oil shale mechanics

88
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Page 1: Oil Shale Mechanics

THESE TERMS GOVERN YOUR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT

Your use of this Ontario Geological Survey document (the “Content”) is governed by the terms set out on this page (“Terms of Use”). By downloading this Content, you (the

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Content: This Content is offered by the Province of Ontario’s Ministry of Northern Development and Mines (MNDM) as a public service, on an “as-is” basis. Recommendations and statements of opinion expressed in the Content are those of the author or authors and are not to be construed as statement of government policy. You are solely responsible for your use of the Content. You should not rely on the Content for legal advice nor as authoritative in your particular circumstances. Users should verify the accuracy and applicability of any Content before acting on it. MNDM does not guarantee, or make any warranty express or implied, that the Content is current, accurate, complete or reliable. MNDM is not responsible for any damage however caused, which results, directly or indirectly, from your use of the Content. MNDM assumes no legal liability or responsibility for the Content whatsoever. Links to Other Web Sites: This Content may contain links, to Web sites that are not operated by MNDM. Linked Web sites may not be available in French. MNDM neither endorses nor assumes any responsibility for the safety, accuracy or availability of linked Web sites or the information contained on them. The linked Web sites, their operation and content are the responsibility of the person or entity for which they were created or maintained (the “Owner”). Both your use of a linked Web site, and your right to use or reproduce information or materials from a linked Web site, are subject to the terms of use governing that particular Web site. Any comments or inquiries regarding a linked Web site must be directed to its Owner. Copyright: Canadian and international intellectual property laws protect the Content. Unless otherwise indicated, copyright is held by the Queen’s Printer for Ontario. It is recommended that reference to the Content be made in the following form: <Author’s last name>, <Initials> <year of publication>. <Content title>; Ontario Geological Survey, <Content publication series and number>, <total number of pages>p. Use and Reproduction of Content: The Content may be used and reproduced only in accordance with applicable intellectual property laws. Non-commercial use of unsubstantial excerpts of the Content is permitted provided that appropriate credit is given and Crown copyright is acknowledged. Any substantial reproduction of the Content or any commercial use of all or part of the Content is prohibited without the prior written permission of MNDM. Substantial reproduction includes the reproduction of any illustration or figure, such as, but not limited to graphs, charts and maps. Commercial use includes commercial distribution of the Content, the reproduction of multiple copies of the Content for any purpose whether or not commercial, use of the Content in commercial publications, and the creation of value-added products using the Content. Contact:

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Page 2: Oil Shale Mechanics

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Page 3: Oil Shale Mechanics

Ontario Geological Survey

OPEN FILE REPORT

Open file reports are made available to the public subject to the following conditions:

This report is unedited. Discrepancies may occur for which the Ontario Geological Survey does not assume liability. Recommendations and statements of opinion expressed are those of the author or authors and are not to be construed as statements of government policy.

Open file copies may be read at the following locations:

Mines LibraryOntario Ministy of Natural Resources8th Floor, 77 Grenville Street, Toronto

The office of the Regional or Resident Geologist in whose district the area covered by this report is located.

Handwritten notes and sketches may be made from this report. Check with the Library or Region al or Resident Geologist's office as to whether there is a copy of this report that may be borrowed. The Library or Regional or Resident Geologist's office will also give you information on copying ar rangements. A copy of this report is available for Inter-Library Loan.

This report is on file in the Regional or Resident Geologists' office(s) located at:

458 Central Avenue 10670 Yonge StreetLondon, Ontario Richmond Hill, OntarioN6B 2E5 L4C 3C9

The right to reproduce this report is reserved by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Permission for other reproductions must be obtained in writing from the Director, Ontario Geological Survey.

E.G. Pye, Director Ontario Geological Survey

ill

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Page 5: Oil Shale Mechanics

Foreword

The Oil Shale Assessment Project is a component of the Hydrocarbon

Energy Resources Program which is funded by the Board of Industrial

Leadership and Development (BILD). For the assessment of the potential

oil shales of southern Ontario, knowledge of both the hydrocarbon

content of the shales and the potential for extracting these hydro

carbons is important. This report provides a general review of the

mechanical properties of oil shales and preliminary results of a

study of the mechanical properties of the Upper Devonian Kettle Point

Formation in southwestern Ontario. This information will lead to a better

understanding of the potential for extraction of hydrocarbons from this

formation.

E. G. PyeDirectorOntario Geological Survey

v

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Page 7: Oil Shale Mechanics

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l

2.' MAJOR WORLD OIL SHALE DEPOSITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 Major Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.3-1 Brazil. . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . * . * * . 42.3*2 Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.3.3 People's Republic of China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3.4 USSR - Estonia 6 Leningrad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3*5 England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.3*6 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3*7 Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * . . . . * . . . * 32.3.8 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123*1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123*2 Organic Content Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143*3 Tensile Strength Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153*4 Uniaxial Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173*5 Triaxial Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203*6 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213*7 Other Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4. MINING TECHNIQUES- . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . * . . * . * 254.1 General . . . . . * . . . . * . * * * * * * * * . * . * . *. * . 254.2 Open Pit Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.3 Underground Mining with Surface Retorts . . . . . . . . . . . . 264.4 Underground Mining with In Situ Retorts . . . . . . . . . . . . 294.5 True In Situ Extraction * . . . . . . . . . * . * . - . . . . . 32

5. CURRENT RESEARCH ( PRELIMINARY RESULTS ) . . . . * . . . . . . . . . 365.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365.2 Mineralogy* . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . * . * * . . . . 365*3 Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6. SUMMARY- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY * * * . * * . . . . . . . . . . . . * . * . . * . * . . 45

9. APPENDIX OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

vii

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1. Map of eastern U.S. oil shale deposits,2. Map of Piceance Basin operations.3. Geological cross-section from Piceance Basin.4. Comparison of tensile strength properties of oil shales from the Mahog

any zone and lipton member.5. Uniaxial compressive strength vs. organic content of Mahogany zone oil

shales.6. Young's modulus vs. stress level for same formation.7. Poisson's ratio vs. organic content vs. stress level.8. Ultimate compressive strength vs. strain rate vs. organic content.9. Graph of (**-a-)X2 versus (cr *a )72 for Green River oil shale10. Effects of temperature on strength for two different oil shale grades.11. Effects of temperature on Young's modulus.12. Fracture stress and fragment size vs. strain rate.13* Creep behavior vs. stress level and temperature.14. Room and pillar mining technique.15. Tosco-II retorting system.16. Schematic of the Occidental Logan Wash Mine.

LIST OF TABLES

1. Oil shale reserves from various countries.2. Mineralogy of some major oil shale deposits.3* Chemical properties and assays of deposits.

IX

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The Mechanical Properties of Oil Shales by

Maurice B. Dusseault} K. Lee Bradshaw2 , Kim Ehret2 and Matthias Loftsson^1. INTRODUCTION

During the past decade, as the result of the threatened shortage of conven

tional oil resources, there has been considerable interest in other potential

energy resources. As part of the Ontario Geological Survey's investigation

into alternative energy sources, the University of Waterloo was authorized to

undertake a literature review of oil shales. More specifically, the mechani

cal properties of the various oil shale deposits throughout the world were to

be catalogued.

Initial information for this study was located using the WATMARS computer

information retrieval system. This was followed by a search for other data

referred to in the initial articles, together with an in-depth search of the

university library, and the use of its interlibrary loan service. In total,

174 references were located.

This report summarizes the information obtained and presents it under the

following general headings: major world oil shale deposits, mechanical prop

erties, mining techniques, and preliminary results of current work.

Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences 2 Graduate Student, Department of Earth Sciences

University of Waterloo, Waterloo, OntarioManuscript approved by O.L. White, Section Chief, Engineering andTerrain Geology Section, October 18, 1983.

This report is published by permission of E.G. Pye, Director,Ontario Geological Survey.

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2. MAJOR WORLD OIL SHALE DEPOSITS

2.1 General

Many countries have oil shale occurences. Table 1 lists the countries with

major deposits and their estimated reserves, according to 1964 figures, which

were the latest available. Since there has been very little oil shale mining

in the last 20 years the figures may be reasonably accurate. According to

this table, the United States of America has by far the largest reserves.

The mineralogy of oil shale deposits is listed in Table 2. There, the term

'oil shale* or 'torbanite* encompasses a wide range of mineral percentages.

The shales vary greatly in composition, indicating different source rocks and

depositional environments.

Some chemical properties and assays of oil shales are listed in Table 3*

New South Wales, Australia, has the highest grade of oil shale of the coun

tries listed but unfortunately the reserves are low (Table 1). Although there

are no corraborative figures, China may have the largest deposit in the

world. 165

There are many other countries which have oil shales but these are too

small or have too low a grade to be economically viable.

The countries which have exploited oil shales commercially are: Brazil,

China, Estonia, France, Germany, the Republic of South Africa, Scotland, Spain

and Sweden. Bulgaria, Canada, Italy, Hew Zealand, Thailand, the United

States, Yugoslavia and Britain have processed their shales experimentally or

on a small commercial scale.

2.2 History

Page 13: Oil Shale Mechanics

A brief history of oil shale development with reference to specific depos

its and their mining is given here.

Oil shale use began in Austria in 1350 but the first significant oil shale

industry began in France in 1838. Other countries later began to develop oil

shales: England, Australia, Scotland, Canada and the eastern United States.

The North American industry was rather shortlived due to the discovery of

conventional oil.

Following World War I, oil shale exploration and development intensified

in the United States, Germany, Sweden, Estonia, Spain and Manchuria (now

part of the People's Republic of China) , 8 In 1926, the large oil fields of

o Texas were discovered. This cheap oil made it hard for other countries to

compete in the oil export trade, although some did manage to continue at a

reduced production rate. During World War II, oil shale production was very

important to Sweden, Japan, Great Britain, Australia, Spain and France. After

the war, the growth of the conventional petroleum industry caused most of the

oil shale industries to become lonprof itable . Processing of Scottish oil shale

ceased in 1964, leaving oil shale industries only in the USSR (Estonia) and

China.

As of 1979, China's production had decreased to 1(^ of its peak production

rate but the USSR (Estonia) was increasing its capacity. This was due to the

increase in efficiency of their mining process to 86%. 8 There has been a

renewed interest in oil shales during the past two decades due to the threat

of conventional oil shortages. Serious study of oil shales is underway in

Australia^ the United States, Morocco, Israel, Brazil, the Soviet Union, the

People's Republic of China, and Canada. Some of these countries have already

begun producing.

Page 14: Oil Shale Mechanics

2.3 Major Deposits

2^3^ Brazil

Brazil has one of the largest oil shale deposits in the world. 165 These

shales were mined intermittently from 1882 to 1946. In the 1950's and 60's a

research program was implemented to develop Brazil's medium grade, extensive,

oil shale deposits. A 700 million barrel deposit was delineated, and opera

tion of a demonstration plant began in 1973. Brazil's oil shale occurs near

the surface, in two distinct beds which are separated by a barren limestone

zone. As of 1979, plans were underway for a large scale commercial plant.

Open pit mining will be employed to extract the shale.

2..2L2^ Israel

Israel contracted an American firm to study their oil shales and perform a

feasibility study on the possibility of employing above-ground retorting sys

tems (discussed later) to produce the shale from their 12 deposits.

Israeli deposits have been compared with those of the United States. Isra

el's shale makes three times more gas, contains more sulphur, oxygen and

nitrogen, and the oil produced is heavier than the United States shale oil.

