Onlinedictionariesforlanguagerevitalization

AndrewGarrettWordsandwordchoicearethemostsalientaspectsoflanguageformanypeople.

Therefore,amongallthevariouskindsofmaterialsthatmaypresentinformationaboutendangeredlanguagesinsupportoflanguagerevitalization,dictionariesmaybethemosthighlyvaluedandfrequentlyusedincommunities,bylearnersandteachers.Yetsincelexicographyisrarelytaughtinlinguisticsgraduateprograms,linguistswhocontributetolanguagerevitalizationprogramstypicallyreceivenotrainingindictionarywriting.Likelanguageteachingitself,then,dictionarycreationisakeypartoflanguagerevitalizationthatlinguistslearnaboutonlyfromexperience.Aswepiecetogetherwhatweknowfromtheexperiencesweandourcollaboratorshavehad,wemayberediscoveringwhatourcolleaguesandpredecessorsalreadyknew.Itdoesnothelpthatthemanyfinebooksonlexicographyarenotorientedtowardthespecialcircumstancesofendangeredlanguages(ELs)andlanguagerevitalization.1

Generallyspeaking,dictionariesareoftwobroadtypes.MonolingualdictionarieslikeMerriam-Webster(merriam-webster.com)ortheOxfordEnglishDictionary(oed.com)areforlanguageusers(typicallyfluentnativespeakers)whoseekinformationaboutwordstheydonotknow,ormeaningsorusagepatternstheyseektounderstandbetter.BilingualdictionariesliketheCollinsRobertFrenchUnabridgedDictionary(Atkinsetal.2006)areforsecond-languageusers,andhelpthemtranslateorunderstandthesecondlanguage(calledthesourcelanguage)intermsoftheirfirstlanguage.ELdictionaries,includingthoseusedinlanguagerevitalization,arealmostalwaysbilingualdictionariesbecauseoftherelativelysmallnumberofELspeakers,andbecausepeoplewhoarenotfluentspeakersmaywishtolearntheEL.HereIwillusethetermmatrixlanguageforwhatlexicographerscallthetargetlanguage,sinceitisusuallythelanguageofthebroadersocietytowhichtheELcommunitybelongs(suchasEnglish,French,orSpanishinNorthAmerica).

WhileeverydictionaryforlanguagerevitalizationisinevitablyalsoanELdictionary,thereisacrucialdifferenceingoals.2Asanaidtoresearchscholars,ortohelppeoplereadtextsoragrammar,anELdictionaryishelpfulifitmerelyglosseswords,givingasenseoftheirmeaningandusageortheirtranslationinthematrixlanguage.3Thebarishigherfor

1GoodgeneralbooksonlexicographyincludeAtkinsandRundell(2008),Durkin

(2016),Landau(2001),Svensén(2009),andZgusta(1971);theyalladdressthegeneralissuesdisussedinthischapter.PapersintheInternationalJournalofLexicographyalsooftenaddressconcernsofinterestnotonlyingenerallexicographybutforELdictionaries.

2ForfinediscussionsofELdictionarywriting,seeFrawleyetal.(2002),Haviland(2006),Kroskrity(2015),Mosel(2011),andThieberger(2015).

3Obviouslysomeareasofmeaningrequireadditionaldetail,suchasscientificnamesforplantandanimalterms.Butgreatersemanticprecisionisoftenwarrantedinmanyotherareasofmeaning,suchasdeixis,directionandlocation,motion,andtimeamongothers.

