healh consulaion is an evidence-based alernaive o

suspension and expulsion. When ECMHC programs offer high-qualiy consul-

ans and services, he oucomes are clear: Tey decrease expulsion raes, reduceexernalized behavior, increase pro-social behavior, and improve child-eacher

ineracions.81 Preschool programs in every sae should have access o consuling

and, where possible, on-sie suppor services.


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Increase funding for the federal Maternal, Infant, and Early

Childhood Home Visiting Program

In addiion o providing suppor or children in schools, more should be done

o suppor children’s developmen beore hey ener a classroomand in some

cases, beore hey are even born. Since 2010, he ederal Maernal, Inan, andEarly Childhood Home Visiing Program has done jus ha by ocusing on

improving he lie oucomes o new mohers and amilies wih young children

hrough volunary home-based services.82 By connecing a-risk amilies wih

social workers, nurses, and oher proessionalsas well as services such as healh

care and counselingMIECHV gives parens he ools hey need o suppor heir

children’s healhy developmen.

MIECHV unds a oal o 17 evidence-based models or service delivery.83 Some

o hese include he Early Inervenion Program or Adolescen Mohers, which

helps pregnan eenagers develop posiive maernal habis, as well as Nurse FamilyParnership, a nurse-led program ha helps firs-ime mohers have a healhy

pregnancy and improve heir children’s healh and developmen.84 Tese programs

have been shown o improve maernal and newborn healh; school readiness and

educaion oucomes or children; and amily economic securiy.85

MIECHV-unded programs have been insiued in all 50 saes, he Disric o

Columbia, and 25 ribal communiies.86 Saes use social and demographic inor-

maion in order o arge resources a he mos a-risk populaions. In many saes,

his includes young Arican American parens in povery. Funding or he program

was se o expire in 2014 bu was exended or wo years a an annual level o $400

million.87 Despie is proven effeciveness, he program is sill relaively small, and

he Cener or American Progress encourages is expansion along wih he cre-

aion o an evaluaion pipeline ha incenivizes innovaion a he communiy level

and helps new programs earn he righ o become evidence-based.

Support a diverse teacher workforce and pipeline

In 2014, or he firs ime ever, a majoriy o public school sudens were su-dens o color.88 In saes such as Caliornia and exas, children o color already

comprise more han 60 percen o all children.89 Conversely, 80 percen o public

school eachers are non-Hispanic whies.90 While anywhere rom one-hird o hal

o all preschool eachers are people o color, school direcors and lead eachers


19/25


or eachers wih eaching assisans and paraeducaors working under heir direc-

ionare more likely o be whie English speakers. Tis gap can be considered

even larger when one includes he ac ha, since 2011, he majoriy o children

born have been children o color.91 While here is no much o sugges ha simply

shifing eacher demographics is a silver bulle, here is evidence ha eacher

diversiy is beneficial o sudens o color. According o findings rom a 2001Naional Bureau o Economic Research evaluaion o reading and mah scores,

when sudens were mached o a eacher o heir own race, scores improved by 4

percenage poins and 3 percenage poins, respecively.92 Similar findings poin

o he imporance o children seeing hemselves refleced in examples o career

success and auhoriy.93

Promote meaningful family engagement strategies

Psychologis Waler S. Gilliam, one o he iniial researchers o ideniy heproblem o suspensions and expulsions in early childhood, noes ha programs

should work o pull parens and amilies in raher han push sudens away. 94

Family engagemen is no only a highly effecive sraegy or improving schools

and increasing achievemen bu also a criical componen o decreasing he use o

suspensions and expulsions in early childhood and beyond.

As he naion collecively looks o implemen policies ha embody he of-quoed

maxim ha parens are heir children’s firs and mos imporan eachers, i mus

operaionalize a definiion o amily engagemen as a “sysemic and susained

commimen ha occurs across ime, spans many setings, and requires shared

responsibiliy rom all paries.”95 In addiion o home visiing, policies also should

explicily suppor he provision o and unding or wo-generaion sraegies and

comprehensive wraparound services and suppors or amilies.

