CHAPTER 8

PROJECT QUALITY  MANAGEMENT

Ahmad H. Maharma PMP®

PM Knowledge Areas & Process Groups

PM Process Groups / KnowledgeArea Processes

Initiating Process Group

Planning Process Group Executing Process Group

Monitoring & Controlling Process Group

Closing Process Group

Project Develop Project Charter Develop Project Management Direct and Manage Project Monitor and Control Project Work Close ProjectProject Management Integration

Develop Project Charter Develop Project Management Plan

Direct and Manage Project Execution

Monitor and Control Project WorkIntegrated Change Control

Close Project

Project Scope Management

Collect requirementsDefine ScopeCreate WBS

Verify ScopeControl Scope

Project Time Define Activity Schedule ControlProject Time Management

Define Activity Sequence ActivityEstimating ResourceEstimating Duration Develop Schedule

Schedule Control

Project Cost Management

Estimating CostBudgeting Cost

Control Cost

Project Quality Management

Quality Planning Perform Quality Assurance Perform Quality Control

Project HR Management

Human Resources Planning Acquire Project TeamDevelop Project TeamManage Project Team

ProjectCommunications Management

Identify Stakeholders Plan Communications Distribute Information Manage stakeholders expectations

Performance Reporting

Project Risk Management

Plan Risk ManagementRisk IdentificationQualitative / Quantitative Risk Analysis

Risk Monitoring and Control

yRisk Response Planning

Project Procurement Management

Plan procurement Conduct procurement Administer Contract Close procurement

8. Project Quality ManagementPlanningProcesses

Monitoring &Controlling Processes

Enter phase/Start project

Exit phase/End project

InitiatingProcesses

ClosingProcesses

ExecutingProcesses

Knowledge Area

Process

Initiating Planning Executing Monitoring & Contol ClosingInitiating Planning Executing Monitoring & Contol Closing

Cost Quality Planning Perform Quality -Assurance

Perform Quality -Control

PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Project Quality Management includes the processes andactivities of the performing organization that determine quality

li i bj ti d ibiliti th t th j t illpolicies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project willsatisfy the needs for which it was undertaken.

lt implements the quality management system through policyand procedures with continuous process improvement activitiesconducted throughout, as appropriate.

Project Quality Management Processes 

• 8.1 Plan Quality ‐ The process of identifying qualityrequirements and/or standards for the project and product,d d ti h th j t ill d t tand documenting how the project will demonstrate

compliance.

• 8.2 Perform Quality Assurance ‐ The process of auditing thequality requirements and the results from quality control

i li d d dmeasurements to ensure appropriate quality standards andoperational definitions are used.

• 8.3 Perform Quality Control ‐ The process of monitoring andrecording results of executing the quality activities to assess

f hperformance and recommend necessary changes.

Quality Concepts• Quality vs. Grade

– Quality: the degree to which a set of inherentQuality: the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements

– Quality level that fails to meet quality requirements is always a PROBLEM

Grade: a category assigned to product or service having the– Grade: a category assigned to product or service having the same functional use but different technical characteristics

– Low grade may not be a problemg y p

Quality Management: Important pointspoints

• Customer satisfaction• Conformance to requirementq• Fitness for use: product/service produced must satisfy real needs

• Prevention over inspectionC f i i k f i• Cost of preventing mistakes < cost of correcting

• Continuous improvement (Kaizen)• Based on PDCA cycley• Using quality improvement initiatives e.g. TQM, 6 sigma• Using process improvement models e.g. OPM3, CMMI, Malcolm 

BaldrigeBaldrige

• Management responsibility• To provide the resource needed to succeed

Quality Concepts• Gold Plating: giving the customer extras

– This practice is not recommendedp

• Marginal Analysis: looking for the point where..benefits/revenue to be received from improving qualitybenefits/revenue to be received from improving quality EQUALS the incremental cost to achieve that quality

( ) j t h th d d j t b f th• Just in Time (JIT): just when they are needed or just before they are needed.– It forces attention on quality practices.

• Total Quality Management (TQM)

– Company & their employees focus on finding ways to continuous improve the quality of their business practices & products.

Grade and Quality Quality and grade are not the same. Quality is "the degree towhich a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements‘‘.

Grade is a categor assigned to prod cts or ser ices ha ing theGrade is a category assigned to products or services having thesame functional use but different technical characteristics.