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languagerevitalization:adictionaryneedstohelppeopleusetheEL.Forinstance,whenseveralELwordshavesimilarmeaningsoridenticaltranslationsinthematrixlanguage,adictionaryforlanguagerevitalizationmusthelpusersunderstandtheimplicationsoftheirwordchoices.Whichwordisappropriateinwhichcontextsofuse?Howdotheydifferinsemantics,pragmatics,andsyntax?LearnerswhorelyonadictionarythatlacksdetailaboutsuchparametersofusagemaytendtocombineELvocabularywithsyntacticandsemanticpatternsfromthematrixlanguage,yieldinga"relexified"matrixlanguage.4

Myexperienceinthisfieldcomesmainlyfromfouronlinedictionaryprojects,listedin(1),thatinvolveNativelanguagesofCalifornia.Theselanguagesareseverelyendangered:HupaandKarukhaveonlyaveryfewfluenttraditionalfirst-languagespeakers,Yurokhasnoactivetraditionalfirst-languagespeakers,andwhileNorthernPaiutehasdozensoffluentspeakerstheyareelderlyanddispersedincommunitiesoftheGreatBasin.(1) (a)Yurok(Algic):TheYurokLanguageProject(Garrett2011)hasintegratedatext

corpus,alexicaldatabase(adaptingtheprinteddictionariesofRobins1958andConathanetal.2005),andotherinformationaboutthelanguageanditscontext;seehttp://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~yurok/.TheYurokLanguageProjectwasbegunin2001withJulietteBlevinsandisnowmaintainedatBerkeleywiththecollaborationoftheYurokTribe'slanguageprogram.

(b)Hupa(Athabaskan):TheHupaOnlineDictionaryandTextsismaintainedbyKaylaBegay(HumboldtStateUniversity)andJustinSpence(UCDavis);seehttp://nalc.ucdavis.edu/hupa/hupa-lexicon.html.Itoriginatedasawaytoputacommunity-orienteddictionaryonline(Golla1996),andnowincorporatesatextcorpusaswellasotherimprovements.

(c)NorthernPaiute(Uto-Aztecan):TheNorthernPaiuteLanguageProjectismaintainedbyMaziarToosarvandani(UCSantaCruz)incollaborationwithNorthernPaiutecommunitymembers.Itincludesalexiconandtextdatabase;seehttp://paiute.ucsc.edu/.

(d)Karuk(Hokan):Ararahih'urípih("thepeople'slanguagenet")isadictionaryandtextcorpusoftheKaruklanguagedevelopedincollaborationwithSusanGehr,LineMikkelsen,andothersintheKarukcommunityandatBerkeley(Garrettetal.inpreparation).Itstartedasawaytoputadictionaryonline(BrightandGehr2005,partlybasedonBright1957),butnowincludesasubstantialtextcorpusandotherresources;seehttp://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~karuk/index.php.

Allfourprojectsin(1)originated(andtwoarestillhoused)attheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,underthesponsorshipoftheSurveyofCaliforniaandOtherIndianLanguages.Threewereinitiallymotivatedbyawishtomakeprintdictionariesaccessible

4Thereisnothingwrongwiththis:alllanguageschangeallthetime,includingvia

languagecontact.Evensettingasideprototypicalcreoles,manyoftheworld'slanguagesseemtohavebeenshapedbyrelexification;examplesincludeAngloromani(Hancock1984)andMediaLengua(Muysken1997).Yetsomelanguagelearnersorcommunitieswillchoosetoavoidthisoutcomeinsofaraspossible.

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online.Someexamplesdiscussedinthischapterwillbedrawnfromworkontheprojectsin(1).

Below,Iwilldiscussproblemsthatariseintheconstructionofdictionariesunderfourrubrics:lemmachoice(section1);variationintheformofwords(section2);theselectionanduseofexamplesentences(section3);andwordmeaningandusage(section4).IneachsectionIwillnoteproblemsforELdictionariesusedinlanguagerevitalization,andIwillwriteabouttheparticularcircumstancesofonlinedictionaries.

