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I. About the Philippines Bodies of Water

 The Philippines boast of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as

bays, rivers, lakes falls, gulfs, straits, and swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the country's coastline, if laid end-to-end, would measure around17.5 thousand kilometers. The Philippines is blessed with excellent naturalharbors for ports like Manila Bay. Other excellent harbors with port potentialsare found in Ilocos, Pangasinan, Visayas, and Mindanao. The three largestrivers in the country are the Cagayan River in Northern Luzon, the RioGrande de Mindanao, and the Agusan River, also in Mindanao. Alsonoteworthy in terms of size are the Agno, Pasig, Angat Pampanga, and Bicolrivers in Luzon. Most popular among tourist is the famous underground riverin Palawan. Aside from rivers, the country also abounds with lakes. Easily themost famous is the heart-shaped Laguna de Bay. Other famous lakes are

 Taal in Batangas, Sampaloc in Laguna, Buhi and Bulusan in Bicol, Naujan inMindoro oriental, and Lanao and Mainit in Mindanao. Generating power forthe Nation’s growth are the magnificent waterfalls that serve as touristattractions, as well. The biggest is waterfalls is the Maria Cristina falls, it canbe found in the North Western part of Lanao province in Mindanao, while themost popular is Pagsanjan falls in Laguna, where tourist came in droves. Natural Resources The Philippines is rich in natural resources. It hasfertile, arable lands, diverse flora and fauna,extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits.

 Our Land  The Philippines’ primary source of livelihood is itsfertile land. Rich, wide plains suitable for farming arefound in the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, Southwestern Bicol, Panay, Negros, Davao, Cotabato,Agusan and Bukidnon. The country ‘s six major cropsare rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca andtobacco. Except for rice and corn, all these productsare exported, along with bananas and pineapples. 

Our Forests The Philippines also boasts of wide tracts of lush,green forests. In fact, almost half of the country’stotal land area is forested. Sixty percent of these forests are found inMindanao. Mineral resources 

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Except for petroleum and a number of metals, mineral resources abound inPhilippine soil. The country’s mineral deposits can be classified into metalsand non-metals. Our metal deposits are estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons,while non-metal deposits are projected at 19.3 billion metric tons. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size, it is found in Surigao del Norte,

Davao, Palawan, Romblon and Samar. Iron is found in Ilocos Norte, NuevaEcija, Camarines Norte and Cotabato. While copper in Zambales, Batangas,Mindoro, Panay and Negros. Among non-metal deposits, the most abundantare cement, lime, and marble. Other non-metals include asbestos, clay,guano, asphalt, feldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon, phosphate, and marble. Fishery ResourcesWith its territorial waters measuring as much as 1.67 million squarekilometers and located in the worlds fishing center, the Philippines isdefinitely rich in marine resources. Of the 2,400 fish species found in thecountry. 65 have good commercial value. Other marine products include

corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds. Some of the countries best salt waterfishing area’s are found in Sintangki Island in Sulu Estancia in Bohol,Malampaya in Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan, San Miguel lake inCamarines Norte, Bantayan Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon andSorsogon. On the other hand, among our biggest fisher water fishing areas are Lagunade Bay, Bombon Lake in Batangas, Bato Lake in Canmarines Sur, NaujanLake in Mindoro and Mainit lake in Agusan del Norte. Continue to Early Filipinos

II. The First “Filipinos” 

Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of thePhilippine islands emerged during the Pleistocene period. There are twotheories on where the inhabitants (first Filipinos) came from namely: Beyer’s“Migration Theory” and Jocano’s “Evolution Theory”. Noted social scientistHenry Otley Beyer believes that Filipinos descended from different groupsthat came from Southeast Asia in successive waves of migration. Each grouphad a distinct culture, with it’s own customs and traditions. While Jocanobelieves that Asians, including Filipinos are the result of a lengthy process of 

evolution and migration. Migration Theory  The first migrants were what Beyer caked the “Dawnmen” (or “cavemen”because they lived in caves.). The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, PekingMan, and other Asian Home sapiens who existed about 250,000 years ago. They did not have any knowledge of agriculture, and lived by hunting and

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fishing. It was precisely in search of food that they came to the Philippines byway of the land bridges that connected the Philippines and Indonesia. Owingperhaps to their migratory nature, they eventually left the Philippines fordestinations unknown. 

