PART-A

Evolution of Management ( As Science and Profession):

The field of management science is often closely allied with the area called operations research through common analytical methods and models. The application and implementation of management science recognizes well the behavioral and economic realities of management practice in organizations. During the past twenty-five years, the management sciences and management's use of information systems technology have evolved together. In this survey we highlight three aspects of this mutual evolution: first, as a basis for enunciating and understanding issues involved in theory and practice; second, as providing tools and techniques to solve managerial and technical problems related to MIS design and development; and third, as a component of "MIS technology" available for application and use. The "management sciences" concern disciplines that identify, extend, or unify scientific knowledge pertaining to the process and substance of management.

The various theories of management:

1. Scientific Management Theories2. Classical theories 3. The human Relation Theories 4. Behavioral Approach Theories

1. Scientific Management Theories: The real development of management thought has begun with scientific management approach given by Frederick Winslow Taylor. He was the fast to advocate the adoption of scientific method in the field industrial processes and management to promote industrial efficiency and economy. There was need to increase productivity which required in the long run a more rational and the integrated approach to managerial problem. It was mainly to fulfill this need and find the ways to rays industrial productivity.

Main features of scientific management:

5. separation of planning and doing.6. Functional foremanship7. Simplification of work 8. Job analysis9. Standardization of work methods10. Scientific selection and training of workers11. Financial incentives12. Economy13. Mental revolution

2) Classical Theories:

The classical theory is concerned with the formal organization structure as well as the process of administration. The classical

theories addressed themselves to the task of discovering the true bases on which division of work in an organization could be carried out, and devising effective method of bringing about coordination in it. They, moreover laid emphasis on precise definition of task and their interrelationship and advocated the use of authority and a system check to exercise control over personal, so that the organizational work get done.

Main features of Classical theories:

14. Division of work15. Authority 16. Discipline17. Unity of control 18. Unity of direction 19. Centralization and decentralization20. Initiative.

3) Human Relation theory:

The essence of theories is as follows:

Emphasis on people behavior and motivation.21. Emphasis on group functioning22. Rejection of formal institutionalization.

Main feature of Human relation theories23. The individual 24. Work group25. Participative management.

4) Behavioral approach:

Behavioral approach is an actually a theory of organization infact, the use of behavioral sciences in study of organizational behavior. The sciences include mainly the disciple of anthropology, psychology and sociology.

Main features of Behavioral approach:

26. Its literature is descriptive, rather than prescriptive, with the studies on motivation being an exception.

27. Increase attention is paid to the individual based on more realistic research concerning motivation, decision making process and the nature of authority.

28. Stress is laid on informal relation and communication patterns among member of an organization. It is cheaply though not exclusively concern with quantification, and formal theory construction It is interdisciplinary in character, and makes considerable use proposition .drawn from other social sciences.

Main features of Management:

Organizing:

Managers are also responsible for designing and organization structure. We call this function organizing. It includes the determination of what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be group, who reports to whom, and where decision are to be made.

Planning:

Since, Organization exist to achieve goals, someone has to define this goals and the means by which they can be achieve the planning function encompasses defining and organization goals, establishing and overall strategy for achieving those goals and developing and comprehensive hierarchy of plan to integrate and coordinate activities.

Controlling:

The final function managers perform is controlling. To insure that things are going as they should, management must monitor the organization performance. The actual performance must be compared with the previous set goals. If there are many significant deviation, its management job to get the organization

back on track.

Directing:

Directing is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. It is like giving direction of one’s occupational authority to another, usually a subordinate, to facilitate work in the organization.

PART-BEmpowerment:

The process through which managers enable and help others to gain power and achieve influence within the organization. Effective leaders empower them with responsibility, authority and trust to

make decisions.

One account of the history of workplace empowerment in the [[United States of America|United States]] recalls the clash of management styles in railroad construction in the [[American West]] in the mid-19th century, where "traditional" hierarchical East-Coast models of control encountered individualistic pioneer workers, strongly supplemented by methods of [[efficiency (economics)|efficiency]]-oriented "worker [[Social responsibility|responsibility]]" brought to the scene by [[Chinese American|Chinese]] [[coolie|laborer]]s. In this casejjj, empowerment at the level of work [[team]]s or brigades achieved a notable (but short-lived) demonstrated superiority. See the [http://www.motivation-tools.com/workplace/history.htm views] of Robert L. Webb.

