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Overview of MedievalMonasticism

Let a man consider that God is always looking at himfrom heaven, that his actions are everywhere visible to

the divine eyes and are constantly being reported to Godby the Angels. . In order that he may be careful about hiswrongful thoughts, therefore, let the faithful brother sayconstantly in his heart, "Then shall I be spotless before

Him, if I have kept myself from my iniquity." --from The Rule of St. Benedict

Introduction

Christian monasticism is a structured, ascetic pursuit of the Christian life. It involves areturn to God through attention to the classic spiritual disciplines of silence, chastity,prayer, fasting, confession, good works, obedience, and vigils. The monastic experience--from monas (Gk. "alone")--is an inward and solitary one, though it may be practiced incommunity. The nature of the monastic pursuit is one that involves ora et labora (Lt."prayer and work"), a submission of every aspect of one's life to a practiced awareness ofGod's presence.

Most monks and nuns were not priests, relying on the local parish to administer thesacraments; however, often isolated communities could seek to have one or moremembers ordained if needed. Likewise, bishops have often been chosen from monasticleadership.

Christian monasticism, while primarily concerned with the individual pursuit of the "spirituallife," that is an ascetic pursuit of God, has also arguably been responsible for:

1. the survival of education and culture during the period following the fall of theWestern Roman Empire;

2. the perpetuation of important Greco-Roman and early Christian manuscripts inmonastery scriptoriums;

3. the development of important early medicines in rudimentary pharmacies;4. the beginnings of Western capitalism with early advances in agricultural production,

manufacturing, corporation law, and labor division;5. important advances in art, music, and cooking;6. social stability in Western and Eastern Europe, often serving as an outlet for the

second sons and daughters of wealthy aristocratic families;7. and for important reform movements within Christendom.

The history of Christian monasticism, especially in Western Christianity, has been one of acycle of reformation, stability, growing laxness and wealth, followed by new reformation,and so on.

Early Monasticism

I. Possible PredecessorsNazirites (Numbers 6:1-21): Nazirites were of two types: those who were dedicatedfrom birth to be a Nazirite (e.g. Samson and possibly John the Baptist) and thosewho undertake the vow for a limited time (Paul may have done this, cf. Acts 18:18).The Nazirite’s spiritual disciplines included not drinking wine or eating grapes, not

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cutting their hair until the end of the vow, extra strict rules for ritual defilement, andcertain sacrificial dedications.

Qumran Community: Jewish ascetical communities located in Qumran ( Dead Sea ).They are primarily remembered because of The Manual of Discipline and TheDamascus Document. They were led by an examiner, practiced communalownership, keep strict rituals and an office of prayer, and practiced expulsion forviolations of Torah.

Essenes: Described by Josepheus, the Essenes were mystical Jewish sects in thelate 2nd century BC through the 1st century AD. Often associated with the Qumrancommunity, they practiced a number of ascetical practices, including communalownership, ritual bathing, isolation, special oaths, and food practices. They alsoseriously studied Jewish mystical and apocalyptical writings of the period.

Therapeutae: Early Jewish aesthetic hermits and communities described by Philo ofAlexandria in the 1st century AD who lived in Egypt . They practiced solitude, ritualcleansing, prayer, fasting, etc. Philo saw them as examples of the contemplativeexistence. Apparently, their community was deeply involved in Jewish allegorical andmystical readings of the Old Testament and Apocryphal works, such as Enoch.

II. Medieval legends

Joseph of Arimathea: Medieval legends believed that Joseph of Arimathea foundedthe first monastic community in Glastonbury somewhere between 37 to 63 AD. TheGrail legend is often associated with this. No real evidence exists for these claims,though Christian influence was relatively early in the British Isles .

Daughters of Philip (Acts 21:7-9): The four unmarried daughters of Philip theEvangelist were considered by medieval monks as early ascetics.

III. Models

1. Jewish (Old Testament) Prophets: Elijah and Elisha are often cited as early examplesof the monastic ideal

2. John the Baptist: Called John the Forerunner in Eastern Christianity, John’s particularrigorous lifestyle and prophetic commitment to “decrease as he increases” were seenas modeling the monastic life.