 The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called“Aetas’ or “Negritoes”. About 30,000 years ago, theycrossed the land bridged from Malaya, Borneo, andAustralia until they reached Palawan, Mindoro andMindanao. They were pygmies who went aroundpractically naked and were good at hunting, fishing andfood gathering. They used spears and small flint stonesweapons.  The Aetas were already in the Philippines when the landbridges disappeared due to the thinning of the ice glaciers

and the subsequent increase in seawater level. Thisnatural events “forced” them to remain in the country andbecome its first permanent inhabitants.

 Because of the disappearance of the land bridges, the third wave of migrantswas necessarily skilled in seafaring. These were the Indonesians, who cameto the islands in boats. They were more advanced than the Aetas in that:they had tools made out of stone and steel, which enabled them to buildsturdier houses: they engaged in farming and mining, and used materialsmade of brass; they wore clothing and other body ornaments. 

Last to migrate to the Philippines, according to Beyer, were Malays. Theywere believed to have come from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the MalayPeninsula more than 2,000 years ago. Like the Indonesians, they alsotraveled in boats.  The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight blackhair and flat noses. Their technology was said to be more advanced than thatof their predecessors. They engaged in pottery, weaving, jewelry making andmetal smelting, and introduced the irrigation system in rice planting.  Jocano’s Theory

 Renowned Filipino anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano disputes Beyer’s belief that Filipinos descended from Negritoes and Malays who migrated to thePhilippines thousands of years ago. According to Jocano, it is difficult toprove that Negritoes were the first inhabitants of this country. The only thingthat can positively concluded from fossil evidence, he says is that the firstmen who came to the Philippines also went to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, andAustralia.

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 In 1962, a skullcap and a portion of a jaw-presumed to be a human origin-were found in the Tabon Caves of Palawan by archaeologist Robert Fox andManuel Santiago, who both worked for the National Museum. Carbon datingplaced their age at 21,000 to 22,000 years. This proves, Jocano argues, that

man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay Peninsula; therefore,the first inhabitants of our islands could not have come from the region. The“Tabon Man” is said to resemble Java Man and Peking Man. He gatheredfruits, leaves and plants for his food. He hunted with weapons made of stone.Although further research is still being done on his life and culture, evidenceshows that he was already capable of using his brain in order to survive andkeep himself safe. Instead of the Migration Theory, Jocano advances the Evolution Theory, as abetter explanation of how our country was first inhabited by human beings, Jocano believes that the first people of Southeast Asia were products of a

long process of evolution and migration. His research indicates that theyshared more or less the same culture, beliefs, practices an even similar toolsand implements. These people eventually went their separate ways; somemigrated to the Philippines, the others to New Guinea, Java and Borneo.Proof, Jocano says, can be found in the fossils discovered in different parts of Southeast Asia, as well as the recorded migrations of other peoples from theAsian mainland when history began to unfold.

III. Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish crown, waslooking for a westward route to the to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. OnMarch 16, 1521, Magellan's expedition landed on Homonhon island in thePhilippines. He was the first European to reach the islands. Rajah Humabonof Cebu was friendly with Magellan and embraced Christianity, but theirenemy, Lapu-Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan to kill Lapu-Lapuwhile Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into Christianity. On April 17,1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and ensuing battle killed Magellan by thenatives lead by Lapu-Lapu. Out of the five ships and more than 300 men who

left on the Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the Victoria) and 18men returned to Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522. Nevertheless, the saidexpedition was considered historic because it marked the firstcircumnavigation of the globe and proved that the world was round.

 Juan Sebastian de Elcano, the master of ship "Concepcion" took over thecommand of the expedition after the death of Magellan and captained theship "Victoria" back to Spain. He and his men earned the distinction of being

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the first to circumnavigate the world in one full journey. After Magellan'sdeath in Cebu, it took 16 more months for Elcano to return to Spain. TheMagellan expedition started off through the westward route and returning toSpain by going east; Magellan and Elcano's entire voyage took almost threeyears to complete.