While a quality level that fails to meet quality requirements isalways a problem, low grade may not be.

Grade and Quality

For example, a software product can be of high quality (noobvious defects,readable manual) and low grade (a limited number of features),or of low quality (many defects poorly organized useror of low quality (many defects, poorly organized userdocumentation) and high grade (numerous features).

The project manager and the project management team areibl f i th t d ff i l d t d li thresponsible for managing the tradeoffs involved to deliver the

required levels of both quality and grade.

Precision and AccuracyPrecision and accuracy are not equivalent. Precision means thevalues of repeated measurements are clustered and have little

ttscatter.

Accuracy means that the measured value is very close to the trueAccuracy means that the measured value is very close to the truevalue.

Precise measurements are not necessarily accurate.

A very accurate measurement is not necessarily precise.The project management team must determine appropriatelevels of accuracy and precisionlevels of accuracy and precision.

Basic Approach to Quality Management The basic approach to quality management described in thissection is intended to be compatible with that of theI t ti l 0 i ti f St d di ti (lS0)International 0rganization for Standardization (lS0).

This is compatible with proprietary approaches to qualityThis is compatible with proprietary approaches to qualitymanagement such as those recommended by Deming, Juran,Crosby, and others, and non‐proprietary approaches such asT l Q li M (TOM) Si Si f il d dTotal Quality Management (TOM), Six Sigma, failure mode andeffect analysis (FMEA), design reviews, voice of the customer,cost of quality (C0Q), and continuous improvement.

Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.Modern quality management complements project qualitymanagement.

fBoth disciplines recognize the importance of:

• Customer satisfaction Understanding evaluating defining andCustomer satisfaction. Understanding, evaluating, defining, andmanaging expectations so that customer requirements are met.

This requires a combination of conformance to requirements (toensure the project produces what it was created to produce)and fitness for use (the product or service must satisfy real( p yneeds).

Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Prevention over inspection. 0ne of the fundamental tenets 0f

modern quality management states that quality is planned,designed and built in not inspected indesigned, and built in‐not inspected in.

The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much less than thep g g ycost of correcting them when they are found by inspection.

Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Continuous improvement. The plan‐do‐check‐act cycle is thebasis for quality improvement as defined by Shewhart and

difi d b D i l dditi lit i tmodified by Deming. ln addition, quality improvementinitiatives undertaken by the performing organizati0n, such asTQM and Six Sigma, should improve the quality of the project'smanagement as well as the quality of the project's product.Process improvement models include Malcolm Baldrige,0rganizational Project Management Maturity Model (0PM3@)0rganizational Project Management Maturity Model (0PM3@),and Capability Maturity Model Integrated (CMMI@),

Modern Quality Mgt and Project Quality Mgt.• Management Responsibility. Success requires theparticipati0n of all members of the project team, but remainsth ibilit f t t id ththe responsibility of management to provide the resourcesneeded to succeed.

Cost of Quality• Cost of quality (COQ) refers to the total cost of allefforts related to quality throughout the product lifecycle.

• Project decisions can impact operational costs ofquality as a result of product returns warranty claimsquality as a result of product returns, warranty claims,and recall campaigns,

• Therefore, due to the temporary nature of a project,Therefore, due to the temporary nature of a project,the sponsoring organization may choose to invest inproduct quality improvement, especially defectprevention and appraisal to reduce the external cost ofprevention and appraisal, to reduce the external cost ofquality.

8.1 Plan Quality

Plan Quality is the process of identifying quality requirementsand/or standards for the project and product, and documentingh th j t ill d t t lihow the project will demonstrate compliance.

Quality planning should be performed in parallel with the otherQuality planning should be performed in parallel with the otherproject planning processes. For example, proposed changes inthe product to meet identified quality standards may require

h d l dj d d il d i k l i f hcost or schedule adjustments and a detailed risk analysis of theimpact to plans.

The quality planning techniques discussed here are those mostfrequently used on projects. There are many others that may be

f l luseful on certain projects or in some application areas.

8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.1 Scope Baseline:

• Scope statement: The scope statement contains the projectdescription major project deliverables and acceptancedescription, major project deliverables, and acceptancecriteria. The product scope description will often containdetails of technical issues and other concerns that canaffect q alit planning The definition of acceptance criteriaaffect quality planning. The definition of acceptance criteriacan significantly increase or decrease project costs qualitycosts. Satisfying all acceptance criteria implies the needs ofth t h b tthe customer have been met.