Mineralogy is markedly different. Israeli oil shale contains 60% calcite,

15% quartz, 9% wilkeite, 9% gypsum and 5% pyrite, whereas in the United States,

Colorado oil shale contains 16% calcite, 15% quartz, 32% dolomite, 19% illite,

16% feldspar and 2% miscellaneous minerals, as determined by x-ray diffraction

analysis. ̂ 2

Below the one deposit that was intensely studied, the Israelis found^^2 a

3.2 m thick, high-grade phosphate deposit. This unit would make oil shale

mining more economically viable. The average overburden is approximately 35 m

thick (varies from 20 to 60 m). This one deposit contains approximately 600

Page 15: Oil Shale Mechanics

MM tons of resource. Strip mining may be possible.

2^.jk People * s Republic of China

In China, oil shale overlies the thickest coal deposit in the world. It is

low grade; 5% organic content by weight (62 I/tonne by Fischer assay). When

the open pit coal mine was started in 1914, at Fushun in Northern China,

(formerly Manchuria), the shale was discarded as waste material. Only after

several years was its value recognized. Processing of the shale began, and

the profits from the coal mining made up for the loss due to the poor grade of

oil shale. When the shale industry peaked in the late 1960's and early 70's,

China had the largest production in the world. In 1979, it had declined to

10% of its peak. 9

The coal deposits are 40 to 130 m thick, underlying the 80 to 150 m thick

oil shale beds. When underground coal mining started, oil shale production

Q

was greatly reduced.

At Maoming, in the south of China, another deposit was mined, but not

extensively. Very little is known about this deposit; reports are conflict

ing. The last report suggests that mining is continuing, but producing only

p 36 tonnes/day (280 barrels/day). No coal is associated with this deposit.

^.3^.4^. U.S.S.R. - Estonia and Leningrad

The bulk of the U.S.S.R. oil shale industry is located in the Estonian

S.S.R. Mining began in the 1920's. The oil shale, 'kukersite 1 , is one of

the richest deposits in the world, averaging 208 I/tonne, and reserves are

large. Apart from minor disruptions due to World War II, oil shale mining

has continued from the 1920*s to the present. 9

Page 16: Oil Shale Mechanics

For the past 15 to 20 years, Estonia has made great strides to improve its

oil shale industry, both economically and environmentally. Overall extraction

efficiency has been increased to 86$. The industry was still expanding inQ

1979* Sixty million tonnes was cited as the production goal for 1980.

The improved retorts are similar to the ones being used experimentally in

the United States. However, U.S. has the disadvantage of having to mine

underground, which is invariably more expensive on a portion mined basis.

2.-1.1 England

The oil shale occurs as thin seams in the Kimmeridge Clay deposits. During

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the shale was mined commercially on a68 small scale at Kimmeridge, in Dorset. Five oil shale-rich bands are present

and each is laterally continuous. Generally, the oil shales are less dense,

tougher and more fissile than the other Kimmeridge Clay lithologies, which

include sandstones, limestones and mudstones. As kerogen content increases,

the shale becomes darker brown and the specific gravity decreases. The Kim

meridge Clay oil shales all have high sulphur content (4 to 856). They are68 also rich in illite.

Moisture content of these shales is high (10 to 20?) near the surface.

2 Shear strength is between 100 and 400 kN/m (the author is unclear as to

whether these values represent shear strength or unconfined compressive

strength), whereas some of the Colorado shales have shear strengths of the

2 order of several thousands of kN/m . The English shales can be open pit mined

near surface but when the oil shale is 100 m deep, even though the shear

2 strength is higher, (400 to 900 kN/m ) substantial support would be required68 ' for underground mining.

Page 17: Oil Shale Mechanics

The Kimmeridge Clays, other than the cementstones and oil shales, rapidly

68 slake when immersed in water. Because of the intermittent vertical nature of

the oil shale beds, this slaking property could be valuable. After extracting

the rock, mechanical slaking could be performed to eliminate the waste rock.

According to Gallois (1978), more studies were to be performed on these oil

shales by the British goverment. As of 1982, no further reports had been pub

lished .

^2.3*6 Australia

There are four deposits of oil shale (Torbanites) in Australia, two in

Queensland, one in New South Wales and one in Tasmania. The Queensland depos

its of the Toolebuc Formation are Cretaceous in age. They have a lateral

extent of 700,000 square kilometers, a depth of 30 to 915 m, and an average

24 thickness of 9 m.

The Toolebuc Formation of Northern Queensland is a fossilized, laminated

siltstone and mudstone which consists mainly of carbonate and clays. It con-

12 tains 2 x 10 Bbls of oil but yields only 50 I/tonne, which is considered

24 uneconomic. Some work was undertaken on these deposits in the last ten years

but nothing appears to have developed from it. The Toolebuc Formation con

tains 0.5/6 Vanadium, and some uranium and selenium which makes this deposit24 more economically attractive, but not enough to start mining.

The Rundle oil shale (torbanite) is found in Eastern Queensland. This unit

is below medium grade and contains up to 161 inherent moisture. It consists

of soft brown mudstones, shales, limestone, clays, and lignites. Organic con

tent is 16 to 25/1 yielding 104 l/tonne oil. The inferred resources of thisQ n

deposit are 2.2 x 10 tons (1.3 x 1Cr Bbls). Much exploration has been under-

Page 18: Oil Shale Mechanics

taken on the Rundle Formation recently, and it is hoped that it will be under

24 production in the near future.

The deposit in New South Wales is Permian in age, and is associated with

high grade coal. The shale was formed in a series of fresh water lagoons

within a large coal swamp. Yield varies from 750 to 1250 I/tonne. It can

24also be a coaly shale with poor yields. These reported values may be incor

rect as they represent a rock comprised almost entirely of kerogen. This

deposit has been under production in the past.

The fourth deposit of oil shale in Australia is found on the island of Tas

mania, on the North coast. The only other major deposit similar to this one

24 is found in Alaska. This deposit contains little yellow discs, spores or

algal cysts, in a matrix of clay, silt and sand. These discs (Tasmanites)

give the bedding planes a 'speckled* appearance.

The shales were deposited in shallow coastal bays and inlets. They are

brownish, soft and are quite laminated. Yield varies between 4 and 292

l/tonne, with an average of 167 l/tonne. A single seam is 1 to 2 m thick.

Minor production was undertaken on these shales between 1910 and 1934. There

have been recent investigations but no major development of deposits has

24 occurred.

The Tasmanian and the Kettle Point, Ontario, formations have some similari

ties; these will be discussed later.

2..JJ .J Canada

There are numerous oil shale deposits across Canada. In Southern OntarioV

there are three oil shale formations, the Collingwood, of Late Ordovician age

Page 19: Oil Shale Mechanics

and the Kettle Point and Marcellus of Devonian age. Because the Ontario

Geological Survey has been studying these in great detail, no chemical proper

ties will be given here. Except for the work being undertaken by the Univer

sity of Waterloo for the Ontario Geological Survey, it appears that there has

been no other investigation of the mechanical properties of these shales.

The Albert Formation of New Brunswick contains three main li tho types:

occur in the sequence.

In the dolostone marl, the kerogen occurs in dark brown, slightly undulat

ing laminae. In the barren zones, rip-up breccia sand, silt and sand layers

109 (some with sedimentary sills and dykes) occur.

The laminated marlstones, which contain the most kerogen, consist of alter

nating kerogen and carbonate layers, both dolomite and calcite. This unit has

109 been tectonically disrupted by folding and faulting. A selected sample

analysis (Table 3) gives a yield of 51.4 gallons per ton.

The third lithotype, the clay marlstones, are greyish- brown to brown. The

kerogen content varies as the clay content varies. This unit also has tec ton ing

ically induced structures.

There are other oil shale deposits in Nova Scotia, FEI, Alberta and the

Yukon.

.2.3.8 United States

Oil shale occurs over much of the United States (Figure 1 ) . The Devonian

black shales found in Indiana and Kentucky are of low grade, with a total con

tent of 18 billion barrels of oil. Very little work has been done on these

Page 20: Oil Shale Mechanics

deposits, as compared with the other U.S. oil shales.

The Green River Formation of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah contains the larg

est oil shale deposits in the world. The Indians and the Mormons were the

first people to utilize the western U.S. oil shales. The first world war was

the first time the Green River shales were studied seriously, even though at

least 50 oil shale companies had operated on the eastern shales prior to the

discovery of conventional oil in 1859* Several companies erected pilot pro

jects on the Green River shale but none of them could compete with conven

tional oil fields.

The Green River Shales are mid-Eocene in age. Much of the work done on

these deposits is concentrated in the Piceance Basin (Figure 2). A typical

stratigraphic cross-section of Piceance Basin deposits can be found in Figure

4. The section is comprised of kerogen-rich marlstones, sandstones, silt-

stones, limestones and oolites. The Parachute Creek member, Mahogany Zone,58 has the highest yield of the shales in the basin (greater than 104 I/tonne).

The Mahogany Zone shales contain greater than 40# dolomite and 201 illite.

The comparable unit in Utah has an identical mineralogy.

In Wyoming, the major kerogen-rich unit is called the Tipton Member. It

contains greater than 501 illite and mixed-layer clays, and approximately 10/1

dolomite. The consequences of the differences in mineralogy of these units

will be discussed later in this report.

The Saline zone of the Parachute Creek member, in Colorado and Utah, con

tains the sodium alkaline salts, Nahcolite (NaHCO.- bicarbonate of soda), Daw

sonite (NaAlCO.(OH)p) and other compounds. The potential reserves of Nahcol

ite and Dawsonite are estimated to be 23*8 billion tonne and 15*6 billion

10

Page 21: Oil Shale Mechanics

tonne respectively. By products of these minerals may positively affect the

economics of development. Tests are being run to determine the effectiveness

of dry Nahcolite in removing sulphur dioxide from the retorted oil shale. The

utility power plants, for glass making, and in the production of soda ash.

The effects of Nahcolite and Dawsonite on the mechanical properties of oil

shale will be discussed later.

The Green River Formation beds are a series of lake sediments. During

times of high evaporation the lakes became very saline and deposited the1 ̂ 8

saline zone shale (Figure 3). At least slightly saline conditions prevailed

during the deposition of the 'Uinta Formation* and the 'Upper oil shale zone'

(Figure 4) of the Green River Formation. The sodium alkaline salts, which

were derived from the digestion of basic volcanic ashes, were also deposited

138 at this time of increased evaporation.

The Antrim Formation of Michigan is the final deposit to be discussed in

this report. This unit has been studied by the Dow Chemical Company, under

87 contract to the U.S. Department of Energy. The Antrim has been correlated

with the Kettle Point Formation. The Antrim Formation is 20 to 65 m thick,

108 and reaches a depth of 490 m in the centre of the Michigan Basin. Unlike

the lacustrine deposits in Colorado, the Antrim shales were deposited in a

marine environment. Primary minerals include illite, quartz, feldspar, and

minor organic matter, pyrite and carbonate. The organic matter consists in

Point Formation.

11

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3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL SHALES.

3*1 General

'Laboratory tests should always have a secure place in rock mechanics for

civil engineering site studies even though their failure to duplicate the

response of complexly discontinuous rock masses invites disapproval. Obvi

ously, results of laboratory tests alone can not provide the main basis for

making decisions about rock engineering. But a full complement of laboratory

tests force us to handle, cut, grind, soak, deform and break the rock we will

rely upon and work with, increasing our awareness of its distinct attri

butes... It is mainly through laboratory study of rock specimens with and

without discontinuities, that we are now beginning to have unifying concepts

74 for understanding rock and joint behavior*.

