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1 Part 2---Diction Diction is the choice and the use of words

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Page 1: Part 2---Diction · --Active words & passive words Words that you can understand and can use freely. Words that you can understand but can not use freely. 3 How to make a good diction?

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Part 2---Diction

Diction is the choice and the use of words

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Word: the unit of meaning and structure

Types of the words According to its feature:--Content words & functional words (meaning) (structure) According to its part of speech:--N. V. Adv. Adj. and etc. According to its frequency:--Active words & passive wordsWords that you can understand and can use freely.Words that you can understand but can not use freely.

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How to make a good diction?

By: Using the Appropriate Word —Level of words Using the Exact Word —Meaning of words Using Figurative Language —Figures of speech

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1. Using the Appropriate Word

Choosing the appropriate word is essential in expressing your ideas accurately and decently.

Words are appropriate when they suit your subject and the purpose of your writing, the role you are assuming, the attitude you want to project, and the readers you are writing for.

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Levels of WordsWords are generally classified into four groups according to

different levels of usage or formality:

Formal

Standard or common

Colloquial or informal

Slang

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Formal Words

Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or “big” words. Most of them are of Greek of Latin origin.

Formal words are more commonly used on addresses, eulogies, articles for scholarly journals, technical reports, legal documents, etc.

Formal English avoids contractions and colloquial expressions and therefore sounds different from the way average people speak.

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Example:There is nothing new in the recognition, within a given

language, of a distinction between common usage and uses of the language for more restricted purposes and often enough, perhaps characteristically, more elevated purposes. The monolithic nature of English is not questioned when literary essayists like Emerson contrast poetry and common speech. The latter is recognized in American to be the proper subject for the investigation of Linguists who, however, now show some incipient inclination to investigate poetry, too, and other noncasual utterances in a given language.

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Note:Recognition (formal)

knowing (common)seeing (common)

characteristically (formal)typically (relatively common)

elevated (formal)better (common)

higher (common)

monolithic (formal)inseparable, unchangeable

(relatively common)

investigation (formal)research, study (common)

incipient (formal)early (common)beginning (common)

noncasual (formal)special (common)serious (common)careful (common)

inclination (formal)preference (relatively common)liking (common)

utterance (formal)speaking (common)

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Standard or Common Words

Standard or common words are those used by the widest group of educated speakers and writers.

Common words are popular in college writing, and are often employed in newspaper, textbooks, non-fiction, best sellers, etc.

Common English is easy to understand, and complies well with the written language.

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Example:

When I was a kid, and reading every science fiction book in the local library, I used to wonder exactly how the future would happen. By that I don’t mean what the future would be like----science fiction already told me that----but rather how we’d actually get there. Science fiction books seemed to agree, for example, that in the future there would be no money----all transactions would be made via identity cards and centralized computers. But that seemed dubious to me: how, I wondered, are you going to get everybody to give up money in the first place?

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Note:

kid (colloquial) child (common) transaction (a little formal)business/trade (common)

dubious (a little formal)doubtful/unlikely (common)

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Colloquial or Informal Words

Colloquial or informal words are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin.

Colloquial or informal words are often used in spoken language and in writing aimed for a conversational effect.

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Example:

You have your tension. Sometimes you come close to having an accident, that upsets you. You just escape maybe by a hair or so. Sometimes maybe you get a disgruntled passenger on there, and starts a big argument. Traffic. You have someone who cuts you off or stops in front of the bus. There’s a lot of tension behind that. You got to watch all the time. You’re watchin’ the drivers, you’re watchin’ other cars. Most of the time you have to drive for the other drivers, to avoid hitting them. So you take the tension home with you.

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Note:by a hair or so :by a little chance on there :There cuts you off :make you suddenly stop There’s :There is got to :Must You’re :You are watchin’ :watching

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Slang Words

Slang refers to novel and colorful expressions that reflect a certain group’s special experiences and set the group off from others

Slang is used by almost all groups of people, from musicians and computer scientists to vegetarians and golfers, or uneducated speaker.