• WBS: The WBS identifies the deliverables, the workpackages and the control accounts used to measure projectperformance.

• WBS Dictionary: The WBS dictionary defines technicalinformation for WBS elements.

8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.2 Stakeholder Register:

The stakeholder register identifies stakeholders with aparticular interest in or impact on qualityparticular interest in, or impact on, quality.

.3 Cost Performance Baseline:The cost performance baseline documents the accepted timep pphase used to measure cost performance (Section 7.2.3.1 ).

.4 Schedule Baseline:The schedule baseline documents the accepted scheduleThe schedule baseline documents the accepted scheduleperformance measures including start and finish dates(Section 6.5.3.2).i k i.5 Risk Register:

The risk register contains information on threats andopportunities that may impact qualitypp y p q yrequirements (Section 11 .2‐3.1).

8.1.1 Plan Quality lnputs.6 Enterprise Environmental Factors:

The enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Qualityprocess include but are not limited to: Governmental agency regulationsprocess include, but are not limited to: Governmental agency regulations,Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area, andworking/operating conditions of the project/product which may affectproject quality.p ojec qua y

.7 0rganizational Process Assets:The organizational process assets that influence the Plan 0uality processThe organizational process assets that influence the Plan 0uality processinclude, but are not limited to:‐ Organizational quality policies, procedures, and guidelines,‐ Historical databases,‐ Lessons learned from previous projects, and‐ Quality policy, as endorsed by senior management, which sets the

intended direction of a performing organization with regard to quality.The quality policy of the performing organization for their products oftencan be adopted "as is" to use by the project.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques

.1 Cost‐Benefit Analysis:The primary benefits of meeting quality requirements caninclude less rework, higher productivity, lower costs, andincreased stakeholder satisfaction.

A business case for each quality activity compares the cost ofthe quality step to the expected benefit.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques

.2 Cost of Quality (COQ):Cost of quality includes all costs incurred over the life of theproduct by investment in preventing nonconformance torequirements, appraising the product 0r service forconformance to requirements, and failing to meetq , grequirements (rework).

Failure costs are often categorized into internal (found bythe project) and external (found by the customer).F il t l ll d t f litFailure costs are also called cost of poor quality.Figure 8‐4 provides some examples to consider in each area.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.3 Control Charts:

Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable orhas predictable performance. Upper and lower specification limits arebased on requirements of the contract. They reflect the maximum andminimum values allowed. There may be penalties associated withexceeding the specification limits.

Upper and lower control limits are set by the project manager andappropriate stakeholders to reflect the points at which corrective actionwill be taken to prevent exceeding specification limits. For repetitiveprocesses, the control limits are generally +_3 sigma.

Control chartsRule of seven (non random data points)

Upper control limitNormal and expected variationUsually 3 or 6 sigma

Rule of seven (non random data points)Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Lower control limit

Normal distribution curve

Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Specification limit: is point determines by customer, not calculated based on control chartbased on control chart

The Seven Run RuleThe Seven Run Rule

• You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for patterns in data

• The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for nonrandom problems

Figure 8‐3: Sample Quality Control Chart

30Information Technology Project Management, Fifth Edition, Copyright 2007

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and TechniquesA process is considered out of control when a data point exceeds a controllimit or if seven consecutive points are above or below the mean.

Control charts can be used to monitor various types of output variables.

Control charts may also be used to monitor cost and schedule variances,volume, and frequency of scope changes, or other management results tohelp determine if the project management processes are in control.help determine if the project management processes are in control.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.4 Benchmarking:

Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned projectpractices to those of comparable projects to identify best practices,p p p j y pgenerate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuringperformance. These other projects can be within the performingorganization or outside of it and can be within the same or inanother application areaanother application area.