In underground mining, stability is of great concern. Pillar design

depends on strength and elastic parameters of the pillar material, usually

obtained in uniaxial and triaxial compression tests. When estimating stabil

ity of the mine roof, knowledge of tensile strength as well as compressive

strength is required. Design or recommendation of excavation techniques in

mining depends on knowledge of rock strength and hardness. Design for the

stability of mine openings requires knowledge of time dependent behaviour,

creep and durability.

In surface mining, slope stability can become an important controlling fac

tor. Shear strength of the rock material as well as orientation of jointing

and local and regional hydrogeology must be considered in slope design.

For in situ fracturing through explosive or hydraulic techniques, failure

is due to shear and tension. Tensile and shear strength of the rock material

12

Page 23: Oil Shale Mechanics

has to be considered when designing wellbore or blast hole pattern and explo

sive usage. In blasting, a very rapid dynamic load is applied on the rock

mass near the source of the explosion. The magnitude of this shock load

decreases with increasing radius from the center of charge. Strain rate

dependency of strength becomes an important controlling factor, as explosive

rise time is found to be critical in fragmentation processes. Drillability

estimation requires knowledge of strength (compression, shear and tension) and.

hardness when deciding on drill type and drill bits.

When considering technical and economical methods of processing, laboratory

tests can provide, to some extent, a useful source of information. Unfortu

nately, laboratory tests are not always consistent from one source to another

and results can vary considerably, even within the same rock formation.

Effects such as rate of straining, moisture, shape and size, mineralogy, temp

erature, and so on can have significant influences on the obtained results.

For oil shale, the effects of organic content on strength parameters are well

known, being the primary strength controlling variable.

Despite the abundance of oil shale deposits in the world, very little work

has been done on the mechanical properties of these shales. This fact is not

really surprising when one realizes that most of these countries had ceased

mining operations prior to the 1950's, when rock mechanics first came into

being. Many of the mining operations were of too small scale for the owners

to be investing in any significant behavioral investigations.

As a result, the bulk of the information gathered pertains to the Colorado-

Utah-Wyoming Green River Formation. Some information is available on the

Antrim Formation, and one article was located which gives the results of tests

performed on a few samples from the Kimmeridge shales of England. These

13

Page 24: Oil Shale Mechanics

results have already been noted in section 2.3*5*

3*2 Organic Content Determination

A number of methods have been used to determine a quantitative measurement

of the oil yield, or organic content of oil shales.

Fischer assay laboratory retorting procedure is most commonly used to esti

mate the oil yield which would result from commercial processing of oil shale.

Percentage organic content (Oc) by volume can be calculated from oil yield,an

using the following relationship:

*0c s 157*76 M/C0.957M * 107) (D

where M is the Fischer assay oil yield in U.S. gallons per ton.

Rock density has been found to vary with oil yield of the Green River For-

168 matlon oil shale according to the following relationship:

OY s 31*563(DT ) 2 - 205.998(DT ) * 326.624 (2)

where OY is oil yield in U.S. gallons per ton and D- is the rock density in

gm/cc. The above equation is solved for density and 1 Oc by volume found by:

* 164.85 - 60.61 (D) (3)

For the oil shales in Ontario total organic carbon (TOC) is measured and

related to Fischer assay oil yield by the following expressions for the Kettle

Point Formation and Whitby Formation respectively:

FA s 4.6(TOC) - 0.73 Kettle Point (4)

FA s 5*7(TOC) - 4.4 Whitby (5)

where FA is the Fischer assay in litres per metric ton (tonne) and TOC is 1

total organic carbon by weight.

14

Page 25: Oil Shale Mechanics

For the lipton member of the Green River Formation the following relation

ship was found to exist between organic content in weight percent and organic

28 carbon content:

W s organic carbon content (TOG)/ 0.805 (6)

Linear regression of tabulated data from the Antrim Formation, Michigan,

which is geologically related to the Kettle Point Formation, Ontario, gave theP8 following results.

Wfc r 89.13 - 33-33 (DT ) (7)

where W is fl weight loss due to retorting processes and D- is apparent den-

2 sity. The coefficient of determination (r ) was 0.79.

These equations can be used to provide some basis for standard comparison

of physical properties of oil shales from different information sources.

3*3 Tensile Strength Determination

At present, in situ retorting is considered to be the most environmentally

acceptable and economic method of processing of oil shale formations. As it

involves explosive or hydraulic fracturing of the rock materials, the tensile

strength or fracture toughness becomes an important strength parameter.

A detailed study has been performed on the tensile strength of the Green

River oil shale Formation which is subdivided into two rich members, Tipton

member and Mahogany zone. They are slightly different mineralogically (as

mentioned earlier in the report) which reflects a slight difference in

strength properties (Figure 4). For the Tipton member in Wyoming, the follow-40 ing data were obtained:

a fc s 23.16 - 0.35l6(0c) (MPa) (8)

15

Page 26: Oil Shale Mechanics

E s 28.34 - 0.4800(0c) (GPa) (9)

V s 0.1026 - 0.00312(0c) ( 10 )-4 -1

Strain rate applied was 51 per min or approximately 8.3 x 10 sec and the

2 coefficient of determination (r ) ranged from 0.72 - 0.86. Oc is in percent

40 by volume, determined from equation (1).

For the Mahogany zone two different groups were tested, one in Utah and one

in Colorado. The same strain rate was applied:

a t(Colorado) s 14.78 - 0.0928(0c) (MPa) (11)

s 13-64 - 0.1211(0c) (MPa)

Oc is again the organic content in percent by volume from equation 1. No data

2 is given on the elastic parameters E and v. Coefficient of determination (r )oc

was approximately 0.57 for both groups.

By comparing these data, it was observed that the slope of the regression

line for the Tipton member is more than 3 times that for the Mahogany zone.

The organic matter for the Mahogany zone and Tipton member is sensibly identi

cal but there is a primary difference in mineralogy, as mentioned in section

2.3.8 in this report. Apparently dolomite provides a structural matrix to the

Mahogany zone but for the Tipton member dolomite amounts are apparently tooOC

low to exert a similar influence except at low organic contents. By adding

the dolomite content as a variable in the regression analysis for the tensile

strength of the Tipton member, a 51 increase in coefficient of determination

(r ) is achieved, indicating its effects at low 1 Oc but with increasing JJOcOC Ojl

the organic matter dilutes and weakens the dolomite matrix. '

Tensile strength of oil shales decreases significantly with increasing

44 47 temperature. ' This has been observed in the Green River Formation where,

for example, for 65 ml/mg grade oil shale, tensile strength was reduced to

16

Page 27: Oil Shale Mechanics

o 44approximately 285 of its room temperature value at 200 C. Regression anal

ysis of data from the same experiment gave the following results for cr paral

lel and perpendicular to bedding planes respectively:Q

o*, x - -288 * 7 ' 79x1Q - 19300 * 0.229A2 (13) Moara.j T 0 T

V ' R

6.48x108 A^ 9 . 1 ..a f'norn \ * " 25 - 3 * T O ~ 20300 T * 0.386A^ (L4 ^

** V r"' r ' J l o^ InK K

A is the Fischer assay oil yield in gallons per ton, TR is in degrees Rankine,

44 and tensile stress is in psi. Regression analysis of the same material at

room temperature gives approximately the following results:

at s 14.48 - 0.141(00) (MPa) (15)

These results are similar to other tests of the same formation.

In the same test program it was observed that by increasing the rate of

3 -2 loading by a factor of 10, from 2x10 J -2x10 inches per minute,

strength increased by about Ity indicating strain rate effects on strength

44 properties.

3*4 Uniaxial Compressive Strength

A comprehensive mechanical characterization program on Green River Forma

tion Oil Shale from the Mahogany Zone gave the following results perpendicularQ

(z) and parallel (x,y) to bedding respectively (Figure 5):

d s 161.60 - 1.54l5(0c) (MPa) (16) uz

aux s 127 '73 " 1 ' 121 5(0c) (MPa)o

Coefficients of determination (r ) were 0.743 and 0.651 respectively and the

number of samples tested was 55 and 41.

17

Page 28: Oil Shale Mechanics

The elastic constants are expressed not only as functions of organic con

tent but also as functions of stress levels (3), where 3 is a normalized quan

tity expressed as a percentage of applied stress over ultimate stress, rangingQ

from 0-10056 (Figure 6). The following was observed:

E s 12.34 - 0.2196(0c) * 0.07461(3) z

- 6.82x10"5 (OcS) - 9-869x10"8 (S4 ) (GPa) (18)

E s 10.45 - 0.1735(0c) -i- 0.3841(3) x

- 5.19x10"3 (OcS) - 1.833x10"7 (S4 ) (GPa) (19)

The coefficients of determination were 0.7217 and 0.8265 respectively and the

number of samples tested was more than 600. Poisson's ratio analysis indi-0

cated the following result (Figure 7):

Vzx s -O' 0441 ? * 0.00385(0c) * 0.00645(3) (20)

v s -0.03307 -i-- 0.00333(0c) * 0.00480(3) (21) xy

The coefficient of determination was approximately 0.78 and more than 600 sam

ples were tested. The strong dependency on stress levels makes it difficultQ

to determine the mechanical properties by acoustic methods.

Comparison of the Tipton member and the Mahogany zone of the Green River

oil shale Formation indicated the following results.

au (Tipton) s 91.27 - 0.709(0c) (MPa) (22)

*u (Mahogany) s 130.92 - 0.907(0c) (MPa) ( 23 )

Regression analysis was performed on the upper extreme values since they are

thought to be of most interest in oil shale fracturing. Coefficients of

2determination (r ) were 0.739 and 0.891 respectively. Experiments were per

formed at a strain rate of about 0.556 /min s 8.3 x 10 sec . The differ

ences in strength are again reflected by differences in mineralogy. Effects

of dolomite are also observed for each individual member. For example, the

Tipton Member has average dolomite percentages in the Upper and Lower values

18

Page 29: Oil Shale Mechanics

of au (uniaxial compressive strength) of 1356 and 2656 respectively. Linear

regression analysis for the lower extreme values gave the following results,

indicating the effects of dolomite on strength properties:

au (Tipton) r 60 - 0.9(0c) (MPa) (24)

This represents a decrease in strength of more than 50/6. Other mineral matter

or micro-discontinuities might also have caused this significant change but

this was not investigated.

One other oil bearing zone in the Green River Formation, Parachute Creek

member, is the unleached Saline Zone (Figure 3)* This bed contains the sodium

alkaline salts Nahcolite and Dawsonite, as was noted in section 2.3*8. One

study was undertaken by the United Sates Bureau of Mines in 1978 to determine

the effects these minerals have on rock strength.

It was discovered that the greater the percentage Nahcolite in the sample,

the lower the compressive strength and the larger the Young's Modulus. The

greater the percentage Dawsonite, the greater was the compressive strength,

Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio. A regression analysis was calculated for

the results but the correlation coefficients were poor. Because some sections

in the unleached Saline Zone contain an abundance of these minerals, the

effects they have on the mechanical properties could prove to be very impor

tant.

The effects of strain rate have been studied for the Green River Formation,

Tipton member, in Wyoming (Figure 8). These studies indicated that the com

pressive fracturing strength is strongly dependent on organic volume and on00 .il

strain rate. Tests were performed on 300 specimens at strain rates of 10

10" . sec" and a volume range of organic matter of 13 - 44^6. Statistical00

analysis gave the following results.