Evaluaion sraegies and sae qualiy-raing sysems se he sandard by which

programs can be held accounable or offering muliple opporuniies or engage-

men; addressing srucural and culural barriers o ha engagemen; and pro-

moing culurally relevan and responsive aciviies and programs in order o

ensure ha amily engagemen is defined by significan invesmen, meaningulrelaionships, and an ongoing series o aligned and comprehensive suppors. Tese

suppors should help amilies and children build on srenghs and creae a deep

oundaion o connecion wih eachers and schools in he early years o educaion.


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Conclusion

Evidence clearly shows ha he overuse o suspension and expulsion, paricularly

or early childhood sudens, resuls in negaive consequences or he suden

receiving he punishmen, as well as or heir communiy as a whole. Sudies have

shown ha hese pracices sun children’s developmen, lower heir likelihood o

academic success, and increase heir likelihood o becoming enangled in he crimi-

nal jusice sysem. Addiionally, evidence shows ha Arican American sudens

are disproporionaely affeced by he disciplinary use o suspension and expulsion.

I is imporan ha policymakers undersand he harmul consequences o sus-

pensions and expulsions so ha hey can implemen he proper policy soluions o

ensure ha he naion’s youh are in a posiion o succeedboh in educaion and

laer in lie.


21/25


About the authors

Maryam Adamu

is a Research Associae or he Early Childhood Policy eam a he

Cener or American Progress. Previously, she was an Emerson Naional Hunger

Fellow wih he Povery o Prosperiy Program and Progress 2050 eam, where

her work ocused on economic and racial jusice in ligh o he 50h anniversaryo he Civil Righs Ac. Prior o joining he Cener, Maryam worked o expand

he ederal Summer Food Service Program in he Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania, area

and co-direced he Global Engagemen Summi, a suden-organized conerence

aimed a building he capaciy o he nex generaion o social change leaders. She

holds a bachelor’s degree rom Norhwesern Universiy.

Lauren Hogan is he ormer vice presiden or programs and policy a he Naional

Black Child Developmen Insiue, or NBCDI, providing leadership or he

organizaion’s iniiaives across early childhood educaion, amily engagemen,

and lieracy while working wih he organizaion’s members and affiliae ne- work on a robus local, sae, naional, and ederal policy agenda. Lauren began

her career working in an afer-school program a he Louisville Urban League in

Louisville, Kenucky, and laer led an early lieracy and amily suppor program in

Cambridge, Massachusets. She also served as a Rappapor public policy ellow

in he Deparmen o Social Services in Boson, Massachusets. Lauren earned a

bachelor’s degree rom Yale Universiy and a maser’s degree in public policy rom

he Harvard Kennedy School.


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Endnotes

1 In this paper, suspension refers to a temporary removalof a child from the classroom for a period of fewer than10 days; expulsion refers to any longer-term disruptionof schooling, including for as much as a full year.

2 Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection DataSnapshot: School Discipline (U.S. Department of Educa-tion, 2014), available at https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdf .

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid.

5 Walter S. Gilliam, “Prekindergarteners Left Behind: Ex-pulsion Rates in State Prekindergarten Programs” (NewYork, NY: Foundation for Child Development, 2005),available at http://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdf.

6 Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection DataSnapshot.

7 J.H. Lamont and others, “Out-of-school suspension andexpulsion,” Pediatrics 131 (3) (2013): 1000-1007; L. Raf-faele Mendez, “Predictors of suspension and negativeschool outcomes: A longitudinal investigation,” NewDirections for Youth Development 99 (2003): 17-33.

8 Hakim M. Rashid, “From Brilliant Baby to Child Placed atRisk: The Perilous Path of African-American Boys in EarlyChildhood Education,” The Journal of Negro Education 78 (3) (2009): 347-355.

9 Russell Skiba, “Zero Tolerance and Alternative DisciplineStrategies,” (Bethesda, MD: National Association ofSchool Psychologists), available at http://www.naspon-line.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdf.