1.Lemmachoice

Everydictionaryisorganizedaroundheadwordsorlemmas,withcloselyrelatedwords(typically,inflectionalforms)includedintheentryforagivenlemma.Forexample,inadictionaryofEnglish,thewordssings,sang,sung,andsingingcanallbefoundunderthelemmasing.ForEnglishitisrelativelyeasytodecidewhichrelatedword-formsshouldbeassociatedwithalemma(whatlinguistsmightcallalexeme)andwhichothersshouldbegiventheirownlemmas.Inotherlanguages,aspectsofthemorphologyormorphosyntaxmaymakethisdecisionratherdifficult.Differentlexicographersthenchoosedifferently.

Thus,inRhodes's(1993)compendiousOjibwadictionary,relatedmorphosyntacticallydistinctwordsareassignedtodifferentlemmas.Givenonpage3,forinstance,areseparatelemmasfortheverbsin(2),eachwithitsownsetofinflectedforms.(2) aabnaabdamaadzod"lookback"(animateintransitive)

aabnaabid"lookback"(animateintransitive)aabnaabmaad"lookbackats.o."(transitiveanimate)aabnaabndamaadzod"lookback"(animateintransitive)aabnaabndamwaad"lookbackforsomeone"(transitiveanimate)aabnaabndang"lookbackats.t."(transitiveinanimate)

Ontheotherhand,inBeavertandHargus's(2009)Sahaptindictionary,adifferentapproachistakeninwhichallderivativesofarootareassignedtothesamelemma.Thenounpxwí"thought"headsalemmathatcontainsexamplesentencesandinflectedformsaswellasthesub-entrypxwí-"think,wonder",whichitselfhasthesub-entriesin(3),somewithadditional(third-level!)sub-entries(notshownhere)andexamplesentences.(3) páyupxwí-(v)"besad,dejected"

pinápxwi-(v)"wonder,thinktooneself,thinkaboutoneself,beconceited"pxwinúutpa(adv)"apparently,itseems,itlookslike"pxwít(n)"feeling,emotion,opinion,thought"pxwípxwi(n)"worry"

Bothchoicescreatedifficultiesforusers.IntheOjibwadictionary,itisnotalwayseasytofindcloselyrelatedwordsunlesstheyhappentobeadjacent(viaaccidentsofprefixation).IntheSahaptindictionaryitisnotalwayseasytofindwords,sincetheyarealphabetizedaccordingtothelemma'sheadword.AnindexlikethethoroughoneprovidedbyBeavertandHargusreducestheseproblems,butusersmustremembertousetheindex.Myexperiencehasbeenthatoften,whenusersuseanindex,theymaynotcheckthemainentryandmayconsequentlymissdetailsexplainedonlythere.

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Inanonlinedictionary,someofthesedifficultiescanbeminimized.InArarahih'urípih(theKarukdictionaryandtextcorpus),forexample,morphologyispartoftherepresentationofdictionaryentries.Atypicalexampleistheverbikyiv"tofall"(withconditionedallomorphsthatincludeafinal-morlengtheningofthesecondvowel).Thishasatleast20derivatives,includingikyíim-namnih"tofallin"(withasuffixform-namnih"in")andikyíimnamnih-math"todrop(something)in"(withasuffix-math"causative").ThesethreewordswouldconstituteseparatelemmasinanOjibwa-likedictionary,andwouldbelistedunderasinglelemmainaSahaptin-likedictionary.

InArarahih'urípih,itispossibletoshowinformationinbothstyles.Figure1showspartofthedisplayforikyiv"tofall";includedisanoptionallistofallmorphologicalderivatives,eachofwhichisalinktotheappropriatelemma.AsseennearthebottomofFigure1,sentenceexamples(fromtheArarahih'urípihtextcorpus)canbesettoincludeorexcludederivatives;adjustingthissettingherewouldchangethedisplayfrom6to58sentenceexamples.