19

Page 30: Oil Shale Mechanics

59 - 1.74(0c) i- 4.02 log(e) (MPa) (25)vft

where e is the strain rate in sec" , Oc is the organic content by volume and

a u is the ultimate compressive strength in MPa. The coefficient of determina

tion (r2 ) was 0.78.

Another study was carried out on the Anvil Points oil shales of the Colo

rado, Mahogany zone. In this study Fischer assay oil yield and heigh t- width

152 ratio were used as variables in the statistical analysis:

au s 246.62 - 27.50(A) * 0.279(A2 ) - 0.830(A)(HXW) (MPa) (26)

A is the Fischer assay oil yield in litres per tonne (metric ton) and H/W is

the height-width ratio ranging from 1.85 - 1.0. The coefficient of determina-

2 tion (r ) was 0.699.

of Michigan, which is geologically related to the Kettle Point Formation in

12 Ontario and thus is of great interest, has been studied. Uniaxial compres

sive tests on six samples gave the following range of values:

a u s 92 - 136 MPa (27)

E r 10.8 - 16.9 GPa

V s 0.06 - 0.17

Values are tabulated as functions of density and weight loss due to roasting

at 500OC in air for 48 hours. Using equation 3 to calculate IQc by volume

gave Oc values ranging from 10.2 - 21.8^6. Linear regression of strength vs.

did not give reliable results, likely due to small sample size.

3*5 Triaxial Compression Strength

20

Page 31: Oil Shale Mechanics

Few triaxial tests have been done on the Green River oil shales in Colo-

47 rado. Such results as are available are best described by plotting them on a

Ca.-cL)X2 versus (cr..-Ki-)X2 graph for various oil shale grades (see Appendix

Figure 9)* Obviously a decrease in 5tOc and increase in confining pressure

increases the axial strength of the intact rock.

The effects of temperature on triaxial strength are similar to the effects

on tensile and uniaxial compressive strength: lower strength at higher temper

atures (Figure 10 and 11). Statistical analysis of the effects of tempera

ture, confining pressure and oil yield on the compressive strength has beenli li

done for this same formation giving the following results:

oru r 2400(T~0 ' 615 ) a exp(0.058(p) - 0.005WA)) (MPa) (30)

where T is the temperature in OF, p is the confining pressure in MPa and A is

the Fischer assay oil yield in litres per tonne.

3.6 Shear Strength

There are not many references that give the actual shear strength of oil

shales. One experiment on the Mahogany zone, Colorado, gave the following

78 results:'*

't s 33.6 - 0.86(A) (MPa) (31)

where A is the oil yield in litres per tonne. Coefficient of determination

2 (r ) for this linear regression was only 0.247.

Our only data from outside the USA are on the Kimmeridge Clays in England.

This formation is known to have a series of dark seams of kerogen rich clay

(oil shale). Shear strength of this formation ranges from 0.1 - 0.4 MPa which

68 is a factor of 10 lower than the Green River Formation oil shales. As men-

21

Page 32: Oil Shale Mechanics

3.7 Other Tests

There are many other tests that have been performed on oil shales to obtain

some idea of their physical properties under different conditions.

Dynamic fracture strength of oil shales has been studied by a number of

researchers. They have used different testing techniques such as gas gun,

capacitor, Hopkinson bar and tensile bar. All these methods indicate that a

linear relationship exists between fracture stress (i.e., the maximum dynamic

tensile strength material can support before failure by fracture occurs) and

78 strain rate (Figure 12). These experiments are extremely important when one

considers in situ retorting techniques for oil shale processing.

Creep tests are, on the other hand, extremely valuable for stability of

mine openings. One such test was performed on the Tipton Green River Forma

tion, to demonstrate correlation between various stress levels and organic07

contents. Statistical analysis gave the following equations:

E 1 s 558.84 - I6.50(0c) - 979.29(S) * 38.93(OcS) (MPa) (32)

E2 s 1989.93 - 52.38(0c) - 3188.96(8) * 2l8.99(OcS) (MPa) (33)

n s 183675.86 - 6057-38(0c) + 13**65.38(OcS) (MPa-hours) (34)

E. and E~ are spring constants in a standard linear viscoelastic model and n

is the viscosity. Oc is the organic content in percentage by volume and S is

37the stress level as a function of the ultimate compressive stress. Coeffi

cient of determination was approximately 0.7*

22

Page 33: Oil Shale Mechanics

The effect of temperature on creep was found to be significant for the oil

41 shales in the Green River Formation, Colorado (Figure 13)* To demonstrate

temperature effects, identical samples were tested at different temperatures.

Results showed that strain rate increased from 3-33 x 10" min" at 24OC to

81 o16.7 x 10 min" at 121 C for a constant stress ratio of 0.45. The Kelvin

model' was used to predict the primary and secondary creep behavior under con-

41 stant temperatures and gave reasonable agreement with the measured data.

Porosity and permeability studies on the Antrim oil shales, Michigan, indi-

157 cated that the porosity could be expressed as a function of weight loss.

Linear regression analysis of tabulated results gave the following:

*n s 5.61 - 0.44(W.) (35) t

where W. is percentage weight loss due to roasting of the sample at 500OC

(optimum retorting temperature) and the porosity is calculated as apparent

porosity equal to (Da- Dg)XDa where Da is the apparent density and Dg is the

geometric density.

For 5-10^ weight loss apparent porosity should range approximately from

0.034-0.012 and, assuming saturation, water content (w) can be calculated

157 using the following expression:

n s wG/d+wG) or (36)

w s nX(1-n)G (37)

Solving this equation for n s 0.012 and 0.034 and G s 2.65 (specific gravity

of quartz) gives water contents ranging approximately from 0.5 - 1.356*

Because of the geological similarity between the Kettle Point Formation oil

shale and Antrim Formation we could expect similar results. Preliminary

results of percentage of w indicate a range of 0.7 - 2.22.

23

Page 34: Oil Shale Mechanics

Average permeabilities of the same formation ranged from 0.123 - 0.025 mil-

lidarcies parallel to bedding planes and 0.044 - 0.004 millidarcies perpendic-

-11 2 ular to bedding planes. One millidarcy is approximately equal to 10 cm

or, if expressed as hydraulic conductivity, 10" cm/sec for water at 20OC.

Unfortunately, most of our data comes from studies on the Green River For

mation oil shales. Since these shales are mineralogically quite different

than the Antrim Formation oil shales in Michigan we could expect differences

in the mechanical behaviour. Great care must be taken in imposing behaviour

models derived for the Green River Formation to the Michigan Antrim (Kettle

Point) oil shales.

24

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4. MINING TECHNIQUES

4.1 General

There are four basic methods of oil shale production. These are open pit

mining with surface retorting, underground mining with surface retorting,

underground mining with in situ retorting and true in situ extraction using

injection wells. A brief description of these methods follows.

4.2 Open Pit Mining with Surface Retorts

Many of the older mines were open pit operations which existed in China,

Australia, Canada (at Collingwood, Ontario), Brazil and England. The methods

of retorting have changed over the years. Some of the recent experimental

surface retorts will be discussed in Section 4.3*

A study was performed on the Federal Oil Shale Tract C-a in Piceance Basin

(Figure 2) for the feasibility of an open pit mining operation. Both limiting

equilibrium and stress-strain analysis using the finite element method were

used for the study. It was assumed that failure was most likely to take place

along discontinuities. Tests showed the cohesion values to be 1.7MPa or more,

and the angle of friction, 30O . For these values a slope angle of 45 O was

deemed adequate. When measuring tensile stresses, which were in the order of

O.TMPa for a 366 m deep pit, it was found that 60O slopes were adequate. The

tensile stresses were found to occur near the toe of the slopes. Also, they

concluded that differences in physical properties of the rock mass contributed

to the significant increase in the extent of the tensile stress zone.

25

Page 36: Oil Shale Mechanics

4.3 Underground Mining with Surface Retorts

The room and pillar method (Figure 14) for underground mining seems to be

the most widely used technique, expecially with the Green River Shale experi

mental projects. In this method benches are mined from the top of the room

downwards. Pillars of oil shale are left to support the roof. The dimensions

of the rooms are dependent on the tensile and compressive strengths of the

rock, the discontinuities of the rock mass (joints, fractures, etc), the com

petency of the roof rock, and the hydrology of the mine area.

The ideal roof consists of low grade rock for greater strength, formedgo

along smooth bedding planes or other natural partings. Less spalling occurs

with a smooth surface.

A study of the Colony Pilot Mine in Piceance Basin (Figure 3) was under

taken to discover the reasons for the roof falls which had been occurring

there. It was found that bedding plane separations had formed at 1.5, 3*0 and

4.5m above the roof. These separations increased, forming a sag in the roof

between pillars, which in turn resulted in high horizontal compressive

stresses directly above the pillar. Hence, an arch was formed. The larger theQQ

distance between pillars the more sagging occurred, blasting and benching

152 could lead to further sagging.

Hardy et. al. (1978) compared the use of elementary beam theory and dis

placement discontinuity analysis in the calculation of stresses in a mine

roof. They assumed that the roof was acting as a set of beams of roughly

equal thickness. The displacement discontinuity analysis method gave stress

results similar to those measured. A span of 18.3m appears to be an optimumgo

spacing for the Colony Mine.

At the Anvil Points Mine near Rifle Colorado, a room of 24 x 30 m remained

26

Page 37: Oil Shale Mechanics

stable for years without rock bolts. When It was extended to 24 x 60 m, roof

failures occurred, which probably would have been prevented with rock

152bolts. Also in this study, it was noted that the sagging was cyclical, sag

ging in the winter and moving upwards in the summer due to temperature changes

in the mine. This phenomenon was more pronounced at the mine opening, and

rock falls occurred as the result of this cycling. Mine stabilization techni

ques (rock bolts) should be employed to guard against this problem. Because

of the variability in chemical and mechanical properties of the oil shale,

detailed studies should be performed on each deposit in order to ensure sta

bility.

Pillar dimensions are important for achieving maximum safety and extrac

tion. Studies have been undertaken to determine the stresses on oil shale

pillars in order to find the optimal size. In the Anvil Points project men

tioned above, stress on the pillars increased during benching and cross out

removal. When final stresses were measured, they were less than those hypoth-

152 esized, probably due to arching over the pillars. This shows the need for

in situ testing as well as lab work, in determining the maximum possible

extraction ratios. Other pilot projects have not performed these studies, as

a result, their extraction ratios are generally lower.

Other parameters worthy of investigation include mine orientation with

respect to direction of stresses and joints sets in the rock mass. The long

axes of the rooms, if they are rectangular, should be perpendicular to major152 joint sets for enhanced stability.

Principal stresses should be studied in order to determine whether the

joints are tensional or compressional. This is important in order to orient

the rooms in such a way as to take advantage of the stabilizing effect of

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these stresses. If the lateral stresses are greater than the vertical ones,

and if they happen to be tensional as is the case with the Anvil Points Mine,

the stresses help create high friction forces across the joints, helping to

152 support them.

After the shale is blasted and extracted from the mine, it has to be

crushed to a uniform size before it is loaded into the retort. There are many

types of surface retorts. These will be discussed briefly.

