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Parental Educational Expectation and Achievement Motivation in Adolescents Shobhna Joshi and Neha Acharya This paper examines the role of parental educational expectation on achievement motivation of adolescents. Motivation refers to the student’s energy and drive to learn work effectively and achieve their potential at school and the behaviour that follow from this energy and drive. Motivation plays a large part in student interest and enjoyment in school. Achievement motivation refers to the concern for excellence in performance as reflected in competition with the standards set by others or over unique accomplishment. Children typically learn standard of excellence from their parents. Parental educational expectation has been identified as the most important contributor to children achievement motivation in adolescents. Although positive effect of parental expectation influenced by two set of factors, firstly parent’s education, occupation, income, and early academic performance of child, secondly, the relationship between children and parents. Parent’s interaction with children and involvement in their education may strengthen the parent child relationship which in turn may increase parent child agreement regarding educational Parental Educational Expectation and Achievement ... Edited by Nov Rattan Sharma Ashok K. Kalia Amrita Yadava Publish by Global Vision Publishing House PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

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Page 1: Parental Educational Expectation and Achievement ...globalvisionpub.com/globaljournalmanager/pdf/1390909295.pdf · Parental Educational Expectation and Achievement Motivation in Adolescents

Parental Educational Expectation andAchievement Motivation in Adolescents

Shobhna Joshi and Neha Acharya

This paper examines the role of parental educational expectationon achievement motivation of adolescents. Motivation refers tothe student’s energy and drive to learn work effectively andachieve their potential at school and the behaviour that followfrom this energy and drive. Motivation plays a large part in studentinterest and enjoyment in school. Achievement motivation refersto the concern for excellence in performance as reflected incompetition with the standards set by others or over uniqueaccomplishment. Children typically learn standard of excellencefrom their parents. Parental educational expectation has beenidentified as the most important contributor to children achievementmotivation in adolescents. Although positive effect of parentalexpectation influenced by two set of factors, firstly parent’seducation, occupation, income, and early academic performanceof child, secondly, the relationship between children and parents.

Parent’s interaction with children and involvement in theireducation may strengthen the parent child relationship which inturn may increase parent child agreement regarding educational

Parental Educational Expectation and Achievement ...

Edited byNov Rattan Sharma

Ashok K. KaliaAmrita Yadava

Publish by Global Vision Publishing House

PSYCHOLOGY OF

EDUCATION

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expectation and foster academic achievement. Parents sharedexpectation such as school achievement, science orientation, carrieraspiration, moral character and cultural integration served as thechildren’s life goal and guided them every day practice. Thus thispaper assist parents to establish mutual parent child understandingin the process of forming expectation and can help educators andcounsellors understand family factors involved in children’sschooling, and accordingly provide responsive academic and socialmonitoring to children.

Motivating student to achieve in school is a topic of greatpractical concern to parents, teachers and of great theoreticalconcern to researchers. New books on the topic appear withincreasing frequency and relevant research is proliferating at rapidrate. Higher education institutions are beginning to provideassistance to the students, in developing study skill and selfregulatory skills. One of greatest challenges for school is to focusmore on assisting students so that they become motivated forgetting success in school. The social factors that influenceadolescents’ achievement motivation toward school and academictask is family background. It influences short and long-termachievement of adolescents in school (Berndt, Laychak & Park,1990; Berndt & Miller, 1990; Brown, 1989; Kindermann, 1993;Nichols & Miller, 1994; White & Nicholas, 1999; Winiarki &Johns, 1994). Family background is widely recognized as themost significant contributor to success in schools. Recentresearches on family background supported the finding that thehome has a major influence on student school success (Swick &Duff, 1978). The quality of relationship between students andtheir parents has also an important effect on student’s schoolperformance (Neisser, 1986; Selden, 1990; Coldas, 1993).

Many Variables in the family background have strong (directand indirect) associations with students’ success throughout schooland in young adult’s eventual educational and occupational

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attainment. Such variables included family structure (socio-economic status (SES), intact/single parent families), parentaleducational level, parental involvement, parenting style and parentaleducational expectation. Number of studies suggests that studentswho come from low socio economic status and single parenthomes have significantly less school success than those studentswho come from high socio economic status and intact families.(Martini, 1998; Walker, McGorge, Himes, Williams & Duff, 1998,Amato & Keith, 1991; Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Entwisle &Alexeander, 1995).Parents in such setting also reported lowereducational expectations, less monitoring of children’s school workand less overall supervision of school activities compared to studentsfrom high socio economic status and intact families. Similarlymore educated parents are assumed to create environments thatfacilitate learning (Williams, 1980 & Teachman, 1987) and involvedthemselves in their children’s school experiences and schoolenvironments (Useem, 1992). Nevertheless, there are manystudents who come from low income homes who are highachievers and many students come from high socio economicstatus who are low achievers. Students may also come fromhomes where parents are highly educated and involved in theirchildren’s education, but they achieve poorly at school.