3. Mary: Mary’s simple obedience, radical submission to God’s will, humility andsilence, as well as her chastity were all qualities seen as aspects of the ascetic life.Almost all medievals believed Mary to be a perpetual virgin, and this understandingbecame part of the prizing of virginity as a higher, more heavenly life and as a livingmartyrdom and espousal to Christ.

4. Paul: Paul’s celibacy and tentmaking were prized as monastic.

5. Jesus: Jesus’ celibacy and prayer life were seen as the highest of models.

IV. Early Types

1. Eremetics: Hermits living alone, either living off what others brought them or by asimple means of subsistence existence, such as ropemaking. Paulus the Hermit (c.230-342) was the first Christian monk known by name to history. Eventually, many

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adopted a modified eremitic existence, living as hermits but near each other foroccasional gatherings and support. Marcarius first encouraged this form of living,nicknamed “the larvae.”

2. Cenobitics: cenobium (Lt. “community): A gathered community of monks livingtogether and following a common rule. Pachomius of Egypt (292-346) it istraditionally believed gathered the first community of monks, though this may havebeen one simply one of several loose associations.

V. The Desert Fathers

Some of the earliest, if not the earliest Christian monastics, the desert monks of Egyptlived in both eremitic and cenobitic fashion.

Icon of St. Anthony

It is often claimed that they arose as a reaction toluxury and laxness after Christianity was declaredlegal and then favored in the Roman Empire .Anthony of Egypt, one of the earliest desert hermits,is sometimes known as the father of monasticism,though this is a bit of a misnomer, since othermonks were practicing before him, yet the title isjustified in a way, for his example, especially madepopular through Athanasius’ Life of Anthony,inspired countless numbers to attempt the monasticlife. His choice to enter the harsh life of the desert,his strict practice, and tales of his spiritual warfarebecame a call to ascetical heroics.

Shapers of Later Monasticism

St. Benedict

Basil of Caesurea (c.330-379): Considered thefounder of Eastern monasticism, Basil (also calledBasil the Great) along with his older sister, Macrina,helped give shape to the monastic life in the East.His Aescetica provided the foundational rules thatstill today guide the Eastern Orthodox practice.Basil is also known as one of the key theologiansand preachers of the period and served as a bishopthe last seven years of his life.

Benedict of Nursia (480-543): Considered the fatherof Western monasticism, Benedict originally took upthe life of a hermit, but after being surrounded bynumerous others, he founded a communal house atMonte Cassino.

His Rule became the foundational guide for Western practice ("Therefore, we intend toestablish a schola [Lt. "school" or "combat unit"] for the Lord's service."). Almost allsubsequent reform movements in the medieval period saw themselves as trying to recoverthe original purity of Benedictine practice. The Rule gave shape to the characteristic shapeof Western monasticism. Some of the following are key aspects:

1. Benedictine monks made three vows:

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Poverty: communal ownership of all property; simple dress and meals

Chastity: celibacy; self-control; pure thought life and body

Obedience: submission to all superiors and all monks who have previously enteredthe order

2. Monks ordered their day about the office of prayer: eight hours each with characteristicemphasis:

Matins (during the night)Lauds or Morning Prayer (at Dawn)Prime or Early morning prayer (the First Hour = 6am)Terce or Mid-morning Prayer (the Third Hour = 9am)Sext or Mid-day Prayer (the Sixth Hour = 12pm)None or Mid-afternoon Prayer (the Ninth Hour = 3 pm)Vespers or Evening Prayer (at the lighting of the lamps)Compline or Night Prayer (before retiring)

3. Daily life was divided between prayer, work, and study. Labor was meant to keep eachhouse self-sufficient and free of idleness, though in later centuries, manual work was oftentaken care of by local peasants. Communal meetings, sleeping arrangements, and diningall enforced a community discipline. Silence and times of solitude were regularly practiced,as well.

4. The monastery set up the following offices:

Abbot: abba (Aram. "father")--the spiritual and organizational leader of the house.Prior: the second in command.Dean: would oversee ten monks

Celtic Monasticism

At its height in 5th through 7th centuries, the Celtic monastic tradition was a different onethan that of Benedict, and consequently, had some differences in practice and emphasis,including the practice of peregrination, wandering on land or sea without direction orplanning, totally dependent upon God’s purposes. They observed a different calendar thanthat of Rome, and possibly some married monks were allowed. Celtic monasteries werealso known for their rich book production and early missionary work in the British Isles andFrance . Many of their scholars would form the backbone of the Carolingian Renaissancein future centuries. Important early Celtic missionaries include Patrick of Ireland (c. 390-461), Columbanus (543-615) who founded Iona, and Aidan (d. 651) who foundedLindisfarne in Northumbria . At the Synod of Whitby in 633, the Celtic orders adoptedWestern practices, including the Western calendar.