The Tosco-II retorting method (Figure 5) was used in the pilot project at

Parachute Creek. The 1.5cm crushed material is heated to approximately 500 C

by direct contact with heated ceramic balls of the same diameter, in a rotat

ing kiln (retort). The organic matter rapidly decomposes to a hydrocarbon

vapour which flows through a cyclone separator which separates the gas from

the solids. It then goes into a f rae t i ona t or where the vapour is cooled to

produce heavy oil, distillate oils, naptha and light gases. The yield is

175 close to 100^ of the Fischer assay quantity.

The other two retorting systems were developed by the Russians. They are

called the Kiviter and the Galoter retorts. As mentioned earlier in the sec

tion on the USSR deposits, the Estonians have recently improved their retort

ing processes. The Kiviter retort is similar in some respects to the gas com-Q

bustion, Paraho and Petrosix retorts, of the United States. These other

methods are discussed in reference no. 50. In the Kiviter system, the shale

flows downwards against a rising, heated gas in a modified vertical retort.

The Kiviter retort handles coarse-grained feed, 2.5 cm and larger. Special

burners were designed for the low heating value gas which is produced from

this retort. This gas provides some of the heat for the process. The pro-Q

duced H.S is removed and the sulphur is recovered.

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The Galoter retort was developed to refine the fine oil shale feed that Is

less than 2.5 cm In lump size. As In the Tosco-II process, the retort rotates

but the heat carrier is a solid, spent oil shale. With this method there is a

5 to 10* increase in yield, 12 to 18* increase in thermal efficiency, reduc

tion in electric power and steam requirements, a higher quality crude oil,o

and, a sulphur-free gas product with high heating value.

There are various other types of retorts. Those discussed are Just a few

of the more recent developments in oil shale retorting technology.

4.4 Underground Mining with In Situ Retorts

The room and pillar mining technique is also used with the in situ retort

ing process. Another name for this type of mining is modified in situ mining.

As mentioned earlier, good fragmentation and uniform void distribution are

essential for maximum oil shale extraction. As stated previously, lean oil

shales (less than 165 l/tonne) behave in a brittle manner and rich shales

70 basically flow in a plastic manner. The oil shale hydrocarbon content varies

in Piceance Creek, Colorado, vertical retorts are the most practical. In

70 thinner beds, horizontal retorts are being employed.

Several modified in situ processes have been developed. They all require

removal of a certain percentage of rock in the retort by conventional mining

methods. This creates a void into which the rest of the rock can expand upon

explosive fragmentation.

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The Occidental process appears to be one of the most accepted and certainly

the best developed methods of modified in situ retorting. Since 1972, Occi

dental has built and tested several underground retorts at the Logan Wash

Property near DeBeque, Colorado (Figure 16). The first retorts were small

(9x9x21m); then in 1975 the first commercial sized (36x36x85m) retort (no.4)

was ignited and produced 4,800m of oil in its first six months of production.

Retorts five and six were finished in 1977 and 1978 respectively. Retort No.

6 measured 49x49x103m.50

Retort no. 4 had two vertical slots extending from the floor to the mined

out room at the top. Blastholes were drilled parallel to the slots from the*

upper room. Blasting and geologic problems resulting in poor recovery rates

prevented proper Fragmentation.

Retort no. 5 used a single slot and a 12 m silt pillar above the fragmented

zone of the retort. The initial blast holes were used to circulate the output

gases to the retort. As in Retort no. 4, poor distribution and channelling of

the gases was observed with a resultant, reduction in yield.

Number 6 retort had two intermediate levels, instead of the slots, to cre

ate the needed void volume into which the material could expand upon blasting.

Due to overmining of the lower level, a portion of the silt pillar collapsed

but it was cleaned up without interrupting production.

Some other modified in situ methods include using a subsurface chimney

formed by explosives or chemical spalling of rock from the sides of boreholes;

using natural fractures which are opened and enlarged by gas pressure; and150

using lasers to produce voids and heat.

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One study was undertaken to test the use of microwaves in oil shale retort

ing. It was found that permeability decreases with vertical stresses but

increases with microwaving under no stresses. More studies have to be per

formed to explore the usefulness of this technique.

For fufher information on modified in situ mining methods, reference no. 50

has excellent descriptions of the various technologies.

One concern of those studying in situ retorting is the possible reduction

of permeability due to heating of shales in the retort. Despite the lack of

data on the subject, one author believes that the pressures developed during

retorting are not very different during or prior to retorting. He also claims

that these pressures should not cause serious loss of permeability unless a

large overburden pressure is placed on the fragmented shale during retort-

ing.25

Other concerns are sensitivity of wall rock to increase in temperature and

the effect of temperature on thermal conductivity. It was found that compres

sive strength decreases tenfold on heating. At room temperature, strength

increases approximately 10/t for each 20 I/tonne decrease in O . High gradesc

are very sensitive to temperature but confining pressure significantly

increases strength. Tensile strength is affected in the same manner as com-

119 pressive strength.

Thermal conductivity is more dependant on grade than temperature except

during active retorting. Thermal expansion during retorting can exert consid-110

erable force on the sides of the retort. It was also found that the convec

tion coefficient has no great influence on heat flow in the retort walls.

This implies that any temperatures likely to cause structural damage will not

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penetrate very far into the pillar. As a result it was concluded that

119 temperature effects must be taken into account for mine design.

The modified in situ mining technique is particularly appealing for envi

ronmental reasons. Further investigations, particularly of prototype retorts,

must be performed on this method before large scale production is begun. The

technology is at a relatively advanced developmental stage, but the economic

and detailed knowledge is not at the same stage of development as for mining

and surface retorting techniques.

4.5 True In Situ Extraction

This type of 'mining* basically involves drilling boreholes and placing

explosive charges in them. These charges are detonated, fracturing the oil

shale and making it more permeable. Heating of the shale by various methods

is the next step. Hydrocarbon vapour is driven off through other wells to the

surface where it is condensed and refined.

Because of the impermeable nature of shales, fracturing is very important

in making the rock more permeable in order to facilitate combustion. The more

uniformly fractured the rock is, the better the fireflood coverage; hence, the

more extraction. Horizontal fractures are needed in order to link well bores

in the geometric pattern to be used for a true in situ method. There have

been many fracture studies performed on the Green River and Antrim Formations

to develop the best method for oil shale fracturing. These studies are listed

in the bibliography; a few will be discussed in this report.

Fracturing of oil shale is dependent on the grade, discontinuities, and

strain rate. There is a minimum resistance to fracturing for leaner specimens

because they are stronger and the stuctural damage is much greater than for a

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•TC *Tfl 1 h OOrich shale.' ' ' * JO This is due to the increased tendency of rich shale to

deform plastically and the leaner shales to deform in a brittle manner upon

shock impulse. The effect of strain rate is to reduce the fragment size as78 70 33 iu un

strain rate increases.'' *'* i:"'' This is useful for in situ methods

because the finer the shale fragments, the more surface area which comes in

contact with the heat source, hence better extraction can be achieved.

'Elect relinking 'using high voltage electricity was tried as a method of

increasing oil shale permeability. It provided additional fracture zones but

1 18 not enough to allow in situ retorting. Blasting with commercial ANFO (Ammo

nium Nitrate- Fuel Oil Mixture) was attempted. ANFO is an inexpensive explo

sive but it does not undergo high order detonation, which is desirable to

achieve maximum fragmentation. Even with extremely large charges; ANFO has

91 too low a 'brisance 1 to effectively fragment oil shale. Hydraulic fracturing

by injecting viscous water based gel and 8 to 12 mesh sand through double

packers was tried. This method was unsuccessful in causing enough permeabil-

f i ve- spot we l l bore pattern. Ignition of the resultant fractured rock was sue-118 cessful. Hydro fracturing, with subsequent sand propping of resultant frac

tures, followed by explosive detonations seems to be a promising method of

increasing permeability; however, great care has to be taken not to fracture

the rock of the underlying formations. If these formations are permeable,

they may cause fluid leakage. Another problem can arise with this method if

there are natural fractures. In one case, the explosive slurry pumped down

the hole continued down along natural fractures. The detonation resulted in a

random distribution of fractures which did not generate sufficient permeabil

ity to implement an in situ process.

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Fragmentation experiments on the Antrim Formation have included blasting as

well as leaching of the underlying limestone formation with hydrochloric acid.

These methods create a void into which the overlying shale can expand upon

blasting. Repeated experiments resulted in vertical fractures which are of

131 little use in linking wellbores.

00One other method of obtaining permeability was suggested by Perner, 1975.

In the leached zone of the Green River Formation, further leaching of the

matrix by bacterial cultures may be sufficient to make the shale more porous,

and hence, more permeable. Much more research has to be done before this

method could be implemented.

One experiment performed on the oil shale the Anvil Points Mine in Colorado

studied the effects of explosives on permeability. The original permeability 8

was 3 x 10~ Darcies in a 167 I/tonne sample. After the sample was exploded 2

once, the permeability rose to 8 x 10 Darcies. Near the borehole permeabil-

shot.

Much experimentation and testing still remains to be done before any true

in situ method becomes economically viable. It is an attractive method

because of the environmental aspects, particularly since there is no worry

about waste disposal. Another reason that this method is appealing is the

reduced need for water. Because of the arid climate and due to the increasing

use of the Colorado River for irrigation and municipal use, there is insuffi

cient supply for any technology requiring large volumes of water or stream.

The BX in situ oil shale project was producing oil shale by true in situ

methods at least until 1980. This project used superheated steam to retort

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the leached zone of the Green River Formation in Colorado. Over five months

235,060 barrels of water (steam) were injected into eight wells at 235OC with

a wellhead pressure of 1199 PSIG. The project could not operate at peak con

ditions (538OC, 1500 PSIG) because of problems with equipment. As of 1978,

plans were to continue production into 1981.

Apart from steam, in situ retorting under air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide

has been suggested. Tests have been run using different atmospheres,and

results of these tests are reported in reference no. 87.

The true in situ extraction method is environmentally attractive but it

requires much study before the technology can uniformly fracture the oil shale

and extract it on an economic basis. Compared to mining and retorting, the

technology is at a very early development stage.

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5. CURRENT RESEARCH

5.1 General

shale, composed dominantly of clay minerals, illite and quartz. It contains

87 minor amounts of organic matter, pyrite, and carbonate.

This shale differs from the Green River Shale in the small amount of carbo

nate minerals present. The Green River Shales contain carbonate materials

such as calcite and dolomite which comprise much of the mineral matter found

in these shales. 87 ' 113

As part of the contract with the Ontario Geological Survey, the University

of Waterloo has been performing laboratory tests on selected Kettle Point For

mation cores. Some preliminary results of these tests are given here.

5.2 Mineralogy

The Kettle Point Oil Shale has the same characteristics as the Antrim

Shale. The total organic content (TOC) found in the core KP24 of the Kettle

Point ranges from 0.2 to 15.4 percent, with an average of 7*7 percent. This

is comparable to the 6.5 percent TOC of the Antrim. In addition the Kettle

Point has minor amounts of carbonate and pyrite and is composed mainly of

quartz and illite.

Derivative thermogravimetric analysis (DTG) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)

were performed on three samples of the Kettle Point Shale. One sample from

each of the cores KP22, KP27 and KP28 was tested. A fourth sample from core

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KP24 was analyzed through DIG testing only. The DIG analysis is based on

material decomposition resulting in weight loss with heating. Volatile

materials and chemical decomposition products lost from the sample cause a

decrease in weight. The chemical reactions are temperature dependent rate

51 processes which occur over a range of temperatures. A DTG curve is the first

derivative of the weight loss relationship and consists of a series of peaks

which correspond to various stages in decomposition. The peak area is propor

tional to fractional weight loss at each particlar stage. The curve returns

to the baseline when sample weight reaches a plateau but shows a minimum value

above the baseline if weight does not remain constant as temperature rises.