The strong impact of family structure and family backgroundon academic outcomes of children has been frequentlydocumented. Among the family background variables whichinfluences the children’s academic performance, the most importantis parental educational expectations for their children, whichconsistently had been a strong predictor of student achievementat all age levels, beginning with first grade (Entwisle & Alexander,1990) to upper elementary school (Marjoribanks, 1987), and tohigh school (Ainley, Foremen & Sheret, 1991) and beyond (Conklin& Dailey, 1981), and students from a wide range of racial andethnic background.

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Achievement Motivation and Parent’s Educational Expectation

Family being the first and major agency of socialization playsa pivotal role in styling child’s life. It has been shown that most ofchildren who are successful and well adjusted come from familieswhere the wholesome relationship exists between children andtheir parents. The quality of an adolescent’s relationship with hisor her parents is a key component to healthy adolescents’development. Secure bonds between parents and their adolescentsallow young people the freedom to grow and explore, knowingtheir home represents a safe heaven to which they can returnwhen necessary. However, conflict which may denote weak orweakening interpersonal bonds, often occur within adolescentsrelationships. Studies have indicated that adolescents’ reports ofsevere or unresolved disagreement with their parents have beenassociated with adolescents emotional difficulties, substance abuse,conduct problems and poor school performances. They are alsorelated to a variety of variables such as independence, self esteem,moral development, anxiety and achievement motivation (Suman& Umapathy, 1997)

Achievement motive is a latent disposition to strive for certaingoal states when the cues of the situation arouse the expectancythat performance of an act is instrumental in attainment of thegoal. For the person, who is motivated towards achievement,achieving something has incentive value or reinforcing properties.It is an important determinant of aspiration and effort when anindividual expects that his performance will be evaluated in relationto some standard of excellence. Therefore, achievement motivationcan be defined as a concern for excellence in performance asreflected in competition with the standard set by others or overunique accomplishment or longtime involvement (McClelland, 1953).A person with a strong motive to achieve tend to derive satisfactionfrom overcoming obstacles by his own efforts and taking calculatedrisks, the achievement motive seems most likely to be associated

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with setting of moderately difficult goal, interests in concretefeedback assuring personal responsibility and showing moreinitiative and exploratory behaviour (McClelland ,1953).

Over the years researches on achievement motivationdemonstrated that individuals high in achievement motivation aremore persistent and perform better in examination. They seem tobe more competitive and willing to take responsibilities of theoutcomes of their own performance. They tend to challengethemselves in realistic ways, so that their aspirations are in linewith their capacities. Those, low in achievement motivation tendto be less realistic in their behaviour. They often choose a task:that is either very easy or so difficult that failure is inevitable.Thus, achievement motivation has been defined as the reintegrationof affect aroused by cues in situation involving standard ofexcellence. Children typically learn standards of excellence fromparents who encourage competition with these standards, whilerewarding good performance and punishing failure. In time parentalexpectations become internalized, so that later exposed to thesituation involving standards of excellence the individual re-experiences the effects associated with earlier efforts (McClelland,Atkinson, Clark & Lowell, 1953).

Rosen (1961) has stated that achievement motivation has itsorigin in complex of interrelated parental practices. Two types ofpractices are related to the development of the achievementmotivation. The first and the most important parental practicewhich is related to the development of achievement motivation isachievement training. Parents who provide achievement trainingsets high goal for their child, indicate a high evaluation of hiscompetence to do a task well, and impose standards of excellenceupon problem solving task, even in situations where such standardsare not explicit. The second type of parental practice related tothe development of achievement motivation is called independencetraining. This type of training involves expectation that the child

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be self reliant when competing with standard of excellence. Atthe same time, the child is granted autonomy in problem-solvingand decision making in situations where he has both freedom ofaction and responsibility for success or failure. Essentially,achievement training is concerned with getting the child to dothings well, while independence training seeks to teach him to dothings on his own (self reliance) in a situation where he enjoysrelative freedom from parental control (autonomy).

Parental expectations for achievement also have a powerfuleffect on the extent to which children develop achievementmotivation. If parents do not express confidence in their children’sability to succeed, it is difficult for children to develop muchconfidence in them (Suman & Umapathy, 1997). Atkinson andWinterbottom (1958) reported that early training of independenceand mastery contributed to the development of strong achievementmotivation in children.