Empowerment in the workplace is regarded by critics as more a [[pseudo]]-empowerment exercise, the idea of which is to change the attitudes of workers, so as to make them work harder rather than giving them any real power, and Wilkinson (1998) refers to this as "attitudinal shaping". However, recent research suggests that the opportunity to exercise personal discretion/choice (and complete meaningful work) is an important element contributing to [[employee engagement]] and well-being. There is evidence (Thomas and Velthouse, 1990) that initiative and motivation are increased when people have a more positive attributional style. This influences self-belief, resilience when faced with set-backs, and the ability to visualise oneself overcoming problems. The implication is that 'empowerment' suits some more than others, and should be positioned in the broader context of an 'enabling' work

environment. Empowerment in the workplace was developed and practiced in

the 1950s and 1960s. Recent forces in the business community,

such as globalization, skilled staff shortages, and the need for innovation and productivity have added momentum to the search

for ways to survive. Despite limited empirical evidence, empowerment has been advocated as a promising solution. This study evaluates the effect of a controlled introduction of empowerment, with reference to power, managerial functions, leadership styles, and employee motivation. Data from 81 employees who were formally empowered were compared with 90 individuals in a control group. Results provided minimal support for the positive influence of empowerment. The disruptive nature of corporate downsizing that occurred during the introduction of empowerment may have nullified its effect.

Abstract  When people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, older adults, women, and others lack power, they usually experience adverse conditions disproportionate to other members of society. Emproverment—the process by which people gain some control over valued events, outcomes, and resources—is an important construct for understanding and improving the lives of people of marginal status. This manuscript presents a contextual-behavioral model of empowerment and its application in collaborative research with people with physical disabilities. The eight case studies illustrate 18 tactics for promoting empowerment that flow from the model. The case studies show the use of different combinations of empowerment tactics in a variety of contexts: (a) setting improvement agendas from the perspective of people with disabilities, (b) enforcing ordinances that preserve access to parking spaces designated for people with disabilities, (c) enabling access to homes through housing modifications, (d) enhancing support available through mutual-aid groups, (e) developing skills for recruiting mentors, (f) promoting self-

directed behavior hange with personal and health concerns, (g) enhancing skills for personal self-advocacy, and (h) building the capacities of groups of people with disabilities for systems advocacy. Finally, we discuss issues that may contribute to research and action related to empowerment

This article examines the efforts on the part of a city health department, in partnership with a broad-based coalition of community-based, government, and social service agen cies, to plan and implement, using principles of empowerment and community partici pation, a federally funded infant mortality reduction program. It examines the social and institutional dynamics of sharing power in an environment highly charged politically. Infant mortality in Boston is much more than a public health problem. It is the focal point of complex racial, political, and institutional factors. This case study illustrates how empowerment moves from rhetoric to reality and the challenge to both traditional public health practice and traditional community mobilization. The article describes the federal Healthy Start Initiative and its community participation mandate, the background on infant mortality in Boston, a case study of the development of the Healthy Start

program from the perspective of community empowerment, and finally, the lessons learned in the first 2 years of the program. It describes the controversies encountered, some of the mistakes made, and the ways found that government must be reinvented if empowerment is to be a real public health tool.

Abstract   Although empowerment is often cited as a major guiding construct for community psychology, relatively little is known about the characteristics of empowering community settings. The current paper uses a multiple case study methodology to generate a number of key organizational characteristics of empowering community settings to guide future work in the area. In-depth, multilevel, longitudinal research was conducted on three empowering community settings: a religious fellowship, a mutual help organization for persons with severe mental illness, and an educational program for African American students. The organizational features found to characterize all three settings were (a) a belief system that inspires growth is strengths-based, and is focused beyond the self; (b) an opportunity role structure that is pervasive, highly accessible, and multifunctional (c) a support system that is encompassing, peer-based, and provides a sense of community; and (d) leadership that is inspiring, talented, shared, and committed to both setting and members.