10 Jacob Kang-Brown and others, “A Generation Later:What We’ve Learned about Zero Tolerance in Schools,”(Washington: Vera Institute of Justice, 2013), availableat http://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/zero-tolerance-in-schools-policy-brief.pdf.

11 Susan Ferriss, “Virginia tops nation in sending studentsto cops, courts: Where does your state rank?”, Center forPublic Integrity, April 10, 2015, available at http://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rank .

12 Children’s Defense Fund, “America’s Cradle to PrisonPipeline” (2007), available at https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYx-LWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edit.

13 Dignity in Schools, “Fact Sheet on School Disciplineand the Pushout Problem,” available at http://www.dignityinschools.org/files/Pushout_Fact_Sheet.pdf (last accessed October 2015); All analyses based on the2011-12 unsuppressed data from the Civil Rig hts DataCollection, or CRDC, released by the U.S. Department of

Education in March 2014. More details about the datacollection can be found online at Civil Rights Data Col-lection, “Civil Rights Data Collection,” available at http://ocrdata.ed.gov (last accessed September 2015). PerInstitute of Education Sciences, or IES, requirements,to protect the identity of individual students, n umbersof suspension and enrollment in this spreadsheet andthe related report are rounded to the nearest five. Allanalyses completed by Daniel Losen and others, “Arewe closing the school discipline gap?” (Los Angeles, CA:

The Civil Rights Project of the University of California,

Los Angeles, 2015), available at http://tinyurl.com/CCRRNationalReports.

14 Daniel J. Losen and Tia Elena Martinez, “Out of School& Off Track: The Overuse of Suspensions in AmericanMiddle and Hig h Schools,” (Los Angeles, CA: The Centerfor Civil Rights Remedies, 2013), available at http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/fed-eral-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdf.

15 Walter S. Gilliam and Golan Shahar, “Preschool andChild Care Expulsion and Suspension,” Infants & YoungChildren 19 (3) (2006): 228-245.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services andU.S. Department of Education, Policy Statement onExpulsion and Suspension Policies in Early ChildhoodSettings (2014), available at http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdf .

19 Ibid.

20 Gilliam, “Prekindergarteners Left Behind.”

21 Ibid.

22 L. Raffaele Mendez, “Predictors of suspension and nega-tive school outcomes: A longitudinal investigation.”

23 Susan Philips Keane and Susan D. Calkins, “Predict-ing Kindergarten Peer S ocial Status from Toddler andPreschool Problem Behavior,” Journal of Abnormal ChildPsychology 32 (2004): 409-423.

24 Ibid.

25 Center for Social and Emotional Education and Educa-

tion Commission of the States, “The School ClimateChallenge: Narrowing the Gap Between School ClimateResearch and School Climate Policy, Practice Guidelinesand teacher Education Policy” (2007), available athttp://www.schoolclimate.org/climate/documents/school-climate-challenge.pdf.

26 Hedy N. Chang and Mariajosé Romero, “Present, En-gaged, and Accounted For: The Critical Importance ofAddressing Chronic Absence in the Early Grades” (NewYork, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty, 2008),available at http://nccp.org/publications/pdf/text_837.pdf.

27 Baltimore Education Research Consortium, “DestinationGraduation: Sixth Grade Warning Indicators of Balti-more City Schools, Their Prevalence and Impact” (2011)available at http://www.baltimore-berc.org/pdfs/Sixth-GradeEWIFullReport.pdf.

28 Myriam L. Baker, Jane Nady Sigmon, and M. Elaine Nu-gent, “Truancy Reduction: Keeping Students in School”(Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001) avail-able at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/188947.pdf.