Spain sends other expedition

After the Spain had celebrated Elcano’s return, King Charles I decided thatSpain should conquer the Philippines. Five subsequent expeditions were thensent to the Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre Loaisa (1525), SebastianCabot (1526), Alvaro de Saavedra (1527), Rudy Lopez de Villalobos (1542)and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564). Only the last two actually reached thePhilippines; and only Legazpi succeeded in colonizing the Islands.

The Villalobos Expedition

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico onNovember 1, 1542. He followed the route taken by Magellan and reachedMindanao on February 2, 1543. He established a colony in Sarangani butcould not stay long because of insufficient food supply. His fleet left theisland and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas, where they were captured bythe Portuguese.

Villalobos is remembered for naming our country “Islas Filipinas,” in honor of King Charles’ son, Prince Philip, who later became king of Spain.

The Legazpi Expedition

Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisato Villalobos had succeeded in taking over thePhilippines, King Charles I stopped sending colonizers tothe Islands. However, when Philip II succeeded hisfather to the throne in 1556, he instructed Luis deVelasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to prepare a newexpedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi,who would be accompanied by Andres de Urdaneta, a priest who hadsurvived the Loaisa mission.

On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After ashort struggle with the natives, he proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin andto Bohol. There Legaspi made a blood compact with the chieftain, DatuSikatuna as a sign of friendship. Legaspi was able to obtain spices and goldin Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna. On April 27, 1565, Legaspireturned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and establish asettlement. On orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from Mexico.

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 They built the the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanishtrading outpost and stronghold for the region.

Hearing of the riches of Manila, an expedition of 300 men headed by Martinde Goiti left Cebu for Manila. They found the islands of Panay and Mindoro.

Goiti arrived in Manila on May 8, 1570. At first they were welcomed by thenatives and formed an alliance with Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but asthe locals sensed the true objectives of the Spaniards, a battle between thetroops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because the Spaniards aremore heavily armed, the Spaniards were able to conquer Manila. Soon afterMiguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi built alliancesand made peace with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571,Legaspi ordered the construction of the walled city of Intramuros andproclaimed it as the seat of government of the colony and the capital of theislands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin Church inIntramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal

Ciudad de España" (Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King PhilipII of Spain.

Why the Philippines was easily conquered

 Through largely outnumbered, the Spaniards who came to colonize thePhilippines easily took control of our country. How did this happen?  The best possible explanation is that the natives lacked unity and acentralized form of government. Although the barangays already functionedas units of governance, each one existed independently of the other, and the

powers that each Datu enjoyed were confined only to his own barangay. Nohigher institution united the barangays, and the Spaniards took advantage of this situation. They used the barangays that were friendly to them in order tosubdue the barangays that were not.

IV. The Spaniards as Colonial Masters Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from1565 to 1898. since Spain was far from the country, theSpanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy of 

Mexico, which was then another Spanish colony. WhenMexico regained its freedom in 1821, the Spanish kingruled the Philippines through a governor general. A specialgovernment body that oversaw matters, pertaining to thecolonies assisted the king in this respect. This bodybecame known by many names. Council of the Indies(1565-1837), Overseas Council (1837-1863), and Ministryof the Colonies (1863–1898). It is implemented the

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decrees and legal codes Spain promulgated although many of its provisionscould not apply to condition in the colonies. It also exercised legislative and judicial powers.

The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines thatwas composed of a national government and the local governments thatadministered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. With thecooperation of the local governments the national government maintainedpeace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works.

The Governor GeneralAs the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in thePhilippines, the governor general saw to it that royal decrees and lawsemanating from Spain were implemented in the Philippines. He had thepower to appoint and dismiss public officials, except those personally chosen

by the King. He also supervised all government offices and the collection of taxes. The governor general exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issuedproclamations to facilitate the implementation of laws.

The Residencia This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of agovernor general who was about to be replaced. The residencia, of which theincoming governor general was usually a member, submitted a report of itsfindings to the King.

