performance enhancement in swimming: the effect of mental training with biofeedback

Performance enhancement in swimming: the effect of mental training with biofeedback

M Bar-Eli 1,2 & B Blumenste in 2

1Department of Business Aflministration, School of Management, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, israel. 2Ribstein Center for Sport Medicine Sciences and Research, Wingate

institute, Israel.

In this study, the relationship between mental training with biofeedback and swimmers' performance was investigated. The Wingate five-step approach was used as a mental preparation technique for enhancing the performance among 16-18 year-old pre-elite swimmers. Participants (n=40) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (a} experimental - regular training plus the Wingate 5-step mental training program (adapted for swimming), and (b) control - regular training plus relaxing activities. After a baseline measurement, participants were tested on running and swimming five times during a 10- week period. Results indicated that the experimental group improved its performance over time on both running and swimming, with improvement being most substantial during transformation and realisation (steps 4 and 5). In contrast, the control group remained relatively stable on both dependent measures. Results are discussed in reference to previous work on the 5-step approach, including several methodological and theoretical aspects that are particularly relevant to the use of such interventions with other athletic tasks and populations.

(J Sci Med Sport 2004;7:4:454-464

Introduction To enhance h u m a n per formance in sport, a variety of menta l t raining techniques have been suggested, which reflect var ious strategies intended for athletes ' self-regulation of a rousa l 1. To achieve appropr ia te arousal levels, biofeedback (BFB) is quite often ment ioned as one of the mos t powerful means for facilitating the learning of self-regulation by a competing athlete 2. BFB - a technique tha t uses ins t rument s (ie, sensors and t ransducers) to display to an individual information regarding h i s / h e r own biological s ta tes tha t are not under voluntary control - had already been viewed by sport psychology in the 1980s 3, as having a great potential for athletic per formance enhancement . Since then, BFB has been found to be effective in reducing athletic per formance anxiety, as well as in increasing musc le s t rength and flexibility, reducing pain and fatigue and regfllating hear t rate 4.

About a decade ago, it was observed tha t the application of BFB techniques was under represen ted in the professional sport psychology practice l i terature 5. In particular, it was believed tha t the efficacy of BFB-assisted menta l t raining interventions in enhancing athletic per formance should be investigated at a faster rate than previously, because the use of BFB as par t of larger multi-

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Performance enhancement in swimming...

faceted t r ea tmen t programs seemed to be of considerable relevance to professional pract ice 6. Consequently, to increase their effectiveness, mos t BFB interventions involve more t h a n a single modali ty and are carried out together with other intervention techniques, thereby reflecting such a mult i-faceted approach 1,4. Along these lines, Blumenste in et al7 developed a two-stage menta l p repara t ion procedure, which used BFB a p p a r a t u s and videocasset te recorder (VCR) equipment , combined with relaxation a n d / o r excitation techniques, to s imula te the sensa t ions of competit ive si tuations.

At the s ame time, Blumenstein, Bar-Eli and T e n e n b a u m 8 - us ing BFB - studied the effects of autogenic and mus ic training, as well as imagery, on physiological indices and athletic per formance . They found that, when accom- panied mainly by autogenic training and imagery, BFB had a considerable augment ing effect on both physiological indices and athletic performance. In addition, Blumenste in et al 9, in a s tudy on the influence of menta l - s ta tes regulat ion with BFB on breathing, revealed similar augmenta t ion effects. These invest igat ions, which provided subs t an t i a l scientific credibility to their approach, encouraged Blumenstein, Bar-Eli and T e n e n b a u m 1° to develop a method which provided a detailed descript ion of the various stages of BFB- based men ta l training, namely the (Wingate) five-step approach.

The approach of Blumenste in et allO consis ts of five stages, each of which incorporates BFB with VCR to promote the effectiveness of the athletes ' menta l training. These s teps have flexible t ime-sess ion limits tha t can be individ- ualised and include: "Introduction" (introducing self-regulation techniques), "Identification" (determining and s t rengthening the appropr ia te BFB modality), "Simulation" (BFB training with s imula ted competit ive stress), "Transform- ation" ( t ransforming the menta l t raining to practice) and "Realisation" (applying the technique in real competitive situations).