Slang displays endless inventiveness. It may be vivid and interesting, but is imprecise for effective writing, and is generally inappropriate for college or business writing.

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Example:

I’ll attend to that myself in th’ mornin’. I’ll take keer o’’im. He ain’t from this country no how. I’ll go down there in th’ mornin’ and see’im. Lettin’ you leave your books and gallivant all over th’ hills. What kind of a school is it nohow! Didn’t do that, my son, when I’s a little shaver in school.

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Note:

th’ mornin’: the morning take keer o’’im: take care of himsee’im: see him Lettin’: Letnohow: anyhow I’s: I wasa little shaver: a little boy

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Exercise on P.9

Language is our facility to talk to each other. The word 'talk' is used not merely to avoid a rather more technical and high-sounding word like 'communicate'; talk is more precise and more relevant to the special nature of human language than 'communicate'. In the first place, all creatures - cat, sparrow, and bee - can be said to communicate with each other to some extent. They can attract each other's attention, warn of danger, woo their mates, and direct the way to food.

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Exercise on P.9 We are still learning just how well animals can

communicate with each other, but there can be no doubt that animal communication is wholly rudimentary as compared with the complex and subtle control of language possessed by even the least intelligent or least educated English tramp or Australian aboriginal. It is therefore appropriate to say that language involves 'talk' to emphasize that language is a peculiarly human activity.

- Randolph Quirk

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Answers to Exercises on P.9

1. The passage is taken from a book about the science of language. It intends to give the reader the impression that language is peculiarly a human activity.

2. Ordinary readers, few technical terms are used;

3. No slang expressions; communicate and rudimentary;

4. Appropriate; it is in a common expository style.

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Exercise 1Please explain the underlined words with some more common words.

1. A bizarre experiment in the United States has demonstrated that psychiatrists can not distinguish effectively between people who are mentally disturbed and those who are sane.

bizarre (formal) demonstrate (formal) mentally disturbed (formal)

2. At the end of the interview they told me that I would be notified of any vacancies suitable to my experience and qualifications.

notify (formal) vacancy (formal)

3. A very trivial circumstance will serve to exemplify this.trivial (formal) circumstance (formal)

4. The absence of variation in the result of our experiments gave us confidence in the scientific law.

absence (formal) variation (formal)

5. In a scientific inquiry, a fallacy, great or small, is always of importance and is sure to be, in the long run, productive of mischievous results.

fallacy (formal) be productive of (formal) mischievous (formal)

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1. A bizarre experiment in the United States has demonstrated that psychiatrists can not distinguish effectively between people who are mentally disturbed and those who are sane.

bizarre (formal) demonstrate (formal) mentally disturbed (formal)strange (common) prove (common) mad (common)odd (common) show (common)

2. At the end of the interview they told me that I would be notified of any vacancies suitable to my experience and qualifications.

notify (formal) vacancy (formal)tell (common) job (common)

3. A very trivial circumstance will serve to exemplify this.trivial (formal) circumstance (formal)common (common) incident (common)small (common) thing (common)

4. The absence of variation in the result of our experiments gave us confidence in the scientific law.absence (formal) variation (formal)lack (common) difference (common)

5. In a scientific inquiry, a fallacy, great or small, is always of importance and is sure to be, in the long run, productive of mischievous results.

fallacy (formal) be productive of (formal) mischievous (formal)mistake (common) produce (common) harmful (common) cause (common)

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Exercise 2Identify the level of the following sentences?

When his dad died, Pete had to get another job.

After his father’s death, Peter had to change his job. On the decease of his father, Mr. Brown was obliged to seek

alternative employment.

Pete’s old woman hit the roof when he came home with that doll from the disco.

Peter’s wife was very angry when he came home with the girl

from the discotheque.

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When his dad died, Pete had to get another job. (collo.) After his father’s death, Peter had to change his job.

(com.) On the decease of his father, Mr. Brown was obliged to

seek alternative employment. (fml.)

