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1 Bark and Extractives

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Bark andExtractives

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Bark is the outermost layers of branches, stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs.*Amount: Branches > Roots > Stem

Bark: Introduction

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Outer bark Cork (PHELLEM) Cork cambium (PHELLOGEN) Secondary cortex (PHELLODERM)

Structure

Periderm

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Cork cells (phellem) Cells  pushed  from  the  cork  cambium  to  the  outside.  Generally  have 

layering  of  suberin  in  their  walls,  and  thereby  become  cork  cells (phellem).

Suberin,  often  composed  of  suberic  acid  and  phellonic  acid,  is  a  fatty and waxy substance, which makes the cells mostly impervious to water and unable to exchange gases and nutrients, hence these cells soon die and entrap air.

Phelloderm Cells pushed from the cork cambium to the inside are called phelloderm Can remain alive because they have unthickened and unspecialized cell 

walls and, hence, can exchange gases and obtain nutrients.

Lenticels Permit  the exchange  of  gases  between  the outer  atmosphere  and  the 

internal tissue of the stem. Occur in most woody trees.

Outer Bark

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Sieve  elements  Companion cells  Phloem parenchyma  Phloem fiber

Inner Bark

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Sieve elements Sieve elements are the conducting elements of the phloem. They 

have thick primary walls. Contain sieve plate. The sieve elements are arranged one above the other and  form 

vertical sieve tubes.

Inner Bark (cont’d)

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Companion cells The  thin-walled,  elongated,  specialized  parenchyma  cells,  which  are 

associated with the sieve elements, are called companion cells. They assist the sieve tubes in the conduction of food materials.

Phloem parenchyma The  parenchyma  cells  associated  with  the  phloem  are  called  phloem 

parenchyma. These are living cells.  They store starch and fats.  in some plants they also contain resins and tannins.

Phloem fibres The fibres of sclerenchyma associated with phloem are called phloem fibres 

or bast fibres.  They are narrow, vertically elongated cells with very thick walls and a small 

lumen. Among the four kinds of phloem elements, phloem fibres are the only dead 

tissue and are the strengthening and supporting cells.

Inner Bark (cont’d)

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The lignin content of bark is much higher than that of wood, and the polysaccharide or sugar content is correspondingly lower.

The  extractive-free  cellulose  portion  of  bark  is  only  20-35%, compared to 40-45% for wood.

The ash content of bark is usually higher than that of wood.  Extractive  content  of  bark  is  higher  compared  to  wood, 

commonly  amounting  to  15-26%  of  unextracted  bark  weight compared to 2-9% for wood.

Bark extractives include various starches, resins, and waxes.   A major portion of the extractable chemicals, one-fourth to one-

half by weight, is tannic acid. Bark extract is usually more highly acidic than extract from wood 

of the same species. 

Bark: Chemical Composition

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1. Transport: through sieve elements2. Growth3. Biomechanical support:  provide  rigidity  and  flexibility  is  to 

upright tree stem4. Defense: against both biotic and abiotic stress5. Storage: store carbohydrates, fats, oils, latex, and resins 

Bark: Functions

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Bark volume determination processDobie and Wright’s formula (Dobie and Wright 1975) for calculating bark volume

Here, DOB = diameter measured outside the bark DIB = diameter measured inside the bark.

We used DOB and DIB measurements that were averages of the midpoint and small and large end diameters.

Huber’s equation for log volume calculation Volume = L x A Smalian’s equation for log volume calculation Volume = {( A1+ A2) /2 } x L

Here, A1 = cross sectional areas of the large end  A2 = cross sectional areas of the large end , L = Length.

We still have to determine total log volume by one of the stated methods.

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Bark Wood relationship

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Bark: Different Uses

Backpack made of birch bark Bark of pine was used as emergency food in Finland during famine

Made from the bark of birch bark

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Trees  contain  some  compounds  known  as  extractives  in  very limited amounts but still affect the wood properties greatly and serve a variety of functions including:

Protection (from insects, animals, and rot). Attractants (flowers, fruits) Food storage Membranes  Enzymes

Extractives add significant properties to wood:• Color• Odor• Density

Extractives: Introduction

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For protection Terpenes Resin Acids Flavonoids Lignans Stilbenes Tannins Phenolics and others

For other functions Fats and fatty acids Proteins Flavonoids  Sterols

Types

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Softwoods:- Resin acids: 40-45% of extractives- Fatty acids: 40-60%- Monoterpenes (turpentine)- Phenolics

Hardwoods:- No resin acids or monoterpenes- Fatty acids: 60-90%- Phenolics

Content

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Most  extractives  are  located  in  resin  canals, gum ducts  and/or parenchyma cells

High extractives content in heartwood of pine Extractives level decreases higher up in the tree The general composition of  the extractives varies over  the stem cross 

section of wood 20-40 % extractives in bark

Distribution

Vertical resin canal Horizontal resin canal

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The fragrance of softwood trees are typically from a class of chemicals named terpenes, hydrocarbon derivatives of isoprene.