In line with the main principles of the t ransact ional model of h u m a n per fo rmance 11, one of the mos t impor tan t character is t ics of the five-step approach is its high flexibility in adapt ing to m a t c h specific needs of individual athletes within given environments , who are engaged in fulfilling par t icular discipline-specific tasks. Thus, to be effectively applied in var ious spor t disciplines a n d / o r with different populat ions, the five-step approach requires specific adaptat ions . Accordingly, adap ted versions were specifically developed over the years for var ious purposes . However, no investigation has been conducted t hus far in a field sett ing which experimental ly examined the effectiveness of this approach as a whole, us ing an adapted version tha t ma tches the specific character is t ics of a par t icular sport discipline. (For up- dated reviews of the work on this approach, see 12,13.)

To conduct such a field experiment, it was decided to focus on swimming. Swimming is basically an individual sport, which requires tha t athletes compete mainly "against themselves", as opposed to other sports (eg, judo or wrestling, in which elements of the 5-s tep app roach were studied previously) where the resul ts are often dependent also on the opponent. In addition, swimmers usual ly begin to specialise in their spor t a t a m u c h younger age in compar ison to m a n y other sports , so tha t m a n y high-level competi tors can be found who are in their adolescence.

In a recent investigation, Bar-Eli, Dreshman , Blumenste in et a l l4 s u c c e s s -

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fully operated the first three s teps - - namely, introduction, identification and s t imulat ion - - in a field exper iment conducted with 11-14 year-old child swimmers. With child swimmers , these s teps are connected more to the instructional, coach-athlete t raining processes tha t have the pr imary purpose of acquisit ion of the technical skills required for adequate performance. However, for the entire p rogram to be effective with higher-level, older swimmers, the operation of the last two steps - t ransformat ion and realisation - is required, since they are directly relevant to elite a thletes prepar ing for competition. Accordingly, the presen t s tudy made an initial a t t empt to examine experimentally the effectiveness of this approach in a field set t ing using a five- step version specifically adapted to match the unique character is t ics of swimming.

Method Participants and design Part icipants were 40 male (n= 26} and female (n= 14) Israeli pre-elite swimmers , aged 16 to 18 years (M= 16.70, SD= 0.54). All par t ic ipants were res idents of Gush Dan, the largest u r b a n a rea in Israel, comprising Tel Aviv and several neighbouring cities. The swimmers were pre-elite in tha t they had trained regularly for abou t eight years (M= 8.20, SD= 2.50) in one of the local clubs in this area, and part icipated in 7-8 competi t ions a year (on a local, regional or national level).

It should be noted tha t for statist ical purposes there is not a sufficient n u m b e r of elite-level swimmers in Israel, so it was decided to focus on the pre- elite ones. The definition of a par t ic ipant as a pre-elite swimmer was based on experts ' opinions (ie, three of the top Israeli swimming coaches) in reference to the European swimming norms. More specifically, we used the G e r m a n Comparat ive Performance Tables for Swimming 15, accepted by all European swimming associations, which give resul ts in a point system. This point sys tem enables the compar ison of swimmers who perform different swimming styles; in our case, it was used to build appropriate ly the groups of pre-elite swimmers , which comprised different swimming styles.

The maximal n u m b e r of points available in the Ge rman tables is 1200. In 50 m freestyle, elite swimmers in the World usual ly achieve 800-1000 points; for example, the bes t resul t of the first swimmer in the World's 50 m freestyle ranking list is worth 1104 points and the last winner of the European championship (Madrid, 2004) in this discipline achieved 933 points. The Israeli elite swimmers in this discipline usual ly range between 600 and 800 points (ie, somewhat below the world's elite level), so tha t in Israeli t e rms "pre-elite" would mean 500-600 points. The average n u m b e r of points achieved by the swimmers included in our s tudy was 555, and therefore these swimmers can be considered "pre-elite".

Four clubs, their ceaches and their swimmers voluntari ly part icipated in the study. Clubs, ra ther t h a n part ic ipants , were randomly ass igned to either the experimental (two clubs) or the control (two clubs) conditions. Exper imental and control conditions were randomised between the clubs, with each club corresponding to only one condition to reduce both social compar ison and the possibility of communica t ion exchange among par t ic ipants from different groups. The clubs were located in different par ts of the abovement ioned u r b a n

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area to minimise fur ther the possibility of social comparison. All swimming pools were covered, as control for the weather.