Reform Movements

I. Cluny

The Benedictian monastery at Cluny, Burgandy was established in 909/910 by the Duke ofAquitaine to be an abbey free of secular feudal control. For 200 years it functioned as acenter of reform and social stability, and it was ruled by a succession of seven powerfuland intelliegent abbots, including Breno and Peter the Venerable. The houses associatedwith Cluny (314 by the 12th century) practiced a more centralized form of governance in

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being answerably to the mother house at Cluny, a power structure not shared by the largerBenedictine order. Cluny became a great center of art and liturgy, responsible for thetraining of popes and other important church leaders. Eventually, the Cluniacs becameenriched with their social wealth and influence.

Destroyed in the 18th century, the abbey-church at Cluny was an immense structureand became famous in the high medievalperiod. 555 feet in length, it was the largestchurch until St. Peter's at Rome wasconstructed. "It consisted of five naves, anarthex, or ante-church, and several towers.Commenced by St. Hugh, the sixth abbot, in1089, it was finished and consecrated byPope Innocent II in 1131-32, the narthexbeing added in 1220" (CatholicEncyclopedia).

St. Bruno

II. Carthusians

Begun by Bruno in 1084, the Carthusian order adoptedtheir own rule, The Statutes, in opposition to theBenedictine rule. Bruno began the first house inChartreuse in the Alps. The Carthusian order is stillconsidered the strictest order of the Roman CatholicChurch. They refused the dormitory-style commonsleeping quarters of Cluny for single-cells, opting for avery simple, spare existence, hard manual labor, poor dietand clothing. The Carthusian order stressed a simplicity orabsence of insignia. In many ways, the Carthusiansreturned to the early desert Cenobitic organization. Theorder famously claims "nunquam reformata quia nunquamdeformata" ("It needs no reform that has never beendeformed.")

III. Cistercians

In 1098, Robert of Mosleme left the Benedictine order to begin a reform movement atCiteaux. By papal order, Robert was shortly replaced by Alberic, who died in 1109, then byStephen Harding who ruled until 1134. The order stressed a return to the Benedictine rulein its original strictness, and as a result, they were in tension with Peter the Venerable atCluny. They stressed manual, agricultural work, located themselves in wilderness self-contained retreats, and refused gifts from the wealthy. Bernard of Clarivaux, one of themost famous monks of the medieval period, took the order from 30 to 280 houses.

In the 13th century, Cistercian wool industry called for the creation of an order of laybrothers, relatively uneducated field workers and herdsmen, associated with the houses.The Cistercians adopted a polity half-way between the centralization of the Cluniacs andthe complete independence of Benedictine houses. Cistercian abbots, elected by eachhouse, were then subject to the yearly meeting of the chapter, the association of housespresided over by the Citeaux abbot.

IV. Augustinians

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In the 11th century, a number of independent monastic houses sprung up, orderingthemselves under the Rule of St. Augustine. They were consolidated between 1243 and1256 ("The Great Union") by Pope Innocent IV. Inspired by the ideal of "modesty andservice," the OSA (Order of Saint Augustine) has operated schools, hospitals, retirementcenters, and music foundations.

V. The Franciscans & The Dominicans

Franciscans: Begun by Francis and Clare of Assisi in the early 13th century as a preachingorder concerned with the poor, the order was known for its work with the sick, destitute,and disenfranchised, as well as its unquestioning obedience to the pope.