The Visita The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called theVistador General to observe conditions in the colony. The Visitador Generalreported his findings directly to the King.

The Royal AudienciaApart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisorybody to the Governor General and had the power to check and a report onhis abuses. The Audiencia also audited the expenditures of the colonialgovernment and sent a yearly report to Spain. The Archbishop and othergovernment officials could also report the abuses of the colonial government

to be Spanish king. Despite all these checks, however, an abusive governorgeneral often managed to escape stiff fines, suspension, or dismissal bysimply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.

The Provincial Government The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country’sadministration. There were two types of local government units – the alcadiaand the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the

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provinces that had been fully subjugated: the corregimiento, headed bycorregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanishcontrol. The alcalde mayors represented the Spanish king and the governorgeneral in their respective provinces. They managed the day-to-dayoperations of the provincial government, implemented laws and supervised

the collection of taxes. Through they were paid a small salary, they enjoyedprivileges such as the indulto de comercio, or the right to participate in thegalleon trade.

The Municipal GovernmentEach province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed byGobernadordcillos, whose main concerns were efficient governance and taxcollection. Four lieutenants aided the Governardorcillo: the Teniente Mayor(chief lieutenant), the Teniente de Policia (police lieutenant), the Teniente deSementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the Teniente de Ganados(lieutenant of the livestock).

The Encomienda SystemSpain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi,who valiantly and loyally served the Spanish crown. To hasten thesubjugation of the country, King Philip II instructed Legazpi to divide thePhilippines into large territories called encomiendas, to be left to themanagement of designated encomenderos.  To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the firstencomenderos in the colony. As the King’s representatives in their respectiveencomiendas, the encomenderos had the right to collect taxes. However, the

encomiendas were not there to own. The encomenderos were only territorialoverseers who had the duty to: 1) protect the people in the encomienda; (2)maintain peace and order; (3) promote education and health programs; and(4) help the missionaries propagate Christianity.

V. The Galleon Trade

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors were alreadytrading with China, Japan, Siam, India, Cambodia, Borneo

and the Moluccas. The Spanish government continuedtrade relations with these countries, and the Manilabecame the center of commerce in the East. TheSpaniards closed the ports of Manila to all countriesexcept Mexico. Thus, the Manila–Acapulco Trade, betterknown as the "Galleon Trade" was born. The Galleon Trade was a government monopoly. Only two galleonswere used: One sailed from Acapulco to Manila with

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some 500,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 120 days at sea; the othersailed from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of goodsspending 90 days at sea. It also allowed modern, liberal ideas to enter the country, eventually

inspiring the movement for independence from Spain. And because theSpaniards were so engrossed in making profits from the Galleon Trade, theyhardly had any time to further exploit our natural resources. Basco’s ReformsFilipino farmers and traders finally had a taste of prosperity when GovernorGeneral Jose Basco y Vargas instituted reforms intended to free the economyfrom its dependence on Chinese and Mexican trade. Basco implemented a“general economic plan” aimed at making the Philippines self sufficient. Heestablished the “Economic Society of Friends of the Country”, which gaveincentives to farmers for planting cotton, spices, and sugarcane; encouraged

miners to extract gold, silver, tin, and copper; and rewarded investors forscientific discoveries they made. Tobacco Monopoly The tobacco industry was placed under government control during theadministration of Governor General Basco. In 1781, a tobacco monopoly wasimplemented in the Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union,Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, and Marinduque. Each of these provinces plantednothing but tobacco and sold their harvest only to the government at a pre-designated price, leaving little for the farmers. No other province wasallowed to plant tobacco. The government exported the tobacco to other

countries and also part of it to the cigarette factories in Manila.  The tobacco monopoly successfully raised revenues for the colonialgovernment and made Philippine tobacco famous all over Asia.

VI. The Secularization of Priests During Spanish Period 

The Opening of the Suez Canal

 The Suez Canal, which connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea,

was inaugurated in 1869. It was built by a French engineer namedFerdinand de Lesseps. By passing through the Canal, vessels journeyingbetween Barcelona and Manila no longer had to pass by the Cape of GoodHope, at the southern tip of Africa. Thus, they were able to shorten theirtraveling time from three months to 32 days.