Expectations are a strong motivational force for adolescents.They serve as targets which direct behaviours and set goal whichpeople strive to achieve (Locke & Latham, 1990). Many studiesconceptualized parental expectation in terms of the view thatparents hold regarding the highest level of education that theirchildren will complete (Reynolds, 1991). Seginer (1986) proposeda more complex conceptualization of parental educationalexpectations and defined them as consisting of three dimensions:

(1) realistic expectation which combines parental predictionsof the level of academic performance of their children,

(2) idealistic expectations which includes the wishes andhopeful anticipations held by the parents related to theirchildren in academic realms and

(3) standards of achievement incorporates implicit measuresby which the parents evaluate their children’s academicattainments.

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Earlier studies related to expectation revealed that teacherexpectations could actually serve as an educational self fulfillingprophecy for student’s intellectual performances (Rosenthal andJacobs; 1968). The importance of attitude and expectations toachievements has been investigated previously in the study byKeeves (1972). He has explored moderate to strong associationbetween students’ mathematics and science achievement andparents’ attitude towards their child education and ambition fortheir future education and occupation.

Majority of the work related to expectation of individualstudent discussed the importance of parental interest, expectations,attitudes and aspiration on children academic achievement(Marjoribanks, 1977). Other researches have also demonstratedsignificant relationship between parental expectation and studentacademic performance, both directly as well as indirectly, thoughstudents, peers classroom variables (Alexander, Entwisle & Horsey,1977; Seginer; 1983; Walker et al.,1998).

Some studies have been tried to explore the relationship ofachievement motivation of children with certain parental factors.Herman, Terlaak and Maes (1972) found that parents of highachievement motivation children were inclined to express highexpectations and to praise successful move towards solvingproblems. Nuttall and Nuttall (1976) reported that parents whoperceived as being more acceptant and using less permissiveattitude, restrictive and hostile psychological control tended tohave children with higher achievement motive. Dornbush, Ritter,Leiderman, Roberts and Fraleigh (1987); Nelson, (1984); Stevensonand Baker, (1987) found that adolescents’ adequate academicachievement and adjustment were influenced by their quality ofrelationship with their parents and family members, their levels ofacademic aspiration and achievement orientation. Studies in therelation of adolescents’ aspiration and achievement evidencedthat parents play a key role in shaping students aspirations and

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achievements. Family factors such as parental level of education,parental support and expectation for their children seem to exertsome influence on adolescents’ achievement motivation (Beyer,1995).

A number of studies have been conducted over the years toexamine the relationship between parental expectation andacademic achievement in adolescents. In a study Beyer (1995)found that parents’ educational aspiration and expectation of theirchildren’s academic performance was positively correlated withchildren’s grade, IQ score, educational aspiration, achievementmotivation and eventual educational attainment. The study alsoindicated that parental academic encouragement foster children’scognitive development, grades, score on standardized test,educational aspiration and that parents’ realistic expectation relatedto child’s achievement more than extremely low and highexpectation. Studies focusing on parental educational expectationhave suggested that parental expectation influences children’sacademic performance (Boocack, 1972; Okazaki& Frensch, 1998).

Academic achievement is additionally influenced by children’sperceptions of their parent’s educational expectation for them.Children are usually aware whether adults have high or lowexpectation, which influences academic achievement (Eggen &Kauchak, 2001). When parents expect children to do well on aspecific task, children generally gain confidence in their abilitiesto carryout that task and are consequently likely to perform asexpected. Children’s perceptions of their own academiccompetence are based on others expectations especially of parentsand other significant adults such as teachers ( Mancillas, 2005).

Parental expectation has been identified as the most importantcontributor to children school achievement (Hoge, Smit, & Crist,1997). The empirical studies of immigrant in America, hasconsistently reported a positive relationship between parental

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expectation and children’s school achievement (Hirsschman &Wong, 1986; Schneider & Lee, 1990; Sue & Okazaki, 1990; Peng& Wright, 1994, Okazaki & French, 1998). In a study Jerry(2002) investigated the variables that predicted stability ofadolescents’ educational expectation for at least bachelor’s degree.The variables were early achievement; student personal resources,parents and students behaviour and parent’s expectation. Theeffect of these variables was stronger for male than female. Thestudies also demonstrated that parental expectation was strongestpredictor of mathematics score (Karbetian, 2004; Rangiin & Leung,2000). Studies related to parents’ educational expectation alsosuggest that parent’s child agreement regarding educationalexpectation foster academic achievement (Hau & Burns, 1998).Parent child shared expectations such as school achievementscience oriented career aspiration; moral character and culturalintegration serve as the children’s life goals and guide their everyday practice. In addition to this, future planning and goal settingmotivate the children to pursue excellence and actively engage inlearning, (Jun. 2003).