St. Francis

Under Francis’ charismatic leadership, theorder expanded rapidly, and became knownfor its emphasis on evangelical poverty,winsome compassion, and missions. Duringbut especially after Francis’ lifetime, the orderbecame divided into stricter and laxer parties.The scholar Bonaventure led the Franciscansfrom 1257 to 1274, seeking to chart amoderate course, though condemning theexcesses of the stricter Observationist or“Spiritual” party. The Spiritual Franciscans,along with strong mystical and apocalypticbeliefs, held to the doctrine of apostolicpoverty, believing that Christ and the apostlesowned nothing. This position was declaredheretical in 1322. The Franciscan order in thefollowing centuries spun off a number ofseparate sects and other orders. St. Dominic

Dominicans: The Order of Preachers (Ordo Praedicatorum) was founded by Dominiac inthe 13th century as a medicant, or preaching, order. It was begun with an apologetical goalin mind—to convert Muslims, Jews, and heretics to the Catholic faith. Dominiac stressedvacility with vernacular languages, a strong academic education, especially in theology,and a life of simplicity and poverty so as to avoid hypocrisy. Two of its most famousmembers were the philosophers Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. The order grewquickly in its first centuries of existence and its influence expanded as its members werechosen for church offices. Eventually, the order was charged with running the RomanInquisition.

Knights Templar & Other Military Orders

Existing for about two centuries (1096-1314), the Knights Templar was the most well-known of the military orders. They were constituted as a monastic order after the FirstCrusade as an inspiration of Bernard of Clarivaux. The order was made-up of celibatelifetime members and temporary members, often married, from the knightly class who weremostly uneducated. The order also pioneered modern banking methods, such as creditand checking, to raise funds for the crusades, as well as to assist pilgrimages to the HolyLand . They served in the Holy Land campaigns, but eventually were accused of heresy byPhilip the Fair and disbanded by Pope Clement V.

The Order of Christ, begun in 1318, succeeded the Knights Templar and absorbed many ofits knights. It settled in Portugal . Over the centuries, it was reformed as both a religiousorder answerable to the pope and a civil order answerable to the king. The KnightsHospitaller, a 12th century order working with the sick, after the First Crusade divided itself

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into two parts, the newer one pledged to protecting pilgrimages to the Holy Land. Theyalso fought with distinction in the Holy Land . Eventually, they absorbed much of theproperty of the Knights Templar, and its branches became military enclaves in latercenturies, such as the Knights of Malta.

Timeline251-356 Life of Anthony 320 Pachomius (293-346) begins one of the first communal monasteries (Tabennisi,

Egypt)c. 330 Amoun and Macarius also found monasteries in the Egyptian desert370 Basil, Aescetica386 Jerome founds monasteries in Bethlehem390-459 Symeon the Stylite (c. 390 – 459) lives atop a column in Syria401 Augustine of Hippo, On the Works of Monks , a work stressing value of manual

labor453 Patrick commissioned as missionary to Irelandc. 526 Benedict writes his Rulec. 563 Columbanus founds monastery at Iona, Scotland597 Augustine (of Canterbury) sent to British isles as missionary by Pope Gregory I635 Aidan founds Lindisfarnec. 663 Synod of Whitby resolves differences between Celtic and Roman Christianity731 Bede, History of the English Church and People793 Vikings sack Lindisfarne909 Berno founds Cluny.936 Abbot Laffredus of Farfa poisoned by two monks for trying for enforcing the

Benedictine rulec. 943 Dunstan calls for monastic reform in England1084 Bruno founds the Carthusians1098 Robert Molêsme founds Cistercian order1099 First Crusade captures Jerusalem1115 Bernard begins Cistercian abbey at Clairvaux1118 The Knights Templar form in Jerusalem1127 Bernard of Clairvaux, Apologia – prophetic critique of the Cluniacs1128 Knights Templar adopt that Cistercian rule1170-1221

Life of Dominic

1181/82-1226

Life of Francis of Assisi

1210 Pope Innocent III recognizes the Franciscans1215 Fourth Lateran Council calls for monastic reform and regulation1217 Pope Honorius III licenses the Order of Preachers (Dominicans )1221 Death of St. Dominic, founder of the Dominican Order1233 Dominicans to staff the Roman Inquisition1243-1256 Pope Innocent IV consolidates OSA (Order of Saint Augustine)1314 Knights Templar disbanded1318 Order of Christ succeeds Knights Templar1323 Pope John XXII opposes doctrine of apostolic poverty

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1328 William of Ockham excommunicated for Spiritual Franciscan views

"All manner of thing shall be well/ When the tongues of flame are in-folded/ Into the crowned knot of fire/ Andthe fire and the rose are one." -- T.S. Eliot, Little Gidding