 Thanks to the Suez Canal, trading in the Philippines became increasinglyprofitable. More and more foreign merchants and businessmen came to the

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colony, bringing with them a lot of progressive ideas. The Filipinos not onlygained more knowledge and information about the world at large; they alsogained the desire for freedom and improvement in their lives.

The Secularization Controversy

 Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. Thesewere the regulars and the seculars. Regular priests belonged to religiousorders. Their main task was to spread Christianity. Examples were the

Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans, andAugustinians. Secular priests did not belong to anyreligious order. They were trained specifically to runthe parishes and were under the supervision of thebishops.

Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting

the parishes that were being run by regular priests. It was their duty, theyargued, to check on the administration of these parishes. But the regularpriests refused these visits, saying that they were not under the bishop’s jurisdiction. They threatened to abandon their parishes if the bishopspersisted.

In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the diocese’sauthority over the parishes and accepted the resignations of the regularpriests. He assigned secular priests to take their place. Since there were notenough seculars to fill all the vacancies the Archbishop hastened theordination of Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also issued on November

9, 1774, which provided for the secularization of all parishes or the transferof parochial administration from the regular friars to the secular priests.

 The regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos unfitfor the priesthood. Among other reasons they cited the Filipinos’ brown skin,lack of education, and inadequate experience.

 The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to thePhilippines. They had been exiled from the country because of certainpolicies of the order that the Spanish authorities did not like.

 The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouringtheir own regular priest over Filipino priests.

Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with theFilipinos. Unfortunately, he died in an earthquake that destroyed the ManilaCathedral in 1863. After his death, other priests took his place in fighting forthe secularization movement. Among them were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora.

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VII. The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement 

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos

and Jocinto Zamora (Gomburza), all Filipino priest, wasexecuted by the Spanish colonizers on charges of subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgosand Zamora was their alleged complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of Gomburzaawakened strong feelings of anger and resentment amongthe Filipinos. They questioned Spanish authorities anddemanded reforms. The martyrdom of the three priestsapparently helped to inspire the organization of thePropaganda Movement, which aimed to seek reforms and

inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government.

  The illustrados led the Filipinos’ quest for reforms. Because of their educationand newly acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing outpopular grievances. However, since the illustrados themselves were a resultof the changes that the Spanish government had been slowly implementing,the group could not really push very hard for the reforms it wanted. Theillustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the Filipinos; butfrom this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. Theintelligentsia also wanted reforms; but they were more systematic and useda peaceful means called the Propaganda Movement. 

Goals of the Propaganda Movement Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists orreformists. They worked inside and outside the Philippines. Their objectiveswere to seek: ▪ Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain▪ Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards▪ Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes▪ Secularization of Philippine parishes.▪ Recognition of human rights

  The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independencebecause its members believed that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards would implement the changes the Filipinos wereseeking. The Propagandists 

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 The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than thosein Manila. They could be divided into three groups: The first included Filipinoswho had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicatedin the Cavite Mutiny. After two many years in the Marianas, they proceededto Madrid and Barcelona because they could no longer

return to the Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the Philippines who had been sent to Europefor their education. The third group was composed of Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishmentfor a crime, or simply because they could not standSpanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos livingin Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent members. Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces

as "Fray Botod," "Esperanza," and "La Hija del Fraile,"which all criticized the abuses of Spanish friars in thePhilippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker who put up thenewspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most popular writings included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan,"and " Ang Sampung Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was apamphlet answering the criticisms received by Jose Rizal’s novel Noli MeTangere. "Dasalan…" was parody of the prayer books used by the Church,while " Ang Sampung Kautusan…" was a satirical take on the TenCommandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars. 

 Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement.He was the first Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote apoem entitled “Sa Aking mga Kababata” when he was only eight years old.His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted thesufferings of the Filipinos and the rampant abuses committed by the friars inthe colony. Because of his criticisms of the government and the friars, Rizalmade a lot of enemies. He was executed at Bagumbayan (later renamedLuneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.  The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired AndresBonifacio and other radicals to establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine

Revolution in place.