Influence Power: Ways to Influence Power

Once a group or individual has determined both their sources of power and the sources ofpower of a group or individual they are trying to influence, they can decide on strategiesfor influence. Understanding which of the power sources a group or individual has will helpyou decide on a corresponding strategy.Strategies to influence:Connection – make sure the idea you are proposing is connected to the work yourgroup is involved withCredibility – be honest, open, non-self-serving and straightforwardCommunication - gain access to a large, broad communication networkCompatibility – do not present ideas in a way that seems entirely opposite theperson or group you are trying to influenceSolvability – make sure the idea you propose is doablePayoff – talk about the long-term gain of the idea you are proposingExpertise – explain how the individual or group you are approaching has importantexpertise to contribute to the ideaResponsibility – explain how a person or group in a particular position has aresponsibility to address particular issues and ideasPresentation - present your idea clearly and optimistically with any supporting dataand informationBundling - point out relationships between your ideas and ideas already supportedby the group or individualCoalitions - point out other individuals or organizations supporting the ideaVisibility – present ideas in public forums to ensure multiple people hear the idea

Case study :

An emerging body of research in group decision support systems (GDSS) provides evidence that computer technology can and does impact the quality of decision making in groups. Most GDSS research is oriented toward examining the effects of a computer system on group outcomes, typically decision quality or group consensus, with the process itself often treated as a "black box." The research reported in this article addresses the need for a closer, micro-level examination of group process. An important group variable, namely influence behavior, was isolated and examined at various levels and by multiple methods. A model of specific GDSS effects on influence behavior was developed, based on an information exchange view of decision making and on the impact of a GDSS as a communication channel. Based on the research questions of interest in the study, several propositions and hypotheses were advanced and empirically tested on a specific implementation of a GDSS. Results were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The major empirical findings of the study showed no significant difference between the overall amount of influence behavior attempted in computer-supported versus unsupported groups, although significant differences were found in the pattern of influence behaviors, i.e., the different types of behaviors used. In addition, the distribution of influence behavior was more even in GDSS groups than in unsupported groups on one of two measures used. Empirical findings partially supported the research model, with indications that decision-making groups need more active guidance in understanding how to adapt computer support technology to their view of decision-making processes.

PART-C

Cross Culture Dynamic:

Cross Culture dynamic creates problem to an effective communication because words used by people are in the tune of their respective cultures which may not be properly understood by people of other culture. The barriers are caused by semantic differences, word connotation, differences of tune and perception. The semantic differences have created a problem

because people attribute different meaning to a single world. Negotiation between two culture is not easy. People face problem because they don’t have the same communication base. Person has different perception. So, they understand differently. The cross culture barriers are reduced by assuming differences until similarity is proven, emphasizing description rather than on interpretation, practicing empathy and treating the interpretation as developing rather than as final.

Transactional Analysis:

Transactional analysis refers to people’s interactions with reference to social transactions. This analysis provides a better understanding of how people react with each other while communicating and behaving in society. Transactional analysis comes under two main heads:

(1) Ego states (2) Life positions.

Ego states:

Ego states refer to the psychological analysis of interaction. Ego is the reality in between the morality of ID and the more practical superego. It keeps the impulsive ID and the conscience of the superego within control and personality development. Transactional analysis uses this theory basically for the three important ego states:

Child state:-

This is the stat in which a person acts like an impulsive child. The child state is submissive, confronting, insubordinate, emotional joyful or rebellious. They behave like children when the child state is realized by them. They behave emotionally and rebel against the superior when constantly hit by the latter. It is characterized by very emotional and immature behaviour.

(1) Adult state: - this state exists when people are rational, calculative, factual and mature. People in this stage gather relevant information, carefully analyse it, interpret it, develop alternatives and select the best choices. It is characterized as fairness and objectivity. Emotional and dominant features are not exercised under this state.

(2) Parent state:- It involves protective control, critical, instinctive and controlled nurturing. It involves superimposing rather than following real problem. People are domineering. Many a time, people overact and desire protective loving behaviour by their subordinates. However, superego is observed by this state that “why do you not follow the rules? Be careful with rules”.

Life positions:-

The ego state helps to understand the life position. One’s life position tends to dominate a person’s transactions, while other positions are exhibited from time to time in specific transactions. .