29 American Academy of Pediatrics, “Out-of-SchoolSuspension and Expulsion” (2015), available at http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdf .

https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdfhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdfhttp://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdfhttp://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/zero-tolerance-in-schools-policy-brief.pdfhttp://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/zero-tolerance-in-schools-policy-brief.pdfhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttp://www.dignityinschools.org/files/Pushout_Fact_Sheet.pdfhttp://www.dignityinschools.org/files/Pushout_Fact_Sheet.pdfhttp://ocrdata.ed.gov/http://ocrdata.ed.gov/http://tinyurl.com/CCRRNationalReportshttp://tinyurl.com/CCRRNationalReportshttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://www.baltimore-berc.org/pdfs/SixthGradeEWIFullReport.pdfhttp://www.baltimore-berc.org/pdfs/SixthGradeEWIFullReport.pdfhttps://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/188947.pdfhttps://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/188947.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000.full.pdfhttps://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/188947.pdfhttps://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/188947.pdfhttp://www.baltimore-berc.org/pdfs/SixthGradeEWIFullReport.pdfhttp://www.baltimore-berc.org/pdfs/SixthGradeEWIFullReport.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/policy-statement-ece-expulsions-suspensions.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of-suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools/OutofSchool-OffTrack_UCLA_4-8.pdfhttp://tinyurl.com/CCRRNationalReportshttp://tinyurl.com/CCRRNationalReportshttp://ocrdata.ed.gov/http://ocrdata.ed.gov/http://www.dignityinschools.org/files/Pushout_Fact_Sheet.pdfhttp://www.dignityinschools.org/files/Pushout_Fact_Sheet.pdfhttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttps://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_iDZllaSGBfMWEyYzljOWQtOGNmMS00MzYxLWFkMzAtOGViZTViN2I3MDlk/edithttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-students-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rankhttp://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/zero-tolerance-in-schools-policy-brief.pdfhttp://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/zero-tolerance-in-schools-policy-brief.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/Zero_Tolerance_35-1_S4-35.pdfhttp://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdfhttp://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdfhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdfhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdf


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30 Ibid.

31 Dignity in Schools, “Fact Sheet on School Discipline andthe Pushout Problem.”

32 Erica R. Meiners, Right to Be Hostile: Schools, Prisons,and the Making of Public Enemies (New York: Routledge,2007).

33 Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, Priscilla Ocen, and JyotiNanda, “Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpolicedand Underprotected” (New York, NY: Center for

Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies and AfricanAmerican Policy Forum, 2014), available at http://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdf.

34 Ibid.

35 Kids Count Data Center, “Children Under Age 6 withAll Available Parents in the Labor Force,” available athttp://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/5057-children-under-age-6-with-all-available-parents-in-the-labor-force#detailed/1/any/false/36,868,867,133,38/any/11472,11473 (last accessed September 2015).

36 Peter Later, Ja’Nina Walker, and Eric Landers, “Teachers’Perceptions of Students’ Challenging Behavior and theImpact of Teacher Demographics,” Education & Treat-ment of Children 36 (4) (2013): 51-69.

37 Richard Weissbourd, “A Conversation with RichardWeissbourd,” available at http://richardweissbourd.com/conversation_richard_weissbourd.html (last ac-cessed September 2015).

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41 Amanda R. Tarullo, Jelena Obradovic, and MeganR. Gunnar, “Self-Control and the Developing Brain,”(Washington: Zero to Three, 2009), available at http://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdf .

42 John Raible and Jason G. Irizarry, “Redirecting the

teacher’s gaze: Teacher education, youth surveillanceand the school-to-prison pipeline,”Teaching andTeacher Education 26 (2010): 1196–1203.

43 Phillip Atiba Goff and others, “The Essence of Inno-cence: Consequences of Dehumanizing Black Children,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 106 (4)(2014): 526-545.

44 Ibid.

45 Ibid.

46 Texas A&M University Education & Human Develop-ment, “Keeping Schools Accountable In the Name ofDiversity,” February, 11, 2015, available at http://trans-form.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversity.

47 Julie Ajinkya, “Toward 2050 in Texas: A RoundtableReport on Houston’s Experience as One of the MostDiverse Metros in the Nation” (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress and PolicyLink, 2013), available athttp://www.policylink.org/sites/default/files/toward-2050-houston.pdf .

48 Becca Aaronson, “One the Records: Texas 1 of 5 ‘Minor-ity-Majority’ States,” The Texas Tribune, May 17, 2012,available at http://www.texastribune.org/2012/05/17/on-the-records-majority-texas-minority-races/; U.S.