Determinants of Parental Educational Expectation

Status attainment and family social capital are twoperspectives that have used to study the educational expectationsof parents and children. Status attainment perspective viewssocioeconomic status (i.e., parent’s education, occupation, andincome) and early academic performance are the determinants ofeducational expectations. These factors directly influence parents’educational expectations, which in turn influence children’sexpectations for themselves (Sewell, Haller, & Portes, 1969;Sewell & Shah, 1968). Socioeconomic background and earlyacademic performance also have direct effects on children’sexpectations (Sewell, Haller, & Ohlendorf, 1970; Wilson & Portes,1975). In short, higher socio economic status families provide

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resources and expectations that promote high expectations amongchildren. Studies in United States have found support for thestatus attainment perspective (Sewell & Hauser, 1975; Wilson &Wilson, 1992). Expectations research in other more developedcountries has also provided support for the status attainmentperspective (Looker & Pineo, 1983; Marjoribanks, 1986; Ratty,2006). Some studies in less developed countries have not foundsignificant association between parental education, academicperformance and educational expectations, which has beenattributed to the nature of schooling in those countries (Tsui &Rich, 2002).

A second perspective i.e., family social capital focuses onthe relations between children and parents or other family members(Coleman, 1988). Parents’ interactions with children andinvolvement in their children’s educational may strengthen theparent-child relationship, which in turn may increase parents’ andchildren’s expectations and the agreement between theirexpectations (Hao & Bruns, 1998). Some Studies in United Statesdemonstrated parental involvement in children’s schoolingincreased children’s educational expectations even when parents’expectations were controlled (Wilson & Wilson, 1992). Measuresof family social capital (parental monitoring of schoolwork andfrequency of parent-child talks about school) were not significantin studies of children’s educational expectations in less developedcountries (Tsui and Rich 2002), which might that suggest thatfamily social capital is less important for children’s educationalexpectations in social contexts different from the U.S.

Both the status attainment and family social perspectivessuggest high agreement between parents’ and children’sexpectations, although studies have found level of parent-childagreement varies by race/ethnicity and the way parentalexpectations are measured (Hao & Bruns 1998; Kerckkoff &Huff 1974). The family social capital perspective in particular

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suggests that a reciprocal relationship exists between parents’and children’s educational expectations. Parents and children whointeract more frequently (i.e., who have more family social capital)may influence each other’s expectations more strongly. A U.S.study conducted by Hao and Bruns (1998) found parent-childinteractions in learning activities increased both parent’s andchildren’s self-reported expectations and agreement between thetwo, but the reciprocal relationship between their expectationsdisappeared once which parent child interactions in learningactivities were controlled.

Parents Educational Expectation and Gender Differences

Parent’s expectation of their children’s education is oftenbased on stereotypes rather than children’s abilities andperformance (Eccles, Jacobs & Harold., 1990; Eccles, Jacobs,Harold, Yoon, Arbreton, & Freedman-Doan, 1993). For example,parents have higher expectation and educational aspirations fortheir sons than for their daughters (Eccles, Adler, Futterman,Goff, Kaczala, et al., 1983; Halloway, 1986; Holloway & Hess,1985), especially with regard to mathematics and sportsperformance (Eccles et al., 1993; Fennema & Sherman, 1977;Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982). These lower expectations areevident already for their kindergarten aged children no matterwhether the mothers are American, Chinese or Japanese (Lummis& Stevenson, 1990). Despite the absence of gender differencesin Mathematics performance, parents also tend to have lowerminimum grade standards, think that their daughters are lesstalented than their sons, and believe that mathematics is harderfor girls than boys (Eccles, et al., 1993; Parsons et al., 1982;Phillips & Zimmerman, 1990). Parent’s expectations of theirdaughter’s mathematics performance are frequently inaccuratelylow (Holloway & Hess, 1985; Parsons et al., 1982). For example,in a study of German parents and their 12-years old, parentsrated their daughters, but not sons, lower in mathematics ability

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than was warranted based on their performance on a mathematicstest (Helmke & Schrader, 1989).

