Panos HatziprokopiouAristotle University of Thessaloniki

From the “fenceless vineyard” to the “sinking boat”:Migration and social change in Greece at times of crisis

April 11, 2012

European Union Centre of Excellence

York University

HISTORY & CONTEXT

• The transformation of Greece into a migrant-receiving country – The changing European & global migration map– Southern Europe’s transition from emigration to immigration– Domestic socio-economic developments

• Immigration into Greece since the early 1990s– (i) Balkan dimension: large-scale clandestine movements from

Albania– (ii) importance of ethnic migrations: former Soviet countries &

Albania– (iii) geographic position at the southeast corner of the EU

MIGRANTS IN GREECE: KEY FEATURES (1)Foreign nationals by country of citizenship, Census 2001

COUNTRY N % of foreign nationals % in total population

foreign nationals 796,713 100.0 7.3

Albania 443,550 55.7 4.0

Bulgaria 37,230 4.7 0.3

Georgia 23,159 2.9 0.2

Romania 23,066 2.9 0.2

USA 22,507 2.8 0.2

Cyprus 19,084 2.4 0.2

Russian Fed 18,219 2.3 0.2

UK 15,308 1.9 0.1

Germany 15,303 1.9 0.1

Ukraine 14,149 1.8 0.1

Poland 13,378 1.7 0.1

Pakistan 11,192 1.4 0.1

Australia 9,677 1.2 0.1

Turkey 8,297 1.0 0.1

Italy 7,953 1.0 0.1

Egypt 7,846 1.0 0.1

Armenia 7,808 1.0 0.1

India 7,409 0.9 0.1

Irak 7,188 0.9 0.1

Canada 6,909 0.9 0.1

Philippines 6,861 0.9 0.1

MIGRANTS IN GREECE: KEY FEATURES (2)

Reasons for migration N %

employment 381330 50.1

family reunion 93674 12.3

education 19950 2.6

asylum 9920 1.3

refugee 2359 0.3

other reason 206784 27.1

more than one reasons 47796 6.3

total women 346445

women employment 152919 44.1

women reunion 48862 14.1

Occupation all

Employed 51.4

Seeking employment 2.8

Seeking employment 1st time 2.5

Pupil/ Student 11.2

Pensioner 4.0

Housework 14.2

Other 3.3

<10 years 10.6

Source: Census 2001

Education Level all men women

ALL 761813 54.5 45.5

PhD 1436 0.2 0.2

Master 3332 0.4 0.4

Higher Education (academic) 54921 5.9 8.8

Higher Education (technical) 15599 1.5 2.7

Post-secondary 20732 2.0 3.5

Secondary (bacalaureat) 200323 24.5 28.4

Secondary professional 13229 2.0 1.5

Secondary technical 9502 1.5 0.9

Secondary 1st stage 128123 18.1 15.3

Primary 166911 24.3 19.0

Pupils in Primary 56658 7.2 7.7

non completed Primary but literate

21049 3.0 2.4

illiterate 69998 9.2 9.1

by profession all men women

Managerial, etc 9210 2.4 2.2

Scientists, Artists, etc 12671 2.4 5.0

Technisians, etc 7278 1.5 2.7

White collar 8520 1.5 3.7

Service employees & salespersons

40899 7.2 17.8

Skilled farmers, cattle-vreeders, foresters & fishermen

26972 7.1 6.5

Blue clollar, unskilled & petit entrepreneurs

267483 72.9 58.1

not clearly stated 5133 1.4 1.1

not declared 13458 3.6 3.1

MIGRANTS IN GREECE: KEY FEATURES (3)

Source: Census 2001

LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION - 1990s

Gaps & shortages in labour supply Specific economic sectors & geographical regions Vacant or unpopular posts (3D) New needs (economic restructuring & social change)

Demand for cheap, low-skilled, flexible labour : (a) SMEs: labour intensive activities (agriculture, construction,

manufacturing, low-qualified services) (b) individuals/households (domestic service/ care, house-repair

works)

Gendered division of migrant labour• Irregular migration and informal economic activity

• 1990s: from neglect to amnesty 1991 Law: Fragmented and restrictive policy framework, originally

neglecting the reality of immigration Policing: “broom” operations & mass deportations Hundreds of thousands irregular migrants: first regularisation programme

in 1998

• 2000s: rationalisation First mention of “integration” in 2001 Law, more substance in 2005 Law Despite still-ambiguous legal status, the majority of early immigrants

regularised

But: Low asylum approval rates Restricted access to citizenship

THE POLICY FRAMEWORK

Xenophobia & racismA 'spasmodic reaction' to mass migration?A media-fed sense of 'invasion' & 'threat'?A policy-generated link between immigration & crime?