The samples taken from cores KP27 and KP28 show two peaks of organic decom

position. It is suggested that one of the peaks is kerogen and the other is

bitumen. The absence of a significant clay dehydroxylation peak in the 550 C

range indicates a very low clay content. There are also no discrete carbonate

peaks in the range of 750O-800OC. In the sample taken from core KP24 a clay

peak is seen overlapping with the organic peak.

A sample of a light lamination was taken from core KP22. This sample shows

no peaks in the 300O-400OC range which indicates very low organic matter con

tent. However, it does show two peaks in the 550O-600OC range indicating con

siderable clay content. It is possible that these two peaks are indicative of

two reactions, each of a different clay type. The DTG curve also indicates

carbonate materials in this sample. These very preliminary data suggest a

mineralogical control on organic content.

An x-ray diffraction analysis on samples from cores KP22, KP27, KP28 con

firmed the results of the DTG analysis. In cores KP27 and KP28 the minerals

that could be reliably determined were quartz and illite with possible carbo-

37

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nate minerals, calcite and dolomite. Core KP22 shows similar mineralogy with

the possible identification of kaolinite.

These results indicate that the Kettle Point is similar in composition to

the Michigan Antrim Shale.

5.3 Mechanical Properties.

.5-2.J. Slake Durability Index

One sample was tested from hole KP27 at depth 22.0-22.15m. Average total

organic carbon (TOC) was 9.056. After two cycles of wetting and drying the

percentage retained was 99*356- According to Gamble's slake durability classi

fication this result is grouped as having a very high durability.

5..3 .2 Point Load Index

Seven samples were loaded in the Brock and Franklin apparatus parallel and

perpendicular to bedding. The average corrected point load index was calcu

lated for parallel and perpendicular loading respectively:

I (para.) s 0.0 - 2.1 MPa (5 samples) (38)SO

I gc (perp.) s 3.5 -6.7 MPa (2 samples) (39)

Obviously the point load resistance is strongly dependent on bedding plane

orientation.

5..3.3 Brazilian Tests

Twenty-eight samples have been tested to date. Their TOC values range from

4 to 111. Data are quite scattered. The average tensile strength is 9.33 MPa

with a standard deviation of 1.95 MPa. The highest value is 16.5 MPa and the

lowest was 7.2 MPa.

38

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In progress are direct shear tests, uniaxial compressive tests and triax

ial tests.

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6. SUMMARY

There are many oil shale deposits throughout the world, some having been

mined commercially in the past, and several being exploited at present. Much

interest has been shown in these deposits in the last decade due to a threat

ened shortage of conventional oil. Because of the fairly recent development

of the field of rock mechanics, very little rock mechanics work has been done

on oil shales. As a result, the majority of the data comes from the American

deposits, the Green River and Antrim Formations, which have been subjected to

intense study in the last 10 years.

The Green River Formation is actually a marlstone, and is very different

from the Antrim Formation. The Kettle Point Formation in Ontario has been

correlated with the Antrim Formation; therefore, any general mechanical prop

erty observation developed on the Antrim should also be true for the Kettle

Point.

Oil shale yield varies inversely with bulk density, with low densities giv

ing high yields. The relationship between these two parameters is given by

the equations discussed in section 3*2.

The Mahogany zone of Colorado and Utah has been compared with the T ip ton

member of Wyoming. Tensile and compressive strengths were the compared param

eters. The tensile and compressive strengths were different due to differ

ences in mineralogy. The dolomite of the Mahogany zone gives the rock struc

tural support whereas the dolomite content of the Tipton member does not have

this. Strength of oil shales decreases significantly with increasing tempera

ture and increases with increased strain rate. Uniaxial compressive strengths

have been given for the Antrim Formation of Michigan.

40

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Some results from triaxial and shear strength tests have been reported.

Creep test results indicate a correlation between various stress levels and

organic content. Temperature also greatly affects creep. Water content for

the Antrim ranges between 0.5 and 1.356* Average permeabilities ranged from

0.124 to 0.125 millidarcies parallel to bedding and 0.044 to 0.004 millidar-

cies perpendicular to bedding.

There are four basic mining techniques available: open pit with surface

retorts, underground with surface retorts, modified in situ and true in situ

mining.

The technology and equipment for surface mining and retorting is available

for certain areas of the United States. This would of necessity be low cost

and high production mining. However, the environmental impact would be great,

and the problems of handling and disposing of water would be significant.

Also, grade control would be difficult, and initial capital costs are much

higher for surface than underground mining.

As a result of all these problems, oil shale mining has been forced to move

underground. As some of these methods are fairly new, much research has been

undertaken to define the mechanical properties in order to achieve maximum

extraction and safety. For underground mining, the room and pillar method

seems to be the most widely used. The dimensions of the rooms are dependent

on strength of rock, discontinuities, competency of the roof and the hydrology

of the mine area. Cyclical sagging and raising of the roof due to seasonal

temperature change has been noted. This phenomenon also causes arching of the

roof over the pillars. Mine orientation with respect to rock stresses and

discontinuities is also very important*

41

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The Tosco-II seems to be the most widely used surface retort in the U.S.

Two other retorts in use now, in the U.S.S.R., are the Kiviter and the Galoter,

These are environmentally and economically more efficient than previous

U.S.S.R. retorts.

The modified and true in situ techniques require fracturing of the oil

shale to create permeability in order for continuous retorting to take place.

The Occidental in situ retorting system seems to be the most advanced technol

ogy in the U.S. This technique requires mining of between 15 to 20ifc of the

retort to allow for the fragmentation and expansion of the rest of the shale.

Increasing temperature greatly reduces rock strength; therefore, it should be

taken into account when designing retorting systems.

True in situ mining involves drilling boreholes and fracturing the rock

using various techniques. If the rock has been sufficiently fractured, the

shale is ignited and the hydrocarbon gas is brought to the surface to be

refined. The more finely fractured, the better the fireflood. Hydrofractur-

ing, sand propping and then exploding appears to be a fairly successful

method. The strain rate affects fragment size. Steam, air, nitrogen and car

bon dioxide have been suggested as mediums for in situ retorting.

Current research on Kettle Point material includes: DTG and XRD analysis,

slake durability, point load and Brazilian tests. The mineralogical results

indicate relatively low clay and carbonate contents in the Kettle Point

shales. The mechanical tests indicate: a very high slake durability, and

tensile strengths between 16.5 and 7.2 MPa. Tests in progress are direct

shear, uniaxial and triaxial tests.

More information is needed on the mechanical properties of oil shales

42

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before evaluation of any commercial venture is undertaken. Some of the

research reported to date can be found in the bibliography. This report will

be followed by a major report on Kettle Point mechanical properties.

43

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7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Susan Andrews for her exhaustive

efforts in typing this report and Chris Fordham for

carrying out the thermal analyses.

44

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8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The articles listed below have been rated as to their relevance. The rat

ing system is:

1. Very informative on the mechanical properties of oil shales.

2. Very informative on other related topics

3. Moderately useful for mechanical properties

4. Moderately useful for related topics

5. Possibly informative but they have not been received through the

interlibrary loaf} system as yet.

6. Not very useful or they have not been read because the titles

did not relate directly to the topic, may be interesting to

someone.

The rating numbers have been placed at the end of each reference listed.

45

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1. Adams, T.F., Stauffer, H.C., (editor), 1981. Computer Simulation of Explosive Fracture of Oil Shale. Oil Shale, Tar Sands, and Related Materials, ACS Symposium Series (USA) ACS Symp. Ser., No. 163, PP- 13-24. (4)

2. Agapito, Jose F., 1974. Rock Mechanics Applications to the Design of Oil Shale Pillars. Min. Eng., Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 20-25. (2)

3. Agapito, J.F. and Page, J.B., 1976. ± Case Study of Long-Term Stability in the Colony Oil Shale Mine, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado. 17th U.S. Sym posium on Rock Mechanics, Snowbird, Utah, USA, Aug. 25-27, Symp. Rock Mech., Proc.- (USA) No. 17, pp. 3A4.1-3A4.6. (4)

4. Alfred, V.D., 1964. Some Characteristic Properties of Colorado Oil Shale Which May Influence In Situ Processing. Col. Sch. Mines Quarterly, Vol. 59, No. 3, PP- 47-76. (6)

5. Arrhenius, G., 1975. Shale-Oil Production in Sweden by In Situ Pyrolysis and by Aboveground Retorting; Environmental Restoration. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, p. 302-311. (6)

6. Bader, B.E. (editor), 1981. Oil Shale Program; Twenty-First Quarterly Report, Jan. f 8l-Mar.'8l. Sand. 81-1659. (4)

7. Bader, B.E. (editor), 1982. Oil Shale Program; Twenty-Third and Twenty- Fourth Quarterly Reports. July '81 through Dec. '81. Sandia Report Sand 82-0606. (4)

8. Baker, J.D., 1979- World Oil Shale Resources and Development History* Symposium Papers: Synthetic Fuels from Oil Shale, pp. 1-19. (2)

9. Baker, J.D., Hook, C.O., 1979. Chinese and Estonian Oil Shale; 12th Oil Shale Symposium, pp. 26-31. (2)

10. Barker, J., 1983. Unpublished data, 1983. (1)

11. Berg, R.R., 1976. Deformation of Mesozoic Shales at Hamilton Dome, Big horn Basin, Wyoming. Am. Ass. Pet. Geol. Bull., Vol. 60, No. 9, Sept., pp. 1425-1433. (6)

12. Bethea, R.M., Barber, D.R., Parker, H.W., Guven, N. and Anonymous, 1982. Effect of Groundwater and Ph Modification on Quality of Leachate from Simu lated In Situ Retorted Utah Oil Shale. International Symposium on Oilfield and Geothermal Chemistry, Dallas, TX, USA, Jan, 25-27; AIME, Soc. Pet. Engl., pp. 341-351. (6)

13. Boade, R.R., et al., 1978. True In Situ Processing of Oil Shale: An Evaluation of Current Bed Preparation Technology. Sand 78-2162. (2)

14. Boade, R.R., Kipp, M.E., and Grady, D.E., 1981. Dynamic Fracture and Fragmentation of Oil Shale: Application of a Numerical Model to a Blast Design. Fourteenth Oil Shale Symposium, Golden, Co. USA, Apr. 22-24, 1980. Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings Aug. 1981. No. 14, pp. 31-52. (4)

46

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15* Bondurant, E.J. and Chang N.Y., 1980. Statistical Analysis and Modeling of the Physical, Mechanical , and Strength Properties of Oil Shale; Proc. 21st U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla Missouri, May 28-30, pp. 604-613* (D

16. Brady, B.T., Hooker, V.E. and Agapito, J.F., 1975. Laboratory and In Situ Mechanical Behaviour Studies of Fractured Oil Shale Pillars. Rock Mechanics ( Vienna) ( III ) , June, Vol 7, No. 2, pp. 101-120. (6)

17. Bridwell, R.J. and Carter, W.J., (compiler), 1978. Variation of Fracture Patterns as a Function of Detonator Position and Tensile Strength. Explo sively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale; Oct. -Dec., 1977 , Los Alamos Sci. Lab. (rep.MUSA) No. 7164, pp. 17-21, (5)