Figure1:ikyiv"tofall"inArarahih'urípih(featuringderivativewords)

2.Orthography,dialect,andpronunciation

OrthographyinELscanbecontentious(Hinton2014):therearecommunity-internaldisputesaboutmultiplewritingsystems,disputesbetweenlinguistsandcommunitiesaboutthebestwritingsystemforalanguage,andvariantspellingsofindividualwordsina

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singlecoherentwritingsystem(alongthelinesofEnglishhonorvs.honour).AsFishman(1972)putit,"thecreationofwritingsystemsissignificantonlyinsofarasitleadstotheacceptanceandimplementationofwritingsystems."Thebestwritingsystem,inotherwords,isonethatpeopleactuallyuse.Acceptancemayinsomecasesbeaniterativeprocess,butwhenawritingsystemissettledausefuldictionarywilltakeitasgiven.

Wheremultiplespellingsdoremain(whetherforindividualwordsorforthelanguageasawholeduetocompetingsystems),wordscanbecitedindifferentways.Unfortunately,aprintdictionaryalmostinevitablygivesgreaterweighttothespellingchosenasthelemmaheadword(orforalphabetization).Thisisanareawhereonlinedictionariescanhaveahelpfullevelingfunction.Forexample,differentNorthernPaiutecommunitiesusewritingsystemsthatdifferinhowvowelsoundsarespelled.Becausedifferentsystemsareeachunambiguous,automatictranslationbetweenthemisfeasible.ThespellingusedintheunderlyingdatabaseIntheNorthernPaiuteLanguageProjectallowsuserstochooseaspellingsystemandseedictionaryandtextexamplesonlyinthatwritingsystem.Informationcanthusbepresentedwithoutseemingtoprioritizeanotherorthography.

Similarly,anonlinedictionaryinwhichtheunderlyingdatabaseencodesinformationaboutdialect(oridiolect),itispossibletodisplayonlywordsorexamplesfromthespeechvarietyofinteresttotheuser.TheNorthernPaiuteLanguageProjectagainillustratesthisfeature,showingdatafromfourCalifornia,Nevada,andOregondialects(Bridgeport,Burns,MonoLake,WalkerRiver)andallowinguserstochoosethedialectofinteresttothem.Sucharesourcecanbeofbroadinterestthroughoutalanguageareabutofvalueaswelltothosewhosegoalsarefocusedononlyonedialectarea.

Inaprintdictionary,itispossibleandsometimesusefultoflagpronunciationvariants,butoftenthedifferencesarenoteasilyreducibletowriting(withoutusingrepresentationswhosephoneticdetailwoulddetertypicalusers).Audiocanbeusefulforthispurpose,andisvirtuallyessentialinanycaseforalmostalllanguagelearners.AgoodELdictionarymaythusatleastbecreatedinconnectionwithabroaderrevitalizationprogramthatincludespersonalcontactwithfluentspeakersandotherteachers.WithsomeprintdictionariesaredistributedwithCDswithrecordingsofwordsandsentences;anexampleistheSahaptinlexicon(BeavertandHargus2009).ButCDsareeasytolose,andinanycaseitrequiresworktoassociatespecificaudiofilesonadiskwithentriesinaprintdictionary.

Forobviousreasons,onlinedictionariesallowveryeffectiveintegrationofmediafiles(includingaudioandvideo)withlexicographicinformation.ThisisextremelyhelpfulforrevitalizationinELcontextswherelearnersmaynotoftengettoworkwithfluentfirst-languagespeakers(or,worse,wherenofirst-languagespeakersremain).IntheonlineYurokdictionary,wehavetriedtoincludeaudioexamplesofasmanywordsandshortphrasesaspossible,spokenbyasmanyfluentspeakersaspossible.UsersreportgreatlyappreciatingachancetoheartherangeofvariationthatwouldhavebeenpresentinthespeechcommunitywhenYurokwasstillusedasafirstlanguageinmanyhouseholds.AnexamplefromtheYurokdictionarywebsiteisshowninFigure2,showingpartoftheentryformeweehl"elk".Userscanhearrecordingsasspokenbysixfluentspeakersrecordedinthe2000s;byselectingotheroptionstheycanseeaphoto,orexamplesofmeweehlinthetextcorpus.(NotethatthesearchindexinFigure2isorderedbytextfrequency.)