Reproducing 'global' racial discources (e.g. racialisation fo Albanian immigrants)

Reflecting exclusionary constructions of Greek national identity & shifting perceptions of the national community

Related to changing socio-economic stratification & class relations

Contradiction

Informal relationships & practices solidarityCivil society mobilisation in support of migrants

ENCOUNTERS WITH THE 'OTHER'

Adaptation practices & strategies to copeInformal pathways of access to employment, housing, health & welfare

services (through ‘policy gaps’ & informal social networks)Heavy reliance on kinship and friendship ties, but gradually also on

relationships with indigenous GreeksFamily formation & reconfiguration of migratory projects

Gradual improvement of living conditions acquisition of legal status; move towards more stable, better-paid jobs, some in more qualified

positions, some in entrepreneurship;formal access to social security and welfare services (health, education);better & more suitable accommodation, car ownership, bank account;Claiming rights & public voice through associations & involvement in

mainstream civil society

PROCESSES OF INCORPORATION - 2000s

Shift in public discourse: Knowing the 'Other'Appreciating 'difference'Towards recognition

Positive policy steps:Fewer social security stamps required for permitsCitizenship Law 2010 (second generation & long-term residents)Partial political rights to long-term migrants

- After 2005: an inversion of trends?New challengesShift in migratory routesPolicy limitations & shortcomingsEconomic downturn & economic crisis

PROCESSES OF INCORPORATION - 2000s

VALID STAY PERMITS 2003 - 2008

Source: Greek Ministry of Home Affairs

ASYLUM APPLICATIONS, APROVALS & REJECTIONS 2005-2011

(includes past applications)

Applicattions

Rejections

Humanitarian status

Source: Greek Police

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SgQ0Y4mfYY

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

2003* 2004* 2005* 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011**

all (other) nationalities

Bangladesh

Iraq

Somalia

Algeria

Palestine

Pakistan

Afganistan

Albania

NUMBERS OF APPREHENSIONS OF FOREIGN NATIONALS FOR UNAUTHORISED ENTRY/STAY 2003-2011

IMMIGRANTS’ SHARE IN TOTAL LABOUR FORCE 2005 - 2011

Source: Labour Force Surveys 2005-2011 (by trimester)

Census 2001 Labour Force Surveys2006, 2011

all women total women 2006b 2011b

Agriculture etc17.5 12.4 25.5

7.0 9.8

Mining, etc0.2 0.0 0.0

0.3 0.1

Manufacturing12.5 8.0 4.1

14.1 11.2

Energy & Water0.1 0.0 0.0

0.2 0.5

Construction24.5 0.9 0.9

30.4 20.8

Trade & Repair15.7 19.9 15.8

8.6 13.3

Hotels & Catering 10.5 12.4

Transport, storage & communications2.7 1.7 0.4

2.2 3.2

Other services20.8 52.1 48.2

26.7 28.7

Finance, real estate, business services 3.7 5.7

Public admin, education, health & welfare 3.9 4.1

Other services 1.9 2.3

Services to households 17.2 16.7

n/a5.9 5.1 5.0

- -

IMMIGRANTS EMPLOYMENT BY SECTOR/INDUSTRY

Source: Census 2001, Labour Force Surveys 2005-2011 (by trimester)

PEOPLE INSURED WITH IKA (GREECE’S LARGEST SOCIAL SECURITY FUND)2003 - 2010

Source: IKA statistics 2005-2011 (monthly)

Average daily wages of employees insured with IKA (excl. construction)

Nationalities Dec-08 Dec-09 Dec-10

all women all women all women

All 52.41 45.91 55.61 50.23 55.17 48.51

Greece 54.04 47.07 57.5 50.23 56.97 49.92

Albania 36.76 33.22 38.45 34.74 38.46 34.74

Russia 34.3 30.13 35.37 31.09 35.65 31.52

Pakistan 36.5 36.08 38.2 35.8 37.49 37.43

Bulgaria 32.2 28.27 32.51 28.69 32.25 28.85

Romania 38.16 34.18 38.01 34.39 37.72 33.91

IMMIGRANTS’ AVERAGE DAILY WAGES, 2008-2010(selected nationalities)

Source: IKA statistics 2008-2010 (biannual)

AVERAGE DAILY WAGES OF BULGARIAN IMMIGRANTS & GREEK NATIONALS(by gender), 2003-2010

Source: IKA statistics 2003-2010 (biannual)

UNEMPLOYMENT RATES IN GREECE, 2005-2011

Source: Labour Force Surveys 2005-2011 (by trimester)

EMERGING TRENDS & NEW CHALLENGES

• New arrivals, diverging routes:

– a humanitarian crisis under way?

• Difficult present, uncertain future:

– economic crisis, unemployment & welfare needs

– return migration?

• Coexistence, competition & racism:

– Between ‘tolerance’ & ‘prejudice’

• An emerging ‘multiethnic’ new Greece?

– Ethnic economies

– The second generation into play