.5 Design of Experiments:D i f i t (D0E) i t ti ti l th d f id tif iDesign of experiments (D0E) is a statistical method for identifyingwhich factors may influence specific variables of a product orprocess under development or in production.DOE should be used during the Plan Quality process to determineDOE should be used during the Plan Quality process to determinethe number and type of tests and their impact on cost of quality.DOE can be used to reduce the sensitivity of product performanceto sources of variations caused by environmental or manufacturingdiffdifferences.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques

.6 Statistical Sampling:Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population ofinterest for inspection (for example, selecting ten engineeringdrawings at random from a list of seventy‐five).Sample frequency and sizes should be determined during theSample frequency and sizes should be determined during thePlan Quality process so the cost of quality will include thenumber of tests, expected scrap, etc.There is a substantial body of knowledge on statisticalsampling.ln some application areas it may be necessary for the projectln some application areas it may be necessary for the projectmanagement team to be familiar with a variety of samplingtechniques to assure the sample selected actually representsh l fthe population of interest.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques

.7 Flowcharting:A flowchart is a graphical representation of a process showingthe relationships among process steps. There are many styles,but all process flowcharts show activities, decision points, andthe order of processing.p gDuring quality planning, flowcharting can help the projectteam anticipate quality problems that might occur.An awareness of potential problems can result in thedevelopment of test procedures or approaches for dealingwith them.with them.Figure 8‐7 is an example of a process flowchart for designreviews.

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques.8 Proprietary Quality Management Methodologies:

These include Six Sigma, Lean Six Sigma, Quality Function Deployment,CMMI@, etc.Many other methodologies exist ‐ this is not intended to be arecommended or complete list of examples.

.9 Additional quality Planning Tools:0ther quality planning tools are often used to better define the qualityrequirements and plan effective quality management activities.These include, but are not limited to:• Brainstorming (defined in Section 11 .2.2.2).• Affinity diagrams, used to visually identify logical groupings based ony g , y y g g p g

natural relationships,• Force field analysis, which are diagrams of the forces for and against

change.g

8.1.2 Plan Quality: Tools and Techniques

• Nominal group techniques, to allow ideas to bebrainstormed in small groups and then reviewed by a largergroup.

• Matrix diagrams, which include two, three, or four groupsof information and show relationships between factors,p ,causes, and objectives.Data in a matrix is organized in rows and columns withi i ll h b fill d i h i f i hintersecting cells that can be filled with information thatdescribes the demonstrated relationship between the itemslocated in the row and column.

• Prioritization matrices, which provide a way of ranking adiverse set of problems and/or issues (usually generatedthrough brainstorming) by their importancethrough brainstorming) by their importance.

8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.1 Quality Management Plan:

The quality management plan describes how the projectmanagement team will implement the performing organization'sg p p g gquality policy.lt is a component or a subsidiary plan of the project managementplan (Section 4.2.3.1).h l l d h llThe quality management plan provides input to the overall projectmanagement plan and includes quality control, quality assurance,and continuous process improvement approaches for the project.The quality management plan may be formal or informal highlyThe quality management plan may be formal or informal, highlydetailed, or broadly framed.The style and detail is determined by the requirements of theproject. The quality management plan should be reviewed early inp j q y g p ythe project to ensure that decisions are based on accurateinformation.The benefits of this review can include reduction of cost andh d l d b kschedule overruns caused by rework.

8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.2 Quality Metrics:

A quality metric is an operational definition that describes, invery specific terms a project or product attribute and howvery specific terms, a project or product attribute and howthe quality control process will measure it.A measurement is an actual value. The tolerance defines theallowable variations on the metrics. For example, a metricrelated to the quality objective of staying within the approvedbudget by + ‐ '10% could be to measure the cost of everydeliverable and determine the percent variance from theapproved budget for that deliverable.Quality metrics are used in the quality assurance and qualityQ y q y q ycontrol processes. Some examples of quality metrics includeon‐time performance, budget control, defect frequency,failure rate, availability, reliability, and test coverage., y, y, g

8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs

.3 Quality Checklists:A checklist is a structured tool, usually component‐specific,used to verify that a set of required steps has beenperformed.Checklists range from simple to complex based on projectChecklists range from simple to complex based on projectrequirements and practices. Many organizations havestandardized checklists available to ensure consistency inf l f d kfrequently performed tasks.ln some application areas, checklists are also available fromprofessional associations or commercial service providers.professional associations or commercial service providers.Quality checklists are used in the quality control process.

8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs.4 Process lmprovement Plan

The process improvement plan is a subsidiary of the projectmanagement plan (Section 4 2 3 1)management plan (Section 4.2.3.1).The process improvement plan details the steps for analyzingprocesses to identify activities which enhance their value.Areas to consider include:Areas to consider include:• Process boundaries. Describes the purpose of processes, theirstart and end, their inputs/outputs, the data required, the owner,and the stakeholdersand the stakeholders.