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Figure2:meweehl"elk"intheYurokLanguageProjectwebsite(featuringrecordings)

3.Examples

Itisuncontroversialthatathoroughdictionarypresentsexamplesentencestoshowhowwordsareused.Thesearetypicallyeitherculledfromacorpusorcreatedinworkwithfluentspeakers.Insomedictionaries,partlyforreasonsofspace,thepracticeistoincludeonlyoneexampleformostlemmas.ThedictionariesofBrightandGehr(2005)forKarukandofBeavertandHargus(2009)forSahaptinhavethisprofile.Insuchadictionarythechoiceofillustrativesentencescanmakeabigdifferenceforlanguagelearners.Tochooseanexamplenearlyatrandom,theSahaptinadjectivep'ɨsláni"dented,flattened"isillustratedwithasentencetranslatedas"Don'tbuyadentedcar."Thisisagoodchoice,showingaspecificnounthattheadjectivecanmodify;awordlike"flattened"canrefertomanyothersituations,andlearnersmightnotthinkthatitcouldapplytodentsinmetal.Hadp'ɨslánibeenillustratedwithasentencetranslatedsimplyas"itisdented",languagelearnerswouldbenowiser.

Insomedictionaries,thereisspacetogivealargenumberofexamplesforsome(orevenmany)lemmas.Thisbenefitslanguagelearnersbywayofshowingthemtherangeofcontextsinwhichwordscanbeused.Forexample,inthenearly1000-pageKlallamdictionaryofMontler(2012),thelemmaɬúyəs"abandon"includesexampleswiththetranslationsin(4),amongmanyothers.Thisgivesusersasenseoftherangeofcontextsinwhichtheverbcanbeused.Assiduousresearcherscanclassifyexamplesbymeaningorverifywhetheranintendedsenseisindeeddocumentedforthisverb.

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(4) "Leaveit!Giveitup!""Ilefthim.""IleftPortAngeles.""Shegotoutofwhatshehadbeenin.""IleftmydoginPortAngeles.""Hiswifelefthim.""I'mgoingtoleavemycoffeepotbehind.""Ileftthebeaverthatwascrying.""ThenIlefthimandwalkedtoPysht."

Anevenmorecompletepresentationofexamplesispossibleinanonlinedictionarylinkedtoatextcorpus.Forexample,intheKarukandYurokwebsites,eachofwhichincludesalexiconlinkedtoalexicallytaggedcorpus(withthousandsofwords),manydictionarysearchesyieldsubstantialsetsoftextexamples.ShowninFigure3isapartoftheArarahih'urípihentryfortheKarukverbmah"tosee,tofind";thetextcorpushas163examples(or179ifderivativewordsareincluded).IntheKarukandYurokcommunities,languagelearnersandteachersmakeuseoftextexamplestofillingapsinlexicographicexplication—forexample,asoften,wheresemanticinformationorlexicalcooccurrencepatternsarenotwelldescribed.

Figure3:mah"tosee"inArarahih'urípih(featuringsentenceexamples)

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4.Meaningandusage

ThemostimportantdefectsofELdictionarieshavetodowithmeaningandusage.ThesestemfrominherentlimitationsinELresearch:foranyonelanguagerelativelyfewpeopleworkonlexicographicquestions;andtextcorporainwhichanswerscanbefoundarefarmorelimitedthanforgloballanguageslikeEnglishorFrench.

4.1.Translationvs.meaning

Inbilingualdictionaries,includingELdictionariesusedforlanguagerevitalization,awordinonelanguageisdefinedorglossedintermsofanotherlanguage.InELdictionaries,ELvocabularyisdefinedorglossedinthematrixlanguage.Itisextremelycommonfortheglossestobeshort(evensingle-word)translations.ThisisthesinglebiggestprobleminELlexicographyforlanguagerevitalization;itmayunwittinglyencouragelearnerstoassumeasimpleone-to-onemappingbetweenmatrix-languageandELvocabulary.