VIII. La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina

La Liga Filipina

In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y

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Alonzo) returned to the Philippines and proposed the establishment of a civicorganization called “La Liga Filipina.” On July 3, 1892, the following wereelected as its officers: Ambrosio Salvador, president: Agustin dela Rosa,fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary. Rizalfunctioned as its adviser.

La Liga Filipina aimed to:

▪ Unite the whole country▪ Protect and assist all members▪ Fight violence and injustice▪ Support education▪ Study and implement reforms

La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government;but the Spanish officials still felt threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days

after La Liga Filipina’s establishment, Jose Rizal was secretly arrested. Thenext day, Governor General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal’s deportation toDapitan, a small, secluded town in Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, theybegan to drift apart. The rich members wanted to continue supporting thePropaganda Movement; but the others seemed to have lost all hope thatreforms could still be granted. Andres Bonifacio was one of those whobelieved that the only way to achieve meaningful change was through abloody revolution. 

La Solidaridad In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its ownnewspaper, called La Solidaridad. The Soli, as the reformists fondly calledtheir official organ, came out once every two weeks. The first issue saw printwas published on November 15, 1895.

 The Solidaridad’s first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilartook over in October 1889. Del Pilar managed the Soli until it stoppedpublication due to lack of funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

 The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. Thecolonial government did not agree to any of its demands. Spain itself wasundergoing a lot of internal problems all that time, which could explain whythe mother country failed to heed the Filipino’s petitions. The friars, on theother hand, were at the height of their power and displayed even more

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arrogance in flaunting their influence. They had neither the time nor thedesire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although theystill failed to maintain a united front. Because most of them belonged to the

upper middle class, they had to exercise caution in order to safeguard theirwealth and other private interests. Personal differences and petty quarrels,apart from the lack of funds, were also a hindrance to the movementssuccess. Lastly, no other strong and charismatic leader emerged from thegroup aside from Jose Rizal.

IX. The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution

The Katipunan is born

Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soonlost hope in gaining reforms though peaceful means. This feeling wasespecially heightened when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifaciobecame convinced that the only way the Philippines could gainindependence was through a revolution.

Bonifacio then founded the “Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuananng mga Anak ng Bayan” (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street(now Claro M. Recto), in Tondo Manila.

 The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member’s loyalty,they performed the solemn rite of sanduguan (blood compact), wherein eachone signed his name with his own blood..

 The members agreed to recruit more people using the “triangle system” of enlistment. Each original member would recruit tow new members who werenot related to each other. Each new member would do the same thing, andso on down the line. Members were also asked to contribute one Real (about25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for the association.

The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

▪ The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spainafter declaring the country’s independence.▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness,hygiene, fine morals, and how to guard themselves against religiousfanaticism..▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defendthe poor oppressed.

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 The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highestgoverning body of the Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president.Each province had a “Sangguaniang Bayan” (Provincial Council) and eachtown had a “Sangguniang Balangay ” (Popular Council).

The Leaders of the Katipunan:

▪ Deodato Arellano -Supremo▪ Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal▪ Teodora Plata -Secretary▪ Valentine Diaz -treasurer▪ Andres Bonifacio -controller

 Jose Rizal and the Katipunan

 Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization andactivities of the Katipunan; but the Katipuneros still looked upto him as a leader. In fact, Rizal’s name was used as apassword among the society’s highest-ranking members, whowere called bayani.

Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La LigaFilipina days, although Rizal did not know Bonifacio personallyNevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal’s intelligence andtalent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitanto seek Rizal’s advice on the planned revolution.

Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. Thepeople were not yet ready and they did not have enough weapons. Hesuggested that the Katipunan obtain the support of wealthy and influentialFilipinos first, in order to gain financial assistance. He also recommendedAntonio Luna as commander of its armed forces, since Luna had muchknowledge and expertise in military tactics.

Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizal’s advice toBonifacio, who admitted that it would indeed be fatal for the Filipinos to fightwithout enough weapons. However, there was no stopping the Revolution.

Bonifacio ordered his men to prepare for battle. He directed them to storeenough food and other supplies. Battle plans were made with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was suggested that the revolutionary headquarters belocated near the seas or mountains to provide for an easy retreat, if necessary.

The Katipunan is Discovered

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Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation,although no solid evidence could be found to support them. The big break asfar as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came on August 19, 1896when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about theexistence of the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing press of 

Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with nuns in a Mandaluyongorphanage.

 The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage’s MotherSuperior, Sor Teresa de Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresasuggested they seek the advice of Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of  Tondo.

After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied byseveral Guardias Civiles immediately searched the premises of Diario deManila and found evidence of the Katipunan’s existence. The governor

general was quickly informed. The printing press was padlocked andhundreds of suspected KKK members were arrested.

X. The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread toManila and nearby suburbs, and Andres Bonifacio immediately called for a general meeting. Various wings of the Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan Ramos inPugadlawin on August 23, 1896. Ramos was the son of 

Melchora Aquino, also known as “Tandang Sora” and waslater acknowledged as the Mother of the Katipunan."

Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fightto the bitter end. Everyone shouted their approval, exceptfor Teodoro Plata, who though that it was too soon for arevolution. Heartened by his men’s response, Bonifaciothen asked them to tear their cedulas (residence certificates) to pieces, as asign of their defiance and determination to rise against the Spaniards. Themen immediately tore up their cedulas, shouting, Mabuhay ang Pilipinas(long live the Philippines) -known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

The Katipunan in Cavite

Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros theredivided themselves into the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. BaldomeroAguinaldo, brother of Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the Magdalo group, whichwas stationed in Kawit. General Mariano Alvarez led the Magdiwang group,which was stationed in Noveleta.

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 The two groups fought in separate battles. EmilioAguinaldo overran Kawit on August 31, 1896, while Alvarezattacked Noveleta. In Bacoor, Aguinaldo tried to interceptSpanish reinforcements coming from Manila; but he was

repulsed and forced to retreat to nearby Imus. Here, onthe morning of September 5, he defeated the Spanishtroops under the command of General Aguirre. A hundredSpaniards were killed and 60 weapons were confiscated.Aguinaldo was hailed as a hero. The adoring Caviteñosreferred to him as “General Miong” and no longer “Kapitan

Miong.”

General Aguinaldo’s numerous victories in the battlefield made him theacknowledged revolutionary leader in Cavite. He issued a proclamation onOctober 31, 1896 enjoining the people to take courage and continue fighting

for Philippine independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replacedRamon Blanco as governor general on December 13, 1896. Polavieja wasmore successful than his predecessor and slowly regained one-third of theprovince. Andres Bonifacio's Execution While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifaciowas recognized as the leader of the Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An

assembly was held in Imus, Cavite on December 31, 1897 to settle theleadership issue but was not successful. Then on March 22, anotherassembly was held at Tejeros (known as the Tejeros Convention) to electofficers of the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as president whileBonifacio was relegated as the Director of the Interior. Bonifacio rejected theelections and declared it void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic MilitaryAgreement, essentially creating a government contending Aguinaldo's. Soonafter, Bonifacio was captured, stood trial, and was sentenced to death by aWar Council of Aguinaldo's government. Aguinaldo initially commuted thesentence to deportation but later reversed the commutation upon pressurefrom Pio Del Pilar and other officers. On orders from General Mariano Noriel,

Andres Bonifacio was executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by Major LazaroMakapagal on May 10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacio’s death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish government, for its part, doubled its efforts in trying to controlCavite, which was considered the seat of the Revolution. When Governor

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General Primo de Rivera replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, heimmediately marched to Naic, Cavite to persuade the Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved

to Batangas, where they temporarily set up camp in the town of Talisay.However, Spanish soldiers were able to pursue them there. Thus, theyretreated to Morong on June 10, 1897 and proceeded to Biak-na-Bato inBulacan

XI. The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato inBulacan province. The news immediately spread throughout thecountry, and the revolutionaries were once more in high spirits.