• Process configuration. A graphic depiction of processes, withinterfaces identified, used to facilitate analysis.P i Al i h l li i ll l i f• Process metrics. Along with control limits, allows analysis ofprocess efficiency.

• Targets for improved performance. Guides the processi t ti itiimprovement activities.

8.1.3 Plan Quality: 0utputs

.5  Project Document Updates:Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:• Stakeholder register, andR ibilit A i t M t i (S ti 9 1 2 1)• Responsibility Assignment Matrix (Section 9.1 .2.1).

8.2 Perform Quality Assurance

Perform Quality Assurance is the process of auditing the qualityrequirements and the results from quality control measurementst i t lit t d d d ti lto ensure appropriate quality standards and operationaldefinitions are used. See Figures 8‐8 and 8‐9.Perform Quality Assurance is an execution process that uses dataQ y pPerform 0uality Assurance also provides an umbrella forcontinuous process improvement, which is an iterative means fori i h li f llimproving the quality of all processes.Continuous process improvement reduces waste and eliminatesactivities that do not add value. This allows processes to operateactivities that do not add value. This allows processes to operateat increased levels of efficiency and effectiveness.

8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: lnputs

.1 Project Management Plan:The project management plan described in Section 4.2.3.1contains the following information that is used to assurequality:• Quality management plan The quality management plan• Quality management plan. The quality management plandescribes how quality assurance will be performed withinthe project.

• Process improvement plan. The process improvement plandetails the steps for analyzing processes to identify activitieswhich enhance their value.which enhance their value.

.2 Quality Metrics:Described in Section 8.1.3.2,

8.2.1 Perform Quality Assurance: lnputs.3 Work Performance lnformation:

Performance information from project activities is routinelycollected as the project progresses, Performance results which mayp j p g , ysupport the audit process include, but are not limited to:• Technical performance measures,• Project deliverables status,• Schedule progress, and• Costs incurred.

.4 Quality Control Measurements:Quality control measurements are the results of quality controlactivities. They are used to analyze and evaluate the qualityy y q ystandards and processes of the performing organization(Section 8.3.3.1).

8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques

.1  Plan Quality and Perform Quality Control Tools and Techniques:Tools and techniques from PIan Quality and Perform Quality Control, are discussed in Section 8.1 .2.Section 8‐3 2 can also be used for quality assurance activitiesSection 8‐3.2 can also be used for quality assurance activities.

8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques.2 Quality Audits:

A quality audit is a structured, independent review to determinewhether project activities comply with 0rganizational and projectwhether project activities comply with 0rganizational and projectpolicies, processes, and procedures. The objectives of a quality auditare:• ldentify all the good/best practices being implemented,• ldentify all the gaps/shortcomings,

Sh th d ti i t d d i l t d i i il• Share the good practices introduced or implemented in similarprojects in the 0rganization and/or industry,

8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques

• Proactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improveimplementation of processes to help the team raiseproductivity andproductivity, and

• Highlight contributions 0f each audit in the lessons learnedrepository of the organization,

The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies shouldresult in a reduced cost of quality and an increase in sponsoror customer acceptance of the project's product.p p j pQuality audits may be scheduled or random and may beconducted by internal or external auditors. Quality audits canconfirm the implementation of approved change requestsconfirm the implementation of approved change requestsincluding corrective actions, defect repairs, and preventiveactions.

8.2.2 Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques

.3 Process Analysis:Process analysis follows the steps outlined in the processimprovement plan to identity needed improvements. Thisanalysis also examines problems experienced, constraintsexperienced, and non‐value‐added activities identified duringp , gprocess operation.Process analysis includes root cause analysis ‐ a specific

h i id if bl di h d l itechnique to identify a problem, discover the underlyingcauses that lead to it, and develop preventive actions.

8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: 0utputs

.1 0rganizational Process Assets Updates:Elements of the organizational process assets that may beupdated include, but are not limited to, the quality standards.

2 Change Requests.2 Change Requests:Quality improvement includes taking action to increase theeffectiveness and/or efficiency of the policies, processes, and/ y p , p ,procedures of the performing organization.Change requests are created and used as input into theP f l t t d Ch C t l (S ti 4 5) tPerform lntegrated Change Control (Section 4.5) process toallow full consideration of the recommended improvements.Change requests can be used to take corrective action orpreventive action or to perform defect repair.