ExamplesofunsatisfactorytranslationrenderingsarealltooeasytofindinalmostanyELdictionary.Forexample,theYurokdictionaryshowsthatthemostcommonverbwhosemeaningistranslated"run"isro'opek'"Irun".Thelexiconitselfsimplyglossestheverbas"run"anddoesnotsaywhetheritisusedfigurativelyforfish,water,machines,orinothersuchcontexts.5Likewise,verbswhoseapproximatemeaningsare"lie","sit",and"stand"aresimplyglossedassuch,withnoinformationabouttherangeofcontextsinwhichtheymaybeused—eventhoughthereisconsiderablecross-linguisticvariationinsuchverbs'denotations(AmekaandLevinson2007,Newman2002).Forexample,doesaspiderorathumbtack"sit"onthewall?Doesit"hang"?Simplequestionslikethese,whoseanswersareessentialforidiomaticlanguageuse,arehardtoanswerinalmostallELdictionaries.

Relatedly,itisuncommonthatELdictionariesexplicitlydistinguishsubsensesintheirdescriptionofmeaning.Compare(admittedlyunfairly)theOxfordEnglishDictionaryandtheKarukandYurokdictionariesintheirtreatmentof"put",asgivenin(5).(5) a. English:puthas29sensesidentifiedintheOxfordEnglishDictionaryas

currentlyinuse(notcountingthosedeemedobsolete,rare,ordialectal) b. Karuk:thar-"toput,tolay"(thustranslated;modifiedbydirectionalsuffixesbut

otherwisenoothersensesorsub-sensesexplicitlyidentified) b. Yurok:nekek'"Iput"(noothersensesorsub-sensesexplicitlyidentified)

PerhapsEnglishputisunusuallycomplexinitsmeaning,butthegeneraltrendofmostELdictionariesistogivebasictranslationequivalentsratherthansemanticparaphrases,letaloneaninventoryofsubsenses.Intheabsenceofrichlexicographicinformationaboutsemantics,languagelearnersmaytendtofillinthedetailswithtransfereffectsfromtheirfirstlanguages,enhancinganytrendtowardmatrix-languagerelexification.

5Fromthetextcorpusdisplayedwiththelemma,itemergesthatro'opek'hasbeenusedforfishandmachines,butthereisnoevidenceforothercontexts.Thepointinanycaseisthatthedictionaryitselfissilent.

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4.2.Multiwordunits(MWUs)

Multiwordunits—phraseswithnoncompositionalsemantics—poseaproblemforanydictionary.Thedetailsdifferfromlanguagetolanguageaccordingtosyntax.InEnglish,forexample,anydictionarymustfindawaytoexplainthesemanticsandusageofphrasalverbslikeputaside"disregard",putdown"anesthetize",putoff"postpone",puton"deceive",andthelike.IntheOxfordEnglishDictionary,suchMWUsareincludedinthelemmasfortheirverbs.Anotherexampleisconstructionswithlightverbs(Jespersen1942)liketake(apicture,atest,ashower,awalk);theseareagainassociatedwithverbsintheOxfordEnglishDictionary.

Aslongasdictionaryusersknowwheretolook(underput,notdown;undertake,notpicture),theycanfindtheinformationtheyneedifitissomehowincludedinalexicon.ManyELdictionariesdonotincludeMWUinformation,however,perhapsbecausethepatternscanrequirealargercorpustoidentify.IfMWUsareincludedinadictionary,onlinepresentationhasthebenefitofpermittingdoublelistingwithoutexpandingthephysicalsizeofabook.InformationaboutanMWUcanbelinkedwithallitscomponentwordssothatitappearsineachlemmadisplay.InYurok,forexample,theprepositionandpreverbmehlcanbetranslatedgenerallyas"about,becauseof,by,for,from,of,with",buttheactualinterpretationinanycontextisdependentontheverbitisconstruedwith.Somespecificcollocationsaregroupedin(6)accordingtobroadsemanticpatterns.(6) a. kooychkwook'"buy(it)"+mehl="buy(it)for(someone)"