18. Brown, A. .and Heley, W., 1977. USBM Pilot Hole 'X'. Horse Draw, Rio B lane o County, Colorado. Vol. Jk Section 2: Permeability Testing. USBM OFR 103(2)-77, March, 26p. (5)

19. Brown, J.W. and Repsher, R. C., 1972. Detection of Rubble Zones in Oil Shale by the Electrical Resistivity Technique. U.S. Bur. Mines, Rep. Invest. (USA), No. 7674, 17 pp. (4)

20. Cameron, I. B. and McAdam, A. D., 1978. The Oil Shales of the Lothians , Scotland; present resources and former workings. Institute of Geological Sciences, U.K., Report 78/28. (4)

21. Campbell, D.L. and Olhoeft, G. R., 1976. Laboratory Measurements of Com plex Resisitivity Characteristics of Oil-Shales from Piceance Creek, Colorado. Soc. Explor. Geophys., Annu. Int. Meet., Abstr. USA No. 46, pp. 43-44, Sum mary only (6)

22. Campbell, G. G., Scott, W. G. and Miller, J.S., 1970. Evaluation of Oil Shale Fracturing Tests Near Rock Springs, Wyo. USBM Report No. 7397. (4)

23* Campbell, J. R., Colgate, S. A. and Wheat, B. M., 1980. Subterranean Stress Engineering Experiments. In: Underground Rock Engineering, 13th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Toronto, May 28-29. pp. 31-35, Publ Montreal: CIMM,

24. Cane, R.F., 1979. The Oil Shales of Australia and Their Industrial His tory; 12th Oil Shale Symp. pp. 17-25. (2)

25. Carley, J. F. and Thigpen, L., 1980. Modeling of Vertical Pressure Dis tribution in Large In Situ Retorts. 13th Oil Shale Symp. Golden Colo. April 16-18, pp. 180-190. (2)

26. Carmichael, R.S. (ed.), 1982. Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks. Vol. 1, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. (4)

27. Chang, N.Y. and Bondurant, E.J., 1979- Oil Shale Strength Characteriza tion Through Multiple Stage Triaxial Tests. Proc. 20th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 393-401. (3)

28. Chang, B., Costello, K. and Chong, K.P., 1978. Fatigue Tests of Oil Shale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May 1-3, V1, pp. 408-413, Publ. Reno: University of Nevada. (2)

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29. Chang N.Y. and Jumper, A.L., 1978. Multiple-Stage Triaxial Test on OilShale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May1-3* V1, pp. 520-522. Publ. Reno: University of Nevada. (1)

30. Cheng C.H., 1981. Dynamic and Static Moduli. Geophys Res. Lett. Vol. 8, No. 1, Jan. pp. 39-42. (4)

31. Chew, R.T., III, 1975. The Occidental In Situ Process: Research Recom mendations . Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. ' Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C. United States, pp. 211-217. (5)

32. Chong, K.P. et al., 1979. Complete Elastic Constants and Stiffness Coef ficients for Oil Shales. U.S. DOE/LETC/RI-79/8, (5)

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34. Chong, K.P., Roine, S., Chang, B., Smith, J.W., Wang, F.D. (editor), and Clark, G.B. (editor)., 1977. Mechanical Properties cif Oil Shale by, Modified* Split Cylinder Testing Energy Resources and Excavation Technology. 18th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Keystone, Colo, USA, June 22-24, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, Golden, Colo., USA, pp. 5B3.1-5B3.5. (1)

35. Chong, K.P., Smith, J.W. and Borgman, E.S., 1982. Tensile Strengths ofColorado and Utah Oil Shales. Journal of Energy (USA), Apr., Vol. 6, No. 2,pp. 81-85. (1)

36. Chong, K.P., Smith, J.W., Chang, B., Hoyt, P.M. and Carpenter, H.C., 1976. Characterization of Oil Shale Under Uniaxial Compression. 17th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech., Proc. (USA), No. 17, pp. 5C5.1-5C5.8. (1)

37* Chong, K.P., Smith, J.W. and Khaliki, B.A., 1978. Creep and Relaxation of Oil Shale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May 1-3, Vol. 1, pp. 414-418. Publ Reno: University of Nevada. (1)

38. Chong, K.P., Uenishi, K. and Munari, A.C., 1979* Three-Dimensional Char acterization of the Mechanical Properties of Colorado Oil Shale. Proc. 20th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 369-379. (D

39. Chong, K.P., Uenishi, K. and Smith, J.W., 1980. Non-Linear Three Dimen sional Mechanical Characterization of Colorado Oil Shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min Sci. Vol. 17, No. 6, Dec., pp. 339-347. (D

40. Chong, K.P., Ward, J. and Chang, B., 1979. Oil Shale Properties by Split Cylinder Method. J. Geotech. Engn. Div. ASCE, Vol. 105, Ngt. 5, P 595-611,(l)

41. Chu, M.S. and Chang, N.Y., 1980. Uniaxial Creep of Oil Shale Under Ele vated Temperatures. Proc. 21st U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla, Mis souri, May 28-30, pp. 207-216. (1)

42. Clark, C.E. and Varisco, D.C., 1975. Net Energy and Oil Shale;

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Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil, Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent. Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 345-372. (4)

43. Clearvt M.P., 1978. Some Deformation and Fracture Characteristics of Oil Shale. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nev. U.S.A., May 1-3, No. 19 (Vol.2), pp. 72-82. (6)

44. Closmann, P.J. and Bradley, W.B., 1979- Effects of Temperature on Ten sile and Compressive Strengths and Young*s Modulus of Oil Shale. Society Petrolum Engineer Jurnal, vol. 19, No. 5, Oct, pp. 301-312. (1)

45. Closmann, P.J. and Phocas, D.M., 1978. Thermal Stresses Near a HeatedFracture in Transversely Isotopic Oil Shale. Soc. Pet. Engr. J. Vol. 18, No.1., Feb., pp. 59-74. (2)

46. Cole, D., 1974. A Recent Example of Spontaneous Combustion of Oil-Shale (Letter). Geol. Mag., Vol. 111, No. 4, p. 355. (4)

47. Costin, L.S., 1981. Material Properties of Green River Oil Shale. San dia Report Sand 81-1457. (D

48. Covaci., S., Popescu, A., Badulescu, D. and Vacaru, I., 1978. Possibili ties of Applying Underground Methods for the Exploitation of Bituminous Shale. Mine, Pet, Gaze (Buchar.) (Rom) March, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 113-119. (6)

49. Crookston, R.B., 1978. Mining Oil Shale. Underground Space, Vol. 2, pp. 229-241. ' (2)

50. Crookston, R.B. and Weiss, D.A., 1979- Oil Shale Mining ^ Plans and Practices. Symposium Papers : Synthetic Fuels from Oil Shale, pp. 117-163.(2)

51. Daniels, T., 1973. Thermal Analysis. Kogan Page Limited, pp. 53-63- (2)

52. Deily, F.H., Heilhecker, J.K. and Maurer, W.C., 1977. Five Wells Test High Pressure Drilling. Oil Gas J., Vol. 77, No. 27., July, pp. 74-81. (6)

53. Dienes, J.K., 1981. On the Effect of Anisotropy in Explosive Fragmenta tion. Proc. 22nd U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Cambridge, Mass., June 29-July 2, pp. 177-183. (4)

54. Dienes, J.K. and Carter, W.J., (compiler), 1978. A^ Simplified Rubbling Theory for Bedded Materials. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.)(USA), Oct., No. 7438, pp. 17-22. (4)

55. Dienes, J.K., Margolin, L.G., and Carter, W.J., (compiler), 1978. Anis- tropy Fragmentation. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.) (USA), No. 7164, pp. 1-4. (5)

56. Dienes, J.K., Margolin, L.G. and Carter, W.J., (compiler), 1978. A Sta tistical Model of Anisotropic Fragmentation. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.) (USA), No. 7438, pp. 11-17. (4)

57* Dienes, J.K., Margolin, L.G., Ruppel, H.M., Norton, J.L. and Carter, W.J.

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(compiler), 1978. Status of Computer Modeling of Rubblization. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.) USA, Apr., No. 7031, pp. 10-11. (4)

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59. Dinneen, G.U., et al, 1957. Comparison of Brazilian and Colorado Shale Oils. Chem. 4 Eng. Data Series, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 91-95* (6)

60. 'Dolinar, D.R., Horino, F.G. and Hooker, V.E., 1982. Mechanical Proper ties of Oil Shale and Overlying Strata, Naval Oil Shale Reserve, Anvil Points, Colo. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report RI 8608, 43p. (1)

61. Dougan, P.M. (manager), 1978. BX In Situ Oil Shale Project. 37 pp. (4)

62. Dusseault, M.B. and Scafe, D., 1979- Mineralogical and Engineering Index Properties of the Basal McMurray Formation Clay Shales. Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 16, No. 2, May, pp. 285-294. (6)

63. Edwards, C.L. and Carter, W.J. (compiler), 1978. Rubblization Studies in di Modified In Situ Geometry. Explosively Produced Fracture in Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.) No. 7031, pp. 16-29. (4)

64. Felix, M.P., 1977. Determination of Stress Levels for Dynamic Fracture of Oil Shale. Experimental Mechanics, pp. 381-384. (6)

65. Fertt, W.H., Yen, T.F. (ed.) Chilingarian, G.V. (ed), 1976. Developments in Petroleum Science 5.. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 1976. (4)

66. Fisher, S.T., 1981. Induction Heating of Oil Shale In Situ; Eddy Cur rents vs. Displacement Currents. In Situ (USA), Vol. 5, No. 3* PP* 221-237C6)

67. Forrestal M.J., Grady, D.E. and Schuler, K.W., 1978. Experimental Method to Estimate the Dynamic Fracture Strength of Oil Shale in the 10 Cubed to 10 to the Fourth/Sec Strain Rate Regime. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 15, No. 5, Oct., pp. 263-265 (D

68. Gallois, R.W., 1978. A Pilot Study of Oil Shale Occurrences in the Kim- meridge Clay. Inst. of Geological Sciences Report 78/13. (2)

69. Gallois, R.W. and Horton, A., 1981. Field Investigation of British Meso zoic and Tertiary Mudstones. The Geological Society, pp. 311-323* (4)

70. Gauna, M., Hustrulid, W.A. and Harak, A.E., 1979* Oil Shale DynamicToughness Measurements. Proc. 20th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin,Texas, June 4-6, pp. 591-600. (3)

71. Gazizov, M.S., 1971. Karst and Its Effects on Mining Operations, UnderConditions in the Baltic Shale Basin. Moscow, Akad, Nauk Sssr, INST. Gorn,Dela, 204p. (6)

72. Gerard, R.E., 1977. Sigmalog Tells Pressure, Porosity While Drilling.

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73. Gibbs, J., Greenwood, L. and Mitchell, M., 1978. Drilling and Casing a ^6 Inch ID by. 2371 ft Deep Shaft in Oil Shale, Vols. l and 2. USBM, OFR 9 (D-79, Sept 29, 560 pp. (vol 1), OFR 9 (2)-79, Sept. 29, 560p (Vol2). (5)

74. Goodman, R.E., 1979. On Field and Laboratory Methods of Rock Testing for Site Studies. Site Characterization and Exploration. C.H. Dowding (ed.) Publ. by American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, N.Y., pp. 131. (4)

75. 'Grady, D., et al., 1981. Energy and Particle Size Effects in the Frag mentation of Oil Shale with ^a Torsional Split Hopkinson Bar. 22nd U.S. Rock Mech. Symp., July, pp. 193-198. (2)