It is impor tan t to note tha t the coaching p rograms for the different c lubs were very similar. More specifically, all four coaches had immigrated to Israel from the former USSR and had similar physical educat ion backgrounds . These coaches used the same training program, which was approved by the Israel Swimming Federat ion as being suitable for skill advancement of pre-elite swimmers . The similarity of coaching styles was also evident from observing the respective coaches during the study. Thus, only clubs tha t insisted on similar t raining environments were selected for this investigation. Although this procedure could not fully eliminate potential differences in factors such as the coaches ' personali t ies and their individual conduct , it substant ia l ly re- duced the possibility tha t different coaching procedures could account for potential differences between experimental and control groups.

The 40 par t ic ipants were equally divided between the experimental and control groups; tha t is, each group included 20 part icipants . Moreover, in each of the two groups (ie, experimental and control), the 20 par t ic ipants specialised in different swimming styles as follows: freestyle (seven males and three females), but terf ly (three males and two females), backs t roke (two males and one female) and breas t s t roke (one male and one female). In other words, the two groups were matched with respect to swimming style and gender. The male-female distr ibution was identical in each of the groups (13:7). This distr ibution roughly reflects the s i tuat ion of competitive swimming all over Israel; tha t is, a majority in favour of males. Since par t ic ipants were measured six t imes (pre-intervention plus five additional measurements ) over the course of a 10-week training period (see below), a 2 x 6 (Condition x Measurement) design was used, with repeated m eas u re s in the Measurement factor.

Treatment conditions, dependent variables, procedures and instrumentation The exper imental and control groups met 31 t imes over the course of 10 weeks, during the prepara tory and competi t ion periods of the yearly macro-cycle. In the first, a pre-intervention session (conducted in the first week), each of the par t ic ipants was requested to perform a 30 m run 16 and to swim 50 m in h i s / h e r own style 17. The par t ic ipants were running and swimming as fast as they could individually, to eliminate the e lement of direct competition. The 30 m run is a general test; it was intended to examine the par t ic ipants ' speed and explosive power 16,18, which are required for swimming sprint m, whereas the 50 m swim was a specific test 17. The 50 m swimming test, performed in each par- t icipant 's own style, took place in a 50 m covered pool.

All interventions were adminis tered by ass is tants , who were especially trained for this pu rpose and were "blind" as to the goals of the study. In sessions 2- 7, which took place during weeks 1-2 of the s tudy (basically, three sessions per week, approximate ly every second day), the experimental group - which was given this t r ea tmen t in addition to its regular training sessions - underwent step 1 of the program ("Introduction"). Athletes were taught var ious self- regulation techniques, such as imagery, autogenic training and BFB, in a "laboratory" setting; tha t is, a c lassroom in the club. The exper imenters trav- elled to each club, using five "Ultramind Relax Plus" appa ra tus 2. Each group

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session lasted abou t 35-40 minutes . The techniques to be t aught dur ing this period were described in detail elsewhere 1°.

To sui t the self-regulation techniques to the specific needs of our par t ic ipants (ie, swimmers), several minor adapta t ions were made in compar ison to the original version of the program. For example, the par t ic ipants were asked to imagine themselves swimming 50m in their own style, performing the "ideal" technique required by the coach. In line with a central principle used by the "Five-Step Approach" - - namely tha t of "building on what a thletes a lready do" when sys temat i ca l ly t each ing t h e m psychoregu la t ive t e chn iques 13 - - swimmers in the present s tudy were introduced to the BFB-channels in the following order: HR, EMG, GSR. The reason for this par t icular adapta t ion made in compar ison to the original ins t ruct ions of the "Five-Step Approach 'q°, was that, to control their t raining load and rest between training sessions, swimmers regularly use HR information. In addition, EMG seems to be more "natural" to swimmers t h a n GSR. Therefore, it was decided to s tar t with HR also in our present study, and go on in the abovement ioned order of channels .

It should be noted tha t the minor adapta t ions made in compar i son to the original version of the program, to sui t the swimmers best, did not reduce the validity of the method, as initially established. On the contrary, as ment ioned above, the program's flexibility a n d / o r adaptabil i ty was one of its major advantages 12,t3. As with any other specific case, the order of the s teps as well as their basic contents and goals were maintained, bu t with the necessary adaptat ions, which actually contr ibuted to enhanced validity.