Pete’s old woman hit the roof when he came home with that doll from the disco. (colloquial, impolite)

Peter’s wife was very angry when he came home with the

girl from the discotheque. (common)

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Using the Exact Word

The exact word suits to your purpose, your meaning, and your reader’s background, interests, and expectations.

To choose the exact word, you must be clear about the denotation and connotation of a word, the differences between general and specific words, abstract and concrete words, and have a good mastery of English idioms.

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The Meaning of Words

Denotation: is the specific, direct, and explicit meaning of a word. The denotative meaning of a word comes directly from its referent and is mostly gained from a dictionary

Connotation: is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word. The connotative meaning is personal and mostly deduced from one’s experience.

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The Semantic Triangle of “Winter”

Reference/Concept (Connotation):desolate, icy, dead, treeless, bitter, barren, snow, cold, chill, white

Symbol (word)winter

Referent (thing/denotation):the coldest season of the year, including the months of December, January, and February

e.g. Laughter drives winter from the mind. She is in the winter of her life.

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Example:country: an area of land and its population and governmentnation: the people of a countrystate: the government or political organization of a countryland: (emotive: motherland, homeland) England is a smaller country than China. The President spoke on radio to the nation. Should industry be controlled by the state? China is my native land.

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Synonyms

Since the connotations of words may vary along a number of dimensions, it is difficult to find two words that are exactly the same in meaning and use (structure). They may be identical, but they will never be equivalent.

Usually, the common dimensions will be from “informal” to “formal”, from “weak” to “strong”, from “emotionless” to “emotional”, from “favorable” to “unfavorable” or form different collocations.

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Example: informal-formalask : informalquestion: ask many questionsinterrogate: suggesting that the person is being held by

force and asked questions which they are unwilling to answer.

He asked about his new job. Two men are being questioned by the police in connection

with the robbery. The Japanese officers were interrogated as prisoners of

war.

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Example: informal-formal time: a period; a period in history age: a particular period in history epoch: long period in history, marked by important events

It will take you a long time to learn French properly. In ancient times, people wore clothes made of fur. He has reached his retirement age. They were living in the Stone Age/Iron Age. The first flight into space marked a new epoch in the history of

mankind. The steam-engine was an epoch-making event.

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Example: informal-formalrise: go up; get highermount: formal go up; climbascend: formal go to a higher level, climb

Smoke rose from the factory chimneys. The old lady mounted the stairs with difficulty. He ascended the stairs. Victoria ascended the throne. (became queen)

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Example: weak-strong

big : biglarge : unusually bighuge : extremely large emphatic (formal)

Put the books in the big box.Wuhan is a big/large city in Central China.The team has got a huge man over two meters tall.

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Example: emotionless-emotional

small: (emotionless)little: (implying a feeling of fondness)

They lived in a small town. (describing the area) I can never forget the little town where I spent my

happy childhood. (I like it.)

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Example: favorable-unfavorable

modest: not proud (a virtue, laudatory/favorable)humble: having a low opinion of oneself

(derogatory/ unfavorable) Modest and hardworking, he made very quick

progress at school. Clearly Gompers was overawed by Wilson. His

face took on a servile look; his voice was humble.

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Example: synonyms

proud: showing proper and reasonable respect for oneself; having too high opinion of oneself

arrogant: unpleasantly proud, with an unreasonable strong belief in one’s own importance

haughty: seeming to consider oneself better or more important than others; arrogant

insolent: showing disrespectful rudenessThey are poor but too proud to accept money from the state.The arrogant official did not listen to people’s protest. The haughty look of the young lady made everyone kept a distance

from her.The insolent children rushed into the house without greeting the guests.

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Not Necessarily Synonyms

Do not take the Chinese equivalent of an English word as its exact meaning, or understanding the meaning of an English word from its Chinese equivalent. English words that may be translated into the same Chinese expression are not necessarily synonyms. Because usually an English word has no exact Chinese equivalent and it has to be translated in different ways in different contexts.