8.2.3 Perform Quality Assurance: 0utputs

.3 Project Management Plan UpdatesElements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to• Quality management plan,• Sched le management plan and• Schedule management plan, and• Cost management plan.

.4 Project Document Updates:.4 Project Document Updates:Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:• Quality audits reports,• Training plans, and• Process documentation.

8.3 Perform Quality Control

Perform Quality Control is the process of monitoring andrecording results of executing the quality activities to assess

f d d hperformance and recommend necessary changes.Quality control is performed throughout the project. Qualitystandards include project processes and product goals.p j p p gProject results include deliverables and project managementresults, such as cost and schedule performance.Quality control is often performed by a quality controldepartment or similarly titled organizational unit.Quality control activities identify causes of poor process orQuality control activities identify causes of poor process orproduct quality and recommend and/or take action to eliminatethem. See Figures 8‐ 10 and 8‐1 1.

8.3 Perform Quality Control

The project management team should have a workingknowledge of statistical quality control, especially sampling and

b bilit t h l l t lit t l t tprobability, to help evaluate quality control outputs.Among other subjects, the team may find it useful to know thedifferences between the following pairs of terms:g p• Prevention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection(keeping errors out of the hands of the customer.

• Attribute sampling (the result either conforms or does notc0nform) and variables sampling (the result is rated on acontinuous scale that measures the degree of conformity).continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity).

• Tolerances (specified range of acceptable results) and controllimits (thresholds, which can indicate whether the process is

f l)out of control).

8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs

.1 Project Management Plan:The project management plan described in Section 4.2.3.1contains the quality management plan, which is used tocontrol quality.The quality management plan describes how quality controlThe quality management plan describes how quality controlwill be performed within the project.

.2 Quality Metrics:Q yDescribed in Section 8.1.3.2

.3 Quality Checklists:Described in Section 8.1 .3.3

8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs.4 Work Performance Measurements:

Work performance measurements are used to produce projectactivity metrics to evaluate actual progress as compared to plannedy p g p pprogress.These metrics include, but are not limited to:• Planned vs. actual technical performance,• Planned vs. actual schedule performance, and• Planned vs. actual cost performance

.5 Approved Change Requests:As part of the Perform lntegrated Change Control process a changecontrol status update will indicate that some changes are approvedp g ppand some are not. Approved change requests can includemodifications such as defect repairs, revised work methods andrevised schedule. The timely implementation of approved changesneeds to be verifiedneeds to be verified.

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques

The first seven of these tools and techniques are known aslshikawa's seven basic tools of quality:.1 Cause and Effect Diagrams

Cause and effect diagrams, also called lshikawa diagrams orfishbone diagrams ill strate ho ario s factors might befishbone diagrams, illustrate how various factors might belinked to potential problems or effects. Figures 8‐1 2 and 8‐13are examples of cause and effect diagrams. A possible rootcause can be uncovered by continuing to ask "why“ or "how"along one of the Iines."Why Why" and "How How" diagrams may be used in rootWhy‐Why and How‐How diagrams may be used in rootcause analysis. Cause and effect diagrams are also used in riskanalysis (Section 11.2.2.5).

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.2 Control Charts:

Control charts are described in Section 8.1.2.3. ln this process,th i t d t i ll t d d l d t i di t ththe appropriate data is collected and analyzed to indicate thequality status of project processes and products.Control charts illustrate how a process behaves over time andpwhen a process is subject to special cause variation, resultingin an out‐of‐control condition.Th hi ll h i "l hi iThey graphically answer the question: "ls this process variancewithin acceptable limits?"The pattern of data points on a control chart may revealThe pattern of data points on a control chart may revealrandom fluctuating values, sudden process jumps, or agradual trend in increased variation.