To prevent any potential influence of different t raining environments , the control group underwent identical regular training sessions dur ing this period (that is, sessions 2-7). However, the control group also underwent - for abou t 35-40 minu tes each session - var ious relaxing activities such as listening to quiet music, watching na ture movies and playing table games. This procedure, which was intended to exclude the "Hawthorne Effect" as a potential explan- ation for any possible per formance improvements in the exper imental (in compar ison to the control) group, would enable any such potential improvements to be at t r ibuted to the effect of the t rea tment (ie, menta l t raining incorporating BFB). Therefore, it was decided tha t s imul taneous ly with each of the experimental steps, the control group would undergo these relaxing activities during the entire s tudy (see Table 1).

In session 8, both groups were requested individually to run 30 m and swim 50-m in their own style, thereby being measured in a procedure tha t was identical to the one they underwent during the first, pre-intervention session. In sessions 9-13, which took place dur ing weeks 3-4 of the s tudy (again, three sessions per week, every second day), the experimental group underwent step 2 of the t reatment , labelled "Identification". Here, aided by a spor t psychologist, the athletes ' purpose was to identify and s t rengthen the mos t efficient BFB response modali ty (I~IR, EMG, or GSR) while it was reflected on a (portable) computer screen. "Identification" was conducted using the Self-Regulation Test of a rousa l (SRT) 1°, which is used to examine athletes ' basel ine levels of self-regulation before applying the entire program and, later, between its different steps.

In session 14, both groups were requested individually to per form a 30 m run and 50 m swim in their own style. In sessions 15-19, which took place during

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Performance enhancement in swimming.. .

weeks 5-6 of the study, the experimental group underwent step 3 of the t r ea tment (labelled "Simulation"). This t r ea tmen t was again given to the experimental group in addition to its regular training. In step 3, the athletes ' purpose was to conduct BFB training with s imulated competitive stress. Auditory s imulat ions were used, which consisted of original, in- and out-of- water (competitive) spectator noise, recorded dur ing high-level internat ional swimming contes ts that took place earlier in Israel. This step was conducted in the "laboratory" (ie, c lassroom in the club), with each group session lasting abou t 35-40 minutes .

In session 20, bo th groups were requested individually to per form a 30 m run and 50 m swim in their own style. In sess ions 21-25, which took place during weeks 7-8 of the study, the experimental group underwent step 4 of the t r ea tmen t (labelled '~rransformation"). This step was conducted with BFB intervent ions u n d e r t raining condit ions us ing por table equipment2: for example, after warm-up , par t ic ipants conducted elements such as menta l relaxation with GSR-EMG BFB, imagery of 50 m swim in their own style with EMG BFB, men ta l relaxation between different t raining uni ts with GSR-EMG BFB, as well as concentrat ion and brea th ing exercises with HR BFB during starts .

Session (35-40 rain each)

Group

Experimental (11=20) Control (n=20)

1 (week 1) pre- in tervent ion

2-7 (weeks 1-2)

8 (week 2)

9-13 (weeks 3-4)

14 (week 4)

15-19 (weeks 5-6)

20 (week 6)

21-25 (weeks 7-8)

26 (week 8)

27-30 (weeks 9-10)

31 (week 10)

• 30 m run

• 50 m swim own style

• Step 1: In t roduct ion

• regular t raining

• 30 m run • 50 m swim own style

• Step 2: Ident i f icat ion



• Step 3: Simulation • regular t raining

• 30 m run


• Step 4: Transformation


• 30 m run • 30 m run

• Step 5: Realisation • regular t raining



• relaxation activit ies


• 30 m run




• 30 m run




• 30 m run




• 50 m swim own style • 50 m swim own style

• relaxation activit ies • regular t raining


Table 1: Schematic Description of the Research Design,

4 5 9


In session 26, both groups were requested individually to perform a 30 m run and a 50 m swim in their own style. In sessions 27-30, which took place during weeks 7-8 of the study, the experimental group underwent step 5 (labelled "Realisation"). This step was conducted with BFB interventions under training conditions and in local competitions using portable BFB equipment 2. For example, participants conducted elements such as concrete mental preparat ion to training and competition starts with BFB control, simulation events (swim 50 m in their own style) 3-4 times in training with relaxation and imagery with GSR-EMG BFB between starts, concentration before start with GSR BFB, imagery of various competitive aspects (eg, different technical components, imagery of various competitive aspects, start position and beginning of swimming activity) and, finally, the real start of the 50 m swim in their own style. In session 31 - the last one - both groups were requested to perform an individual 30 m run and 50 m swim in their own style.

A schematic description of the entire research design is presented in Table 1.