muehlkochek'"sell"(intr.)+mehl="sell(something)"neee'nowok'"watch"+mehl="watchfor(somethingorsomeone)"pewomek'"cook"(intr.)+mehl="cookfor(someone)"

b. hlmeyowok'"beangry"+mehl="beangryabout(something)"kemolochek'"bejealous"+mehl="bejealousof(someone)"pelomoyek'"fight"+mehl="fightabout(something)"soosek'"think"+mehl="thinkabout(something)"tohkow"talk"(collective)+mehl="talkabout(something)"t'p'ohlkwek'"besensible"+mehl="understand(something)"

c. 'e'gah"eat,haveameal"(collectiveintr.)+mehl="eat(something)"hegook'"walk"+mehl="walkwith(aninstrument)"hohkuemek'"make(it)"+mehl="make(it)from(somematerial)"myop'"it'scrowded"+mehl="it'scrowdedwith(something)"reeek"befull"+mehl="befullof(something)"ruerowok'"sing"(intransitive)+mehl="sing(somesong)"

Foreachverb,adictionaryshoulddescribethemeaningandsyntaxoftheconstructionwithmehl.Inanonlinedictionary,thesepatternscaneasilybepresentedtwice,oncefortheverbandonceinthemehllemma.AsingledatabaseentryforeachMWUwillthusbedrawnonasneededforonlinedisplay.

5.Conclusion

Ihavelookedatafewelementsfoundindictionaries,identifyingafewchallengesassociatedwithELlexicography.Theseflowfromthefactthatlessisknownabout

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underdocumentedlanguages,forwhich,itshouldgowithoutsaying,thereisusuallyalsonolexicographictradition.6TheabsenceoflargetextcorporamakesrichdocumentationofsemanticsandMWUpatternsmoredifficult;sensediscriminationandotherworkonfacetsofmeaning(e.g.hyponymy)alsorequirestimethatisoftenabsentintheunder-resourcedcontextofELwork.Yettheseaspectsoflexicographicknowledgearecrucialindictionariesthatservethegoaloflanguagerevitalization:learnerswhodonothaveaccess(whetherviafluentspeakersorwrittensources)tolexicallyspecificpatternsthataredescribedinagooddictionarymayfillinthegapswithmatrix-languagepatterns.

Onlinedictionariesinparticularposesignificantproblems.Theyrequireinternetaccess,bydefinition,smartphonesorcomputeraccessforusers,andtechnologicalinfrastructureforthosewhocreateandhostthem.Evenwheretheyaresociallyandtechnicallyfeasible,theyarenopanacea(theycannotreplaceactuallanguageuse),buttheycanmakeiteasiertopresentsomeimportantlexicographicinformation.Relationalinformationinparticular—morphologicalandsemanticrelationships,examplesintextcorpora,andthelike—arewellsuitedtopresentationonline.Ifinformationinadatabasehasbeentaggedsuitablyandaneffectiveinterfacedesigned,userscanuselinksandtagstoexploreastructuredlexiconwithfarlesseffortthanitwouldtaketomovebetweensectionsofaprintbook,oramongadictionary,grammar,andtexts.Inthissenseawell-designedonlinedictionarymayassistintheprojectofrepatriatingindigenousknowledgefromtheacademyandthearchive,intothecommunitiesthatcreatedit.

6Anotableexceptionhastodowithlanguagesbelongingtolargerlanguagefamilies,

likeAlgonquianorAthabaskan,thathaveconsiderablegrammaticaluniformityandthereforehavedevelopedalexicographictradition.Butotherlargerfamilies,likeUto-Aztecan,thegrammaticaldifferencesacrosssub-branchesmakeasharedlexicographictraditionlessplausible.

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