Bureau of the Census, “U.S. Census Bureau ProjectionsShow a Slower Growing, Older, More Diverse Nation aHalf Century from Now,” Press release, December 12,2012, available at http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-243.html.

49 National Council on Teacher Quality, “Austin Indepen-dent School District, Texas,” available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31 (last accessed September 2015).

50 National Educational Association, “Time for a Change,

Diversity in Teaching Revisited” (2014), available athttp://www.nea.org/assets/docs/Time_for_a_Change_Diversity_in_Teaching_Revisited_(web).pdf.

51 W. Steven Barnett and others, “The State of Preschool2014” (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Graduate School ofEducation National Institute for Early Childhood Educa-tion Research, 2014), available at http://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Yearbook2014_full2_0.pdf .

52 W. Steven Barnett, “Expanding Access to Quality Pre-Kis Sound Public Policy,” (New Brunswick, NJ: RutgersGraduate School of Education National Institute forEarly Childhood Education Research, 2013), availableat http://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expand-ing%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdf

53 Based on calculations from National Center for Educa-

tion Statistics, “Early Childhood Longitudinal Study:Birth Cohort” (2009).

54 The National Center on Quality Teacher and Learning,Improving Teacher-Child Interactions: Using the CLASSin Head Start Preschool Programs (U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, 2013), available at https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdf.

55 Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Early Teacher-Child Relationships and the Trajectory of Children’sSchool Outcomes through Eighth Grade,” Child Develop-ment 72 (2) (2001): 625-638.

56 Barbara Bowman and Evelyn K. Moore, “School Readi-ness and Social-Emotional Development: Perspec-tives on Cultural Diversity” (Washington: NationalAssociation for the Education of Young Children, 2006),

available at https://www.naeyc.org/store/node/360.

57 Ibid.

58 Yang Jiang, Mercedes Ekono, and Curtis Skinner, “BasicFacts about Low-Income Children: Children under 6years, 2013” (New York, NY: National Center for Childrenin Poverty, 2015), available at http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1097.html.

59 Jennifer LoCasale-Crouch and others, “Pre-kindergartenteachers’ use of transition practices and children’sadjustment to kindergarten,” Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly 23 (1) (2008): 124-139.

60 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “May 2014 NationalOccupational Employment and Wage Estimates UnitedStates,” available at http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#00-0000 (last accessed September 2015).

61 Ibid.

62 Barnett and others, “The State of Preschool 2014.”


64 Harvard University Center on the Developing Child,“Key Concepts: Toxic Stress,” available at http://devel-opingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/ (last accessed September 2015).

http://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdfhttp://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdfhttp://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdfhttp://richardweissbourd.com/conversation_richard_weissbourd.htmlhttp://richardweissbourd.com/conversation_richard_weissbourd.htmlhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://www.policylink.org/sites/default/files/toward-2050-houston.pdfhttp://www.policylink.org/sites/default/files/toward-2050-houston.pdfhttp://www.texastribune.org/2012/05/17/on-the-records-majority-texas-minority-races/http://www.texastribune.org/2012/05/17/on-the-records-majority-texas-minority-races/http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Yearbook2014_full2_0.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Yearbook2014_full2_0.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttps://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttps://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttps://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttps://www.naeyc.org/store/node/360http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1097.htmlhttp://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1097.htmlhttp://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/key_concepts/toxic_stress_response/http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1097.htmlhttp://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1097.htmlhttps://www.naeyc.org/store/node/360https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttps://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttps://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/docs/using-the-class.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Why%20expanding%20quality%20PreK%20is%20a%20sound%20public%20policy.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Yearbook2014_full2_0.pdfhttp://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/Yearbook2014_full2_0.pdfhttp://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabase/district.do?id=31http://www.texastribune.org/2012/05/17/on-the-records-majority-texas-minority-races/http://www.texastribune.org/2012/05/17/on-the-records-majority-texas-minority-races/http://www.policylink.org/sites/default/files/toward-2050-houston.pdfhttp://www.policylink.org/sites/default/files/toward-2050-houston.pdfhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://transform.tamu.edu/news/keeping-schools-accountable-name-diversityhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://web.stanford.edu/group/sparklab/pdf/Tarullo,%20Obradovic,%20Gunnar%20(2009,%200-3)%20Self-Control%20and%20the%20Developing%20Brain.pdfhttp://richardweissbourd.com/conversation_richard_weissbourd.htmlhttp://richardweissbourd.com/conversation_richard_weissbourd.htmlhttp://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdfhttp://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdfhttp://alexandriava.gov/uploadedFiles/dchs/childrenfamily/BlackGirlsMatter.pdf