Control chartsRule of seven (non random data points)

Upper control limitNormal and expected variationUsually 3 or 6 sigma

Rule of seven (non random data points)Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Lower control limit

Normal distribution curve

Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Specification limit: is point determines by customer, not calculated based on control chartbased on control chart

The Seven Run RuleThe Seven Run Rule

• You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for patterns in data

• The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for nonrandom problems

Figure 8‐3: Sample Quality Control Chart

68Information Technology Project Management, Fifth Edition, Copyright 2007

8.3.1 Perform Quality Control: lnputs

.6 Deliverables:Described in Section 4.3.3.1

.7 0rganizational Process Assets:The organizational process assets that can influence thePerform Quality Control process include, but are not limitedto:• Quality standards and policies.• Standard work guidelines, and• lssue and defect reporting procedures and communication

policies.

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques

By monitoring the output of a process over time, a control chart canhelp assess whether the application of process changes resulted inth d i d i tthe desired improvements.When a process is within acceptable limits it is in control and doesnot need to be adjusted.not need to be adjusted.Conversely, when a process is outside acceptable limits, the processshould be adjusted.Seven consecutive points outside the upper or lower control limitsindicate a process that is out of control. The upper control limit andlower control limit are usually set at +-3 sigma where sigma is onelower control limit are usually set at 3 sigma where sigma is onestandard deviation.

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.3 Flowcharting:

Described in Section 8.1 .2.7, flowcharting is used during PerformQuality Control to determine a failing process step(s) and identifyQuality Control to determine a failing process step(s) and identifypotential process improvement opportunities. Flowcharting is alsoused in risk analysis (Section 11.2.2.5).

4 Hi.4 Histogram:A histogram is a vertical bar chart showing how often a particularvariable state occurred. Each column represents an attribute 0rcharacteristic of a problem/situation.The height of each column represents the relative frequency of thecharacteristic. This tool helps illustrates the most common cause ofcharacteristic. This tool helps illustrates the most common cause ofproblems in a process by the number and relative heights of thebars. Figure 8‐14 is an example of an unordered histogram showingcauses of late time entry by a project teamcauses of late time entry by a project team.

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.5 Pareto Chart:

A Pareto chart, also refined to as a Pareto diagram, is aspecific type of histogram ordered by frequency ofspecific type of histogram, ordered by frequency ofoccurrence. lt shows how many defects were generated bytype or category of identified cause (Figure B‐1 5).Rank ordering is used to focus corrective action. The projectteam should address the causes creating the greatest numberof defects firstof defects first.Pareto diagrams are conceptually related to Pareto's Law,which holds that a relatively small number of causes willtypically produce a majority of the problems or defects. This iscommonly referred to as the 80/20 principle, where B0% ofthe problems are due to 2070 of the causes. Pareto diagramsp gcan be used to summarize various types of data for 80/20analyses,

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques.6 Run Chart:

Similar to a control chart without displayed limits, a run chartshows the history and pattern of variationshows the history and pattern of variation.A run chart is a ljne graph that shows data points pl0tted inthe order in which they occur.Run charts show trends in a process over time, variation overtime, or declines or improvements in a process over time.Trend analysis is performed using run charts and involvesTrend analysis is performed using run charts and involvesmathematical techniques to forecast future outcomes basedon historical results. Trend analysis is often used to monitor:• Technical performance. How many errors or defects havebeen identified, and how many remain uncorrected?

• Cost and schedule performance How many activities per• Cost and schedule performance. How many activities perperiod were completed with significant variances?

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques

.7 Scatter Diagram:A scatter diagram (Figure 8‐16) shows the relationshipbetween two variables. This tool allows the quality team tostudy and identify the possible relationship between changesobserved in two variables.Dependent variables versus independent variables areplotted. The closer the points are to a diagonal line, the morel l h l dclosely they are related.Figure 8‐16 shows the correlation between the timecardsubmission date and the number of days traveling per month.submission date and the number of days traveling per month.

.8 Statistical Sampling:Described in Section 8.1.2.6. Samples are selected and testedas defined in the quality plan.

8.3.2 Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques

.9 lnspection:An inspection is the examination of a work product todetermine whether it conforms to documented standards.The results of an inspection generally include measurementsand may be conducted at any level. For example, the resultsy y p ,of a single activity can be inspected, or the final product ofthe project can be inspected. lnspections may be calledreviews peer reviews audits or walkthroughsreviews, peer reviews, audits, or walkthroughs.ln some application areas, these terms have narrow andspecific meanings. Inspections are also used to validate defectrepairs.

.10 Approved Change Requests Review:ll d h h ld b d fAll approved change requests should be reviewed to verify

that they were implemented as approved

8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs

.1 Quality Control Measurements:Quality control measurements are the documented results ofquality control activities in the format specified during qualityplanning.