Over 4000 have been identified in trees. Terpene: Hydrocarbons Terpenoid: Contains oxygen containing functional group.

Terpenes/Terpenoids

Prefix # C-atoms # Isoprene units Occurence

Mono 10 2 Softwood oleoresin

Sesqui 15 3 Hardwood resin

Di 20 4 Resin acids

Tri 30 6 In many plants

Poly >40 >8 Leaves

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Terpenes/Terpenoids (cont’d)

Monoterpenes 2 * 5C

Isoprene1 * 5C

Sesquiterpenes 3 * 5C

Diterpenes 4 * 5C Triterpenes

6 * 5C

Resin Acids

• Mainly carboxylic derivates of neutral tricyclic diterpenoids

• Classified in pimarane and abietane acids

• One lipophilic and one hydrophilic end

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Found  in  the heartwood of most  tress.  Found  in  large amounts  in bark and roots. Green tea can contain up to 30% flavonoids.

o Protectiono Colorationo Higher flavonoid content in diet reduces the chance of:

Heart Disease Stroke Cancer: all types

Flavonoids

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Lignans: Lignans are phytoestrogens. Widely distributed in softwoods and 

hardwoods  (typically  amount:  <  1%  of  heartwood  but  can  be upto 30%).

Greatly responsible for coloration of heartwood.  Many  lignans  have  fungicidal,  insecticidal,  and  antioxidant 

properties.

Tannins: Protection of plants against insects/animals

Bad Taste (bitter taste) Toxic to bacteria Uses of condensed tannins

Leather tanning:  10,000+ year old industry Adhesives

Lignans and Tannins

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Variety of aromatic compounds Aromatic odor

Balsam odor Foliage, bark, fruits

Sometimes in heartwood Typically in small amounts (1%<)

Phenolics

OHOCH3

CHO

Vanillin

OCH3

OH

CH2 CH CH2

Eugenol(Oil of Clove)

OCH3

OHCH3O

CH2 CH CH2

Elemicn

OO CH2

CH3O

CH2 CH CH2

Myristicin(Extracted fron Nutmeg)

OCH3

OCH3

CHO

Veratraldehyde(Smells like vanilla)

OH

COOH

Salicylic Acid(asprin - close)

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Similar  structures  in  all  plants.    What  varies  is  the  fatty  acids attached  to  the  glycerol  and  the percentage of  tri,  di,  and mono-glycerides.

There are high levels of fats in seeds Corn and soybeans contain 10-20% oils. Canola and sunflower contain up almost 50% oils. Nuts 50-70% oils.

Fats are found in living cells – parenchyma. Functions

Serves as a storage material. The amount of fat in the tree is seasonally dependent.

Fats and Oils

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Waxes Water resistant protective coatings of leaves, fruits, & trees.

Minor wood component 0.08-0.09% Much higher percentage in foliage, fruits and some barks.

Physical Properties Soluble in organic solvents.  Water insoluble Melting/Boiling point: like candles

b Carotene found in dark green and orange yellow      vegetables. In the human body, it is converted to vitamin A. Has been shown to be have many health related benefits.

Waxes and b Carotene

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Highly colored compounds Anthraquinone

Found in Teak Used as pulping catalyst

Naphthaquinones Used as UV absorbers Used in polymer products

Benzoquinones

Coumarin Chemical which has the aroma of fresh mowed hay (or vanilla)

Proteins & Amino acids Plant contain small amounts (~0.5%) of proteins. Chlorophyll (structure)

Others

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Pitch Consists of about 50/50 terpenes and resin acids. When a softwood tree is wounded, it releases pitch to “seal” the 

wound Terpenes serve as the antiseptic and then evaporate. Resin acids serve as the bandage.

Rosin The  term  rosin  refers  to  a  mixture  of  resin  acids  produced 

through the distillation of pitch. Gum rosin: distillation of gum resins (wood). Tall oil rosin: pine oil rosin,  produced during kraft pulping. Wood rosin: Distillation of old stumps.

Others (cont’d)

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ExtractionExtraction TechniqueSteam Distillation ®

ProductsTerpenesPhenolsHydrocarbonsLignans

Ether Extraction ® Fats/WaxesResin AcidsSterols

Alcohol Extraction® FlavonoidsPhlobaphenesTanninsStilbenes

Water Extraction ® CarbohydratesProtein/AlkaloidsInorganics

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