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Example:

Family: a group of people, including parents, children, grandparents, uncles, aunts, living together

home: the place where one lives (denotation) warmth, safety, comfort, love/coldness, burden

(connotation)

The whole family came to visit us at Christmas. I left my exercise book at home.

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Example:

except: leaving out; not includingbesides: in addition to; as well as We were tired except/besides John.

strict: exactrigid: stiff, inflexible, difficult to change We should obey the regulations strictly. We shouldn’t obey the regulations rigidly.

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P.12-13

Task:2

Task:3

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General and Specific Words

General words name classes or groups of things. These words are needed in classification and definition

Specific words refer to examples of a group. Specific and concrete nouns express meaning more vividly than general or abstract ones.

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General and specific are relative terms, because there are degrees of generality.

e.g. Professional Scientists ChemistsBuilding House Log cabinClothes Swimming suit Bikini

general specific

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Example: housemansion: a large house, usu. belonging to a wealthy personvilla: a pleasant country house in its own garden, often used for only part of the

year for holidays, esp. in southern Europe: We’re renting a villa in the south of France for the summer.Chateau: a castle or large country house in Francebungalow: a house which is all on one levelcabin: 1. a room on a ship usu. used for sleeping 2. the small enclosed space at the front of an aircraft in which the pilot sits 3. a small roughly built usu. wooden house: They lived in a little log cabin.hut: a small simply-made building: They lived in a mud hut/a wooden hut.shack: a small roughly built house or hutshanty: a small roughly built usu. wooden or metal houseshed: a lightly built single-floored building, often wooden, used esp. for storing: a tool shed/cattle shed/garden shed/an airplane shedbarn: a farm building for storing crops and food for animals, or for keeping animals

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Example: laughbeam: to smile brightly and happily: He beamed (a cheerful welcome) as he opened the door.

guffaw: to laugh loudly, and perhaps rudelychortle: v.n. (to give) a laugh of pleasure and satisfaction He chortled with delight when I told him my news. chuckle: to laugh quietly: I could hear him chuckling to himself as he read his book. snigger: derog. To laugh quietly and secretly in a disrespectful way: The children sniggered at the old lady’s strange hat.giggle: to laugh quietly in a silly childish uncontrolled way: Stop giggling, girls; this is a serious matter.grin: to make a wide smile

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Exercise 1

Arrange the following nouns according to degrees of generality:

1. German shepherd animal creature dog2. flowers tulips plant creature nature3. transport vehicle plane Boeing757 man-made device4. a cold illness trouble thing5. Aunt Sally a relative people acquaintance6. novel Pride and Prejudice literature writing7. scientists professionals chemists biochemists

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Should Private Car Owners Be Taxed for Pollution?

 With the development of society, many people can afford a car. As the number of the cars is rising, we are facing some problems. One big problem is the pollution caused by the use of cars. In order to solve this problem, government agencies in some big cities recently suggest that a “pollution tax” should be put on private cars in order to control the number of cars and reduce pollution in the city. For my part, I agree to this viewpoint, and my reasons are as follows:

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To begin with, cars contribute to the

environmental pollution. For example, a lot of big cities in China are now plagued by serious air pollution. Then it is the responsibility of these private car owners to pay for the pollution and they should be taxed. The purpose of collecting environmental pollution tax is to raise the fund, and then utilize the tax revenue lever to protect our environment. Secondly, it is a good way to raise people’s environmental awareness by putting a pollution tax on private cars. If people suffer from the financial loss when making a decision, they will think more about their decision. Then they will consider more when deciding to buy a private car. Consequently, the increase rate of the number of the private cars can be controlled.

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In a word, it is a very good and

necessary attempt to use the means of taxation to treat the pollution. Of course, it must be kept in mind that all people, including the private car owners, should try their best to protect the environment.

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Homework Assignment I Love My Mother/Father/Parents Reciting: P.9; P.20 邀请便条; Preview P.16-31