2 Validated Changes:.2 Validated Changes:Any changed or repaired items are inspected and will beeither accepted or rejected before notification of the decisionis provided. Rejected items may require rework.

.3 Validated Deliverables:A l f lit t l i t d t i th t fA goal of quality control is to determine the correctness ofdeliverables‐ The results of the execution quality controlprocesses are validated deliverables. Validated deliverablesare an input to Verify Scope for formalized acceptance.

8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs

.4 Organizational Process Assets Updates:Elements of the 0rganizational process assets that may beupdated include, but are not limited to:• Completed checklists. When checklists are used, the

completed checklists become part of the project's recordscompleted checklists become part of the project s records• Lessons learned documentation. The causes of variances,

the reasoning behind the corrective action chosen, andother types of lessons learned from quality control aredocumented so they become part of the historicaldatabase for both the project and the performingdatabase for both the project and the performingorganization. Lessons learned are documented throughoutthe project life cycle, but at a minimum, during projectclosureclosure.

8.3.3 Perform Quality Control: Outputs.5 Change Requests:

lf the recommended corrective or preventive actions or ad f t i i h t th j t tdefect repair requires a change to the project managementplan, a change request (Section 4.4.3.1)should be initiated inaccordance with the defined Perform lntegrated ChangeControl (4.5) process.

.6 Project Management Plan Updates:El 0f h j l h bElements 0f the project management plan that may beupdated include, but are not limited to:• Quality management plan, andQuality management plan, and• Process improvement plan.

.7 Project Document Updates:Project documents that may be updated include, but are notlimited to, quality standards.

Important Terms• Mutual Exclusive: if two events cannot both occur in a single trial• Probability: something will occur

• Normal Distribution: common probability density distribution chart 

S i i l i d d• Statistical independence: the probability of one event occurring does not affect the probability of another event occurring

• Standard deviation (or Sigma): h f f• Standard deviation (or Sigma): how far you are from the mean

• 3 or 6 sigma3 or 6 sigma– Represent the level of quality has decided to try to achieve– 6σ is higher quality standard than 3σ

Used to calculate the upper and lower control limits in a control chart– Used to calculate the upper and lower control limits in a control chart

Important Terms

Number of σ Percentage of occurrences between two control limits

1 68.26%

2 95.64%

3 99.73%

6 99.99985%

Who’s Responsible for the QualityWho s Responsible for the Quality of Projects?

• Project managers are ultimately responsible for quality management on their projects

• Several organizations and references can help project managers and their teams understand qualitya age s a d t e tea s u de sta d qua ty

– International Organization for Standardization (www.iso.org)

– IEEE (www.ieee.org)

Six SigmaSix Sigma

• Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible• Six Sigma is  a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success Six Sigma ismaximizing business success. Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs disciplined use of facts datacustomer needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing improving and reinventing businessmanaging, improving, and reinventing business processes.”*

*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, ThegSix Sigma Way, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi.

Basic Information on Six SigmaBasic Information on Six Sigma

• The target for perfection is the achievement of g pno more than 3.4 defects per million opportunitiespp

• The principles can apply to a wide variety of p p pp y yprocesses

• Six Sigma projects normally follow a five‐phase improvement process called DMAICp p

DMAICDMAIC• DMAIC is a systematic, closed‐loop process for continued improvement that is 

scientific and fact based• DMAIC stands for:

– Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and customer requirements

– Measure: Define measures, then collect, compile, and display data– Analyze: Scrutinize process details to find improvement opportunities– Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problemImprove: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem– Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and the 

predictability of the solution

Figure 8‐9: Normal Distribution and gStandard Deviation

89

Table 8 3: Sigma Conversion TableTable 8‐3: Sigma Conversion Table

90

ISO StandardsISO Standards• ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that:

– Is a three‐part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling, and documenting quality in an organization

– Provides minimum requirements needed for an organization to meet its quality certification standards

– Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and improve customer satisfaction

• See www.iso.org for more information

For more information do not hesitate to contact me.

Ahmad H. Maharma ‐ PMP®

• Ramallah, Palestine • Phone: + (972) (2) 2968644• Mobile: + (972) (599) 001155

E‐Mail: ahmad.maharma@gmail.com