Parent’s expectations not only predict children’s academicachievement, but they can also become self-fulfilling prophecies.Parent’s expectations affect children’s perceptions of competencemore than does the children’s own performance (Eccles & Jacobs,1986; Eccles et al., 1990, 1993; Parsons et al., 1982; Phillips,1987). Parents low expectation for girls subtly communicate totheir daughters that they are not competent at mathematics.Interestingly, even if parents had low expectation for son, hemight not be as adversely affected as a daughter might be. Thereason for this is that females tend to view others evaluativefeedback regarding their performance as accurate and consequentlymore influenced by such feedback than are males (Roberts, 1990,1991; Roberts & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1989, 1994). Given theirparents low expectations is not surprising that females holdinaccurately low perceptions of competence (Beyer, 1990, 1994),especially for mathematics (Crandall, 1969; Eccles et al., 1983;Phiips & Zimmerman, 1990). To summarize, parent’s lowexpectancies of performance negatively affect children’sperceptions of competence and consequently their academicachievement.

Parent’s Educational Expectation and Culture:

Cultural background not only influences family belief aboutthe value of education, but may affect how academic expectationare communicated by parents and perceived by their children(Chen, 1998). Findings indicated that Asian students were morewilling to accept their parent’s advice and cared more aboutfulfilling academy expectation than European students. Asianchildren are more obedient and respectful to elders. They aremore concern about their parent’s expectation and evaluationsand work diligently to receive good grade in order to avoid

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disgracing their family. Asian parents unanimously emphasizedthat their children must obtain a quality university education.

They regarded education as their top priority. In a series ofstudy Stevenson and Stigler, 1992 found that Asian students workedmuch harder on academic studies than their Americancounterparts. Such behaviours were influenced by three factors.Firstly, education was more highly valued in Asian societies.Secondly, the parents of Asian children underestimate theirchildren’s abilities and were not very much satisfied with theirperformance. Finally Asian societies greatly attributed that childrenshould make more effort for their achievement. It was arguedthat these three factors resulted in higher levels of motivation andhigher levels of parental expectation about education on the partof Asian Children.

CONCLUSION

Number of studies has examined the role of family, culture,parents’ education, parents self feeling etc. related to parentalexpectation and children’s school achievement. There exist severalproblems that demand further investigation. First it can be concludedthat the preview studies have been predominantly framed in apositive relationship between parental educational expectation andachievement motivation of adolescents whereas unrealisticexpectation could exert excessive parental pressure on theirchildren and damage their self esteem and confidence. Parentaleducational expectation therefore, could become counter productiveto their desired outcomes. Parents must align their expectation,especially their academic standards with their children’s talentpotential.

Some adolescents experience anxious thoughts and feelingunder parental pressure especially when their parents are extremelyconcern about their academic achievement and future career.

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Secondly majority of studies on parental expectation have beendone only by using the data obtained from parents, hence theinformation is only one sided. A large body of research has beenmainly focused on how parental expectations produce positiveresult i.e., high academic achievers; whereas less researchattention has been given to children’s feeling and needs. Moreover,these studies can not answer how children come to internalize orreject their parents’ expectations. Third the majority of studieshave portrayed Asian as a homogenous cultural group. Recentstudies regarding child’s academic success also reinforce theseassertion that high expectation often lead to worried children andunserious parents. (Adhyaru & Nandakumar, 2003).

Thus studies should investigate not only the importance ofparental expectations for their children’s academic performance,but also the process by which children perceive this influence.Research should focus on the conditions under which parent’scommunicate their expectation (Seiginer, 1983). Although positiveeffects & parental expectation are prominent in Asian cultures(Hiaschmann & Wong 1986, Peng & Wright 1994; Schreidn &Lee 1990).

As education is the most important factor in economic wellbeing of individual in today’s society, most parents pay closeattention to their children’s education and have high educationalexpectation for their children. However, the level of parentalexpectation depends upon various factors including culture, socioeconomic status and gender of the child. Parental expectationshave been accredited as one of the most salient family factor thatcontribute to children’s school achievement Research should alsofocus on conditions under which expectation are most effectivelycommunicated and accepted by the children especially whencultures clash.

In order to help their children realize educational expectation,the parents should closely supervise their children’s school work

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and provide assistance at home. They should not only teach theirchildren about advanced knowledge of the subject but also help tomake them analyze their previous academic success and failure.The children should feel that their parents involvement and supporthave optimized their mastery learning experiences in various subjectand greatly enhanced their self efficiency and competence indealing with difficult task. The parents should continuously providefeedback on effort in the children’s school work. Parents shouldhelp their children by encouraging internal control belief .It is alsoimportant for parents to should nurture good study habits whenthe child is young and tell them importance of goal orientation(Jun, 2003).

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