R e s u l t s To examine the assumptions underlying the subsequent repeated-measures analyses, Bartlett probability values (chi-square tests), sensitive to non- normality, were used. For both running and swimming times, no violation of the homogeneity of variance assumpt ion in any of the conditions was indicated.

Measurement

TaSk COndition 1 2 3 4 5 6 Across (pre- measurements

intervention)

Running Experimental (n=20) M 5.26 5.25 5.23 5,15 5.09 5.03 5.17 SD 0.47 0.46 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.47

Control (n=20) M 5.19 5.17 5.18 5.11 5.14 5.14 5.16 SD 0.46 0.44 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.46

Across conditions (n=40)

M 5.23 5,21 5,20 5.13 5.11 5.08 5.16 SD 0.47 0.45 0.48 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.47

SWIMMING Experimental (n=20) M 31.81 31.79 31 .64 31.03 30.01 29.61 30.98 SD 2.52 2.58 2.67 2.34 2.65 2.61 2.56

Control (n=20) M • 30.85 30.74 30.32 30.23 30.01 30,12 30.38 SD 2.57 2,99 2,48 2,58 2.22 2.34 2,53

Across conditions (n=40) M 31,33 31.26 30.98 30.63 30.01 29.86 30.68 SD 2.55 2.81 2.58 2.48 2.45 2.49 2.55

Table 2:

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Means and standard deviations of running and swimming times (in seconds) for training conditions by measurements.


In addition, no significant interact ion between the pre-intervention measu re s (covariates) and the exper imenta l /cont ro l conditions was found. Thus, it can be concluded tha t the a s sumpt ions were satisfactorily met.

One-way analyses of variance were conducted on pre-intervention da ta (measuremen t 1) of both running and swimming t imes to determine if initial differences existed between the experimental and control conditions. For each of these two dependent variables, resul ts indicated no significant difference between the groups in the outset of the study. Thus, 2 x 6 (Condition x Measurement ) mixed-factorial ANOVA were pe r fo rmed for runn ing and swimming time, respectively, with Condition represent ing a between-subjects factor and Measurement represent ing a wi thin-subjects factor in each of these two ANOVAs.

Means and s tandard deviations of runn ing and swimming t imes (in seconds) for training conditions by m e a s u r e m e n t s are presented in Table 2.

The analysis of running t imes revealed a significant interaction, Condition x Measurement , F (5,34)= 12.79, p<.000, and a significant main effect, of Measurement , F (5,34)= 24.07, p<.000, with modes t effect sizes (0) 2 estimates) of 0.31 and 0.38, respectively. The analysis of swimming t imes revealed a significant interaction, Condition x Measurement , F (5,34)= 10.34, p<.000, and a significant ma in effect, of Measurement , F (5,34)= 25.59, p<.000, with modes t effect sizes (0) 2 estimates) of 0.30 and 0.39, respectively.

The significant Condition x Measurement interact ions were a t t r ibuted mainly to the improvement in per formance (ie, consis tent decrease in running and swimming times) obtained by the exper imental group th roughout the study, in compar ison to the relatively stable pe r fo rmances (running and swimming times) of the control group. Moreover, a l though none of the between-groups differences within each m e a s u r e m e n t was statistically significant, it is evident tha t for bo th dependent variables the m e a n s of the experimental group tended to be somewha t higher than those of the control group th roughout measure - men t s 1-4, bu t somewhat lower in m e a s u r e m e n t s 5-6. (In m e a s u r e m e n t 5, the two conditions were equal with regard to swimming times.) In other words, the major improvement in per formance obtained by the experimental group - be it in running or swimming - occurred towards the end of the t reatment ; namely, during s teps 4 and 5 of the program.

The significant main effects of Measuremen t resul ted from a systemat ic per formance increase (ie, decrease over time) in both dependent variables. Although none of the differences between any two successive m e a s u r e m e n t s within the experimental or control conditions was statistically significant, the M and SD values calculated across conditions reveal a consis tent t ime- decrease from m e a s u r e m e n t 1 to 6, for bo th running (see two bot tom lines of Table 2's uppe r part) and swimming (see two bo t tom lines in Table 2's lower part). No differences were revealed between experimental and control groups (ie, no significant main effects of Training Conditions), for either running or swimming, as the M and SD values calculated across m e a s u r e m e n t s indicate (see Table 2, r ight column).