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65 Casey A. Holtz and Robert A. Fox, “Behavior problems inyoung children from low-income families: The develop-ment of a new screening tool,” Infant Mental Health Journal 33 (1) (2012): 82-94.

66 Ibid.

67 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services andU.S. Department of Education, Policy Statement onExpulsion and Suspension Policies in Early ChildhoodSettings.

68 American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, “Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in theSchools?: An Evidentiary Review and R ecommenda-tions,” American Psychologist 63 (9) (2008): 852-862,available at http://www.apa.org/pubs/info/reports/zero-tolerance.pdf.

69 Ibid.

70 David Grosso, “Pre-K Student Discipline AmendmentAct of 2015,” available at http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015 (last accessed September2015).

71 Becky Vevea, “CPS softens strict discipline policies,”WBEZ, June 24, 2015, available at http://www.wbez.org/news/cps-softens-strict-discipline-policies-110396.

72 Child Care and Development Block Grant of 2014 , PublicLaw 113-186, 113th Cong., 2d sess. (November 14,2014), available at https://www.congress.gov/113/plaws/publ186/PLAW-113publ186.pdf.

73 Aisha Ray, Barbara Bowman, and Jean Robbins, “Prepar-ing Early Childhood Teachers to Successfully EducateAll Children: The Contribution of Four Year Undergradu-ate Teacher Preparation Programs” (Chicago, IL: EricksonInstitute, 2006), available at https://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/Teachered.pdf.

74 Stephanie Schmit and Emily Firgens, “Expanding Teacher Competencies to Support Young DualLanguage Learners,” (Washington: Center for Law andSocial Policy, 2012), available at http://www.clasp.org/issues/child-care-and-early-education/in-focus/expanding-teacher-competencies-to-support-young-dual-language-learners#sthash.ekVr0SOD.dpuf.

75 Peter Murrell and Michele Foster, “Teacher Beliefs, Per-formance, and Proficiency in Diversity-Oriented TeacherPreparation.” In James Rath and Amy C. McAn inch, eds.,Teacher Beliefs and Classroom Performance: The Impactof Teacher Education, vol. 6 (Charlotte: Information AgePublishing, 2003); Geneva Gay, Culturally ResponsiveTeaching: Theory, Research, and Practice, MulticulturalEducation Series, No. 8. (New York: Teachers CollegePress, 2000).

76 Louise Derman Sparks and Carol Brunson Phillips,Teaching/Learning Anti-Racism: A Developmental Ap- proach (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996).

77 A. Wade Boykin, Eric A. Hurley, and Brenda A. Allen,“Communal Versus Individual Learning of a Math-Estimation Task: African American Children and theCulture of Learning Contexts,” The Journal of Psychology

139 (6): 513–527.

78 Kathy S. Hepburn and others, “Early Childhood MentalHealth Consultation: An Evaluation Toolkit” (Wash-ington: Georgetown University, National TechnicalAssistance Center for Children’s Mental Health, 2007),available at http://gucchd.georgetown.edu/products/ECMHCToolkit.pdf.

79 Ibid.


81 Hepburn and others, “Early Childhood Mental HealthConsultation: An Evaluation Toolkit.”

82 Heath Resources and Services Administration, “Mater-nal Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting,” availableat http://mchb.hrsa.gov/programs/homevisiting/(lastaccessed September 2015).

83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid.