General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija, declared his support forAguinaldo. In July 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-BatoRepublic and issued a proclamation stating the following demands:

▪ Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos▪ Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes▪ Freedom of the press and of religion▪ Abolition of the government’s power to banish Filipinos▪ Equality for all before the law.

A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer

and Isabelo Artacho. It was signed on November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-BatoConstitution provided for the establishment of a Supreme council that wouldserve as the highest governing body of the Republic. It also outlined certainbasic human rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of the press, andthe right to education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano Trias were electedSupreme Council president and vice president, respectively.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the Philippines volunteered to act asnegotiator between Aguinaldo and

Gov. Primo de Rivera in order toend the clashes. Paterno’s effortpaid off when on, December 15,1897, the Pact he sign the Pact asthe representative of therevolutionaries, and de Rivera asthe representative of the Spanishgovernment. The Leaders are:

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Emilio Aguinaldo-President, Mariano Trias-Vice President, AntonioMontenegro-Secretary, Baldomero Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio Riego deDios.

On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet of the

Spanish army arrived in Biak-na-Bato and became hostages of the rebels. Aceasefire was declared by both camps and an agreement between Aguinaldoand the Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will grantself-rule to the Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went to exile and surrenderhis arms. In exchange, Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) asremuneration to the revolutionaries and an amnesty. After receiving a partialpayment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on December 27, 1897.Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the sincerity of theSpaniards. They refused to surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te Deumwas still sung on January 23, 1898.

The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

 The Filipino’s and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodicclashes between the two groups still took place even after Aguinaldo’sdeparture from the country. The Spanish did not pay the entire agreedamount.

XII. The Spanish-American War The US Helps Cuba

One year before the historic Cry of Pugad Lawin, a revolution broke out inCuba -another Spanish Colony that rose against the rampant abuses of theSpaniards. It became independent in 1898 after three years of revolt, withthe help of United States. The Americans were supportive of the Cubans forvarious reasons:

▪ First- the US is a free country and Advocated democracy and freedom.▪ 2nd- the US wants to protect its huge economic interest in Cuba, in theamount of $50,000,000.▪ 3rd- a lot of stories reached the United States about Spanish maltreatment

of Americans living in Cuba and this greatly angered the US citizens.▪ Finally, since Cuba was located very near the US it was deemed covered bythe protective mantle of the Monroe Doctrine.

The US interest in the Philippines

At that time, Assistant Secretary of the Navy TheodoreRoosevelt, wanted a war to erupt between the US and Spain

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so he could strengthen and expand the US Navy, he immediately put his planinto place. On February 25, 1896, he ordered Commodore George Dewey tomake Hong Kong the headquarters of the American Asiatic Squadron. Healso directed Dewey to attack Manila Bay and destroy the Spanish fleet, themoment hostilities between Spain and US break out.

The Spanish-American War

Spain did not relish American intervention in its affairs. However, with thePhilippine and Cuban revolutions going on, it could not afford to add theAmericans to its enemy list, especially since the United States had moreadvanced technology and weaponry. In the face of Spain’s declining power, ittried to repair its rift with the US in order to avoid a disastrous war. OnFebruary 15, 1898, how ever a fateful event accrued in Cuba. The Americanwarship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, resulting in the death of its260 officers and crewmembers. Although it was not proven that the

Spaniards had sunk the Maine, the Americans called for war against Spain.Roosevelt was one of many US officials who considered the destruction of the Maine as act of treason and supported the declaration of war. Spain declared war on the United States on April 23, 1898. The United Satesdeclared war against Spain on April 25, 1898. On May 1, 1898, the UnitedStates Navy lead by Commodore George Dewey crushed the Spanishsquadron in Manila Bay and the Spanish naval base at Sangley Point inCavite. By June, 1898, the American had control of portions of the Philippineislands. The Spanish-American War ended with the Treaty of Paris signed onDecember 10, 1898. The treaty conferred ownership of the Spanish colonies

of Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. In turn, theU.S. paid Spain US$ 20 million.