Discussion In this study, an a t tempt was made to examine fur ther the relat ionship between a mult ifaceted menta l t raining program, incorporat ing BFB, and

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swimmers' performance. Accordingly, in an investigation designed for this particular purpose, we tried to determine whether using the five steps proposed by Blumenstein et al 1° with pre-elite swimmers would lead to be t te r performance, in terms of actual running and swimming times, than using regular training alone while controlling for social comparison.

The present results reveal tha t the application of regular training plus mental • training with BFB (while controlling for the "Hawthorne effect") does indeed lead to better performance than when regular training only is used. This conclusion is based on the resul ts from both measures (ie, dependent variables), which indicated that the experimental group consistently exhibited the greater improvements. Moreover, significant interactions were obtained for both dependent variables. These interactions were at tr ibuted mainly to a consistent, substantial decrease in running and swimming times in the experimental group, in comparison with the relatively stable performances of the control group.

These findings indicate not only tha t using our mental training approach leads to better results than using regular training alone, bu t also that the superiority of this approach increases over time (measurements). These resul ts further validate previous research and application related to the (Wingate) fve- step approach 12,1a. However, future research should be conducted to compare the present fndings with those of other researchers in this field 1,4. Such future research would also be advised to use other forms of control, eg, wiring participants up to some form of computer games or giving false feedback from the BFB apparatus.

It is important to recall tha t the major improvement in performance obtained by the experimental group, be it in running or swimming, occurred towards the end of the treatment; namely, during steps 4 and 5 of the program. It seems that the t reatment effect accumulated during the instructional steps (ie, Introduction, Identification and Simulation) bu t was expressed first and foremost when the athlete was required to t ransform the acquired mental skills to the field and apply them in competit ion (ie, during the Transformat ion and Realisation steps, respectively). Thus, only when the adequate si tuation was set (ie, a real training or competition), did the pre-elite athlete exhaus t his or her performance in a part icular task, a principle which has been well established within the t ransact ional approach to h u m a n performance 11.

In this investigation, part icipants were not distributed to conditions as individuals, but ra ther as a group. The present s tudy could therefore also have been viewed as a "quasi-experiment". However, similar designs are often considered as "true" experiments in different areas of sport psychology. Moreover, "quasi" experimental designs can permit reasonable causal inferences even when an investigation is not "truly" experimental in na ture 2°. It should also be noted that, in the , p r e s e n t s tudy, any compar i son of compet i t ion or performance by the part icipants in the control group with those participating in the experimental condition was effectively prevented by each group being randomly assigned to the experimental or control condition. For example, due to this precaution, the possibility of participants in the control group being encouraged by par t ic ipants in the exper imental t r ea tmen t group was eliminated.

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/ It is therefore reasonable to conclude that it was indeed important to control

for competit ion and social-comparison effects, to demonstra te the effectiveness of the present mental training approach in enhancing athletic performance. It appears tha t the present approach does produce the best performance when social-comparison processes and competition are controlled for. However, such a conclusion would be fur ther justified only when, to control for any con- taminating effects, one also makes sure (as was done in this study) that there is a similar t ra ining/coaching environment in bo th groups. In this way, performance enhancement (naturally) occurring as a result of regular training alone is also effectively controlled for, which fur ther facilitates demonstrat ing the unique effects of the five-step approach.

All in all, the findings of the present s tudy support the conclusion that the 5- step approach can produce substantial improvements in swimmers' performances. These findings are important not only because they empirically demonstra te the effectiveness of using mental training incorporating BFB, bu t also because they provide fur ther evidence for the general principle advocated by leading sport psychologists6; namely that of applying larger, psycho- physiologically-oriented, multifaceted t rea tment programs to enhance athletes' performances. Since the present program should be tailored to the unique characterist ics of the athlete under consideration and to the specifics of his or her sport discipline 1°,13, it is recommended that in future research the effectiveness of the (Wingate) five-step approach be examined in other sport disciplines as well, such as combat, team and endurance sports.

For this purpose, not only nomothetic-quanti tat ive methods should be em- ployed bu t also qualitative and ideographic methods, such as applied behavior analyses and case studies. Effective future BFB-oriented research in sport should be t ransact ional in the sense that unique personality and situational variables tha t help determine one's response to being assigned a specific t rea tment condition should be carefully examined 11. In this way, we will not only find out whether, through applying comparable intervention programs in other athletic settings, similar performance enhancements could be achieved, bu t also learn much more about the credibility level of such intervention programs in general.

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