86 Ibid.

87 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “HHSawards $386 million to support families throughthe home visiting program,” Press release, February18, 2015, available at http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2015pres/02/20150219a.html.

88 National Center for Education Statistics, “Table 203.50:Enrollment and percentage distribution of enrollmentin public elementary and secondary schools, by race/ethnicity and region: Selected years, fall 1995 th roughfall 2023,” available at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.50.asp (last accessedSeptember 2015).

89 Steve Suitts and others, “A New Diverse Major-ity: Students of Color in the South’s Public Schools”(Atlanta, GA: Southern Education Foundation,2010), available at http://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspx.

90 Ulrich Boser, “Teacher Diversity Revisited: A New State-by-State Analysis,” (Washington: Center for AmericanProgress, 2014), available at https://cdn.american-progress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDi-versity.pdf .

91 U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Most Children Younger ThanAge 1 are Minorities, Census Bureau Reports,” Pressrelease, May 17, 2012, available at http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.

html.

92 Thomas S. Dee, “Teachers, Race and Student Achieve-ment in a Randomized Experiment.” Working Paper

8432 (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2001), avail-able at http://www.nber.org/papers/w8432.

93 Farah Z. Ahmad and Ulrich Boser, “America’s LeakyPipeline for Teachers of Color” (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2014), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/

TeachersOfColor-report.pdf .

94 Education Week , “Behavior and Discipline of PreschoolChildren,” July 27, 2005, available at http://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.html.

95 Heather B. Weiss and others, “The Federal Rolein Out-of-School Learning: After-School, Sum-mer Learning, and Family Involvement as CriticalLearning Supports” (Cambridge, MA: Harvard FamilyResearch Project, 2009), available http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supports.

http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015http://www.wbez.org/news/cps-softens-strict-discipline-policies-110396http://www.wbez.org/news/cps-softens-strict-discipline-policies-110396https://www.congress.gov/113/plaws/publ186/PLAW-113publ186.pdfhttps://www.congress.gov/113/plaws/publ186/PLAW-113publ186.pdfhttps://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/Teachered.pdfhttps://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/Teachered.pdfhttp://gucchd.georgetown.edu/products/ECMHCToolkit.pdfhttp://gucchd.georgetown.edu/products/ECMHCToolkit.pdfhttp://mchb.hrsa.gov/programs/homevisiting/http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2015pres/02/20150219a.htmlhttp://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2015pres/02/20150219a.htmlhttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.50.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.50.asphttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttp://www.nber.org/papers/w8432https://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttps://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttps://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/the-federal-role-in-out-of-school-learning-after-school-summer-learning-and-family-involvement-as-critical-learning-supportshttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttp://www.edweek.org/chat/2005/07/27/transcript_07_27_2005.htmlhttps://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttps://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttps://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeachersOfColor-report.pdfhttp://www.nber.org/papers/w8432http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.htmlhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdfhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://www.southerneducation.org/getattachment/884678f3-ca14-474f-a5e4-be2fa687136c/2010-A-New-Diverse-Majority-Students-of-Color-in-t.aspxhttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.50.asphttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_203.50.asphttp://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2015pres/02/20150219a.htmlhttp://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2015pres/02/20150219a.htmlhttp://mchb.hrsa.gov/programs/homevisiting/http://gucchd.georgetown.edu/products/ECMHCToolkit.pdfhttp://gucchd.georgetown.edu/products/ECMHCToolkit.pdfhttps://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/Teachered.pdfhttps://www.erikson.edu/wp-content/uploads/Teachered.pdfhttps://www.congress.gov/113/plaws/publ186/PLAW-113publ186.pdfhttps://www.congress.gov/113/plaws/publ186/PLAW-113publ186.pdfhttp://www.wbez.org/news/cps-softens-strict-discipline-policies-110396http://www.wbez.org/news/cps-softens-strict-discipline-policies-110396http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015http://www.davidgrosso.org/grosso-analysis/2015/1/6/pre-k-student-discipline-amendment-act-of-2015


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