76. Grady, D.E. and Hollenbach, R.E., 1979. Dynamic Fracture Strength of Rock. Geophys. Res. Lett., Vol. 6, No. 2, Feb., pp. 73-76. (3)

77. Grady, D.E. and Kipp, M.E., 1979. Oil Shale Fracture and Fragmentation at Higher Rates of Loading. 20th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, IX, June 4-6, Sandia Lab. Albuquerque, NM, Symp. Rock Mech., P roc. No. 20, pp. 403-406. (3)

78. Grady, D.E. and Kipp, M.E., 1980. Continuum Modelling of Explosive Frac ture in Oil Shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. (Ill), Vol. 17, No. 3, PP. 147-157, (4)

79. Grady, D.E., Kipp, M.E. and Smith, C.S., 1979- Explosive Fracture Stud ies on Oil Shale. 54th Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Las Vegas, Nev., Sept. 23-26, Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. Exhib., Pap. No. 54, pp. 1-9. (2)

80. Grady, D.E., Lipkin, J. and Costin, L., 1981. Energy and Particle Size Effects in the Fragmentation of Oil Shale with a Torsional Split Hopkinson Bar. Proc. 22nd U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Cambridge, Mass., July, pp. 193-198, (2)

81. Hand, John W., 1970. Planning for Disposal of Oil Shale. Chemical and Mine Wastes. In Governor's Conference on Environmental Geology, Colo. Geol. Surv., Special Publication, No. 1, pp. 33-37. (6)

82. Hardy, M.P., Agapito, J.F .T., 1981. Pillar Design in Underground Oil Shale Mines. Symposium Preprint (incomplete reference). (2)

83. Hardy, M.P., Agapito, J.F.T. and Page, J., 1978. Roof Design Considera tions in Underground Oil Shale Mining. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nev. USA, May 1-3, Symp. Rock Mech., Proc. (WV) Vol. 1, No. 19, pp. 370-377. (2)

84. Hegemier, G.A., (Chairperson), 1975. Report of the Fracture Panel. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. pp. 1-46.(4)

85. Horino, F.G. and Hooker, V.E., 1978. Mechanical Properties of Cores Obtained from the Unleached Saline Zone, Piceance Creek Basin, Rio Blaneo

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County, Colo. USBM RI 8297, 21p. (1)

86. Humphrey, J.P., 1977- Energy from In Situ Processing of Antrim Oil Shale. 20pp. (2)

87. Humphrey, J.P., 1978. Extraction of Hydrocarbons from Antrim Oil Shale. 11th Oil Shale Symp. Golden Colo, USA, April 12-14, pp. 147-157. (2)

88. Hustrulid, W. and Robinson, P., 1973- A Simple Stiff Machine for Testing Rock in Compression. IN: New Horizons in Rock Mechanics; Mechanical Proper ties 'of Rocks and Environmental Effects. Symp. Rock Meen., Proc. No. 14, pp. 61-84. (6)

89* Jackson, P., Bennett, H. and Liskow, R., 1978. Geophysical TechniquesApplied to Oil Shale Mining Operations* U.S. Bureau of Mines Report OFR57-80, Feb, 251p. (5)

90. Janzon, H.A., Crepeau, P.M. (Chairperson), and Boyer, L. (Chairperson), 1982. Surface and Borehole Investigations for Oil Shale Mine Design. 25th Annual Meeting of the Association of Engineering Geologists, Montreal, Sept. 27-Oct 1, AEG 25th Annual Meeting. (6)

91. Johnson, J.N., 1979* Calculation of Explosive Rock Breakage: Oil Shale. Proc. 20th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 109-118. (4)

92. Johnson, J.N. and Carter, W.J., 1978. il Continuum Damage Model of Rock Fracture. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep. ) USA, No. 7438, pp. 1-6, (4)

93* Johnson, J.N., Simonson, E.R., Timmerhaus, K.D. (editor), and Barber, M.S. (editor), 1979* Analytical Failure Surfaces for Oil Shales of Varying Kerogen Content. Proc. Sixth Airapt International High Pressure Conference, No. 6, pp. 444-454. (3)

94. Johnston, D.H. and Toksoz, M.N., 1980. Ultrasomic P^ and S Wave Attenua tion in Dry and Saturated Rocks Under Pressure. J. Geophys Res. Vol. 85, NB2, Feb., pp. 925-936. (4)

95* Judzis, A., 1979. Permittivity of Oil Shale, Revisited. Technical Note. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 16, No. 3* PP* 221-222. (4)

96. Kahn, J.S., 1975. .A Proposal for an AEC In Situ Oil Shale Program Iden tification of Research and Development Priorities of Costing Problems Associ ated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. pp. 237-250. (4)

97* Kennedy, B.A., Nair, 0. and Readdy, L.A., 1980. Mining of Oil. Mining Mag. Vol. 143, No. 1, July, pp. 26-37* (4)

98. Kim, K,. 1978. Mechanical Characteristics of Antrim Shale. DOE OFR FE-2346-24. (1)

99* Kipp M.E., Grady, D.E. and Chen, E.P., 1980. Strain-rate Dependent Frac ture Initiation. Int. J. Fract. Vol. 16, No. 5, Oct. pp. 471-478. (2)

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100. Kipp, M.E., Timmerhaus, K.D. (editor) and Barber, M.S. (editor), 1979* Calculation of Oil Shale Fractures Generated by a Column of Explosive in a Borehole. Proc. of the Sixth Airapt International High Pressure Conference, Vol 2, No. 6, pp. 426-432. (3)

101. Lama, R.D., Vatukuri, V.S., 1978. Handbook on Mechanical Properties of Rocks-Testing Techniques and Results. Vol. 4, p. 392. (3)

102. Lankford, J., Jr., 1976. Dynamic Strength of Oil Shale. Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, Trans. (USA) Vol. 261. (5)

103- Larsen, D.A. and Olson, R.C., 1977. Design Considerations of Mechanical Fragmentation Systems for Entry Development in Oil Shale. Proc. 10th Oil Shale Symp. Golden, Colo, April pp. 99-119. (6)

104. Legault, J., 1983- Personal Communication. (2)

105. Lipkin, J. and Jones, A.K., 1979- Dynamic Fracture Strength of Oil Shale Under Torsional Loading. Proc. 20th U.S. Symp. on Rock Mechanics, Aus tin, Texas, June 4-6, pp.601-606. (3)

106. Lipkin, J., Grady, D.E. and Jones, A.K., 1979* Dynamic Fragmentation Characteristics of Oil Shale. EOS, Vol. 60, No. 46, pp. 952. Summary only.(6)

107. Lorenz, P.B., 1973. Radioactive Tracer Pulse Method of Evaluating Frac turing of Underground Oil Shale Formations. U.S. Bur. Mines, Rep. Invest. No. 7791, 33pp. (4)

108. Lund, M.M., 1979. The Dow True In Situ Process For Recovery of Energyfrom the Antrim Shale. Symp. Papers: Synthetic Fuels from Oil Shale, pp.417-438. (2)

109. MacCauley, G,, and Ball, F.D., 1982. Oil Shales of the Albert Forma tion, New Brunswick. Natural Resources New Brunswick and The Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology. Open File Report 82-12. (4)

110. Margheim, G.A., 1976. Water Pollution from Spent Oil Shale. Diss. Abstr. Int. Vol. 36, No. 12, Part 1, pp. 6339B, Summary Only. (6)

111. Marshall, P.W., 1974. Colony Development Operation; Mining Oil Shale Commercially. Annu. Miner, Symp., Proc. No, 17* pp. 32-50. (6)

112. McCarthy et al, 1976. Development of Modified In Situ Oil Shale Process AIChE, Symp. Ser., Vol. 72, No. 155, pp. 14-23* (4)

113* McNamara, P.H., etal., 1979* Characterization t Fracturing and True In- Situ Retorting in the Antrim Shale of Michigan. 12th Oil Shale Symp., pp. 353-365. (2)

114. Mel'Nikov, N.V. (editor), Rzhevskiy, V.V., Protod'Yakanov,, M.M. (edi tion), 1975. Physical Properties of Rocks; Manual; Catalog. Izd. Nedra, Mos cow, USSR, (SUN), 277 pp. (6)

115. Merrill, R.H., 1954. Design of Underground Mine Opening, Oil-Shale

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116. Miller, J.S. and Johansen, R.T., 1976. Fracturing Oil Shale with Explo sives for In Situ Recovery. Shale Oil, Tar Sand and Related Fuel Sources, ACS No 151 pp. 98-111. (4)

117. Miller, J.S. and Nicolls, H.R. Methods and Evaluation of Explosive Fracturing in Oil Shale. USBM-7729. (2)

118. Miller, J.S., Walker, C.J. and Eakin, J.L., 1974. Fracturing Oil Shalewith 'Explosives for In Situ Oil Recovery. U.S. Bur. Mines. Rep. Invest,(USA), No. 7874, 100pp. - (4)

119. Miller, R., Wang, F.D. and Du Bow, J., 1978. Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Oil Shale at Elevated Temperatures. Oil Shale Symp. Proc. No. 11, PP. 135-146. (2)

120. Miller, R.J., Wang, F.D. and Sladek, T., 1979. Effect .of In SituRetorting on Oil Shale Pillars. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report OFR 120-80,March, 194p. (5)

121. Moreno, 0., Hustrulid, W. and Harak, A., 1981. Support Capabilities of Fill ^ An Experimental Study. Proc. Conference on the Application of Rock Mechanics to Cut and Fill Mining, Lulea, June, 1-3, 1980, pp. 119-127, Publ. London; IMM, 1981. (4)

122. Morris, C.E., and Carter, W.J.(compiler), 1978. Elastic Constants of Oil Shale. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Oct-Dec, 1977. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep.) (USA), No. 7164, pp. 21-28. (4)

123. Munson, D.E. and Young, E.G., 1977* Dynamic Modelling of Rock Springs Oil Shale Using a Homogeneous Equivalent Maxwell Model. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 14, No. 5-6, Nov., pp. 283-287. (4)

124. Murray, R.G., 1975. Comparison of Aboveground and In Situ Retorting Costs. Identification of Research and Development Priorities of Costing Prob lems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shale. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 279-291.(4)

125. Murri, W.J., Curran, D.R., Shockey, D.A., Seaman, L., Tokheim, R.E., McHugh, S.L., Young, C., Timmerhaus, K.D. (editor), and Barber, M.S. (editor), 1979. Computer Simulation of Fracture in Small Scale Borehole Experiments in Oil Shale. Sixth Airapt International High Pressure Conference, Boulder, CO, USA, July, 25-29, 1977, No. 6, pp. 465-482. (4)

126. Murri, W.J., Tokheim, R.E., Shockey, D.A., Young, C., McHugh, S.L., Cur ran, D.R., Wang, F.D. (editor) and Clark, G.B. (editor), 1977. Computer Simu lation of Fracture Damage in Small Scale Borehole Experiments in Oil Shale. 18th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Keystone, Colo., June 22-24, '77. Colo. Sch. Mines Press, Golden, Colo, pp. 5B4.1-5B4.4. (3)

127* Olinger, B. and Carter, W.J.(compiler), 1978. Oil Shales Under Dynamic Stress. Explosively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale. Los Alamos Sci. Lab., (Rep) (USA), No. 6901, pp. 8-31. (4)

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128. Olsson, W.A., 1980. Stress Relaxation in Oil Shale. Proc. 21st U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla, Missouri, May 28-30, p.517-522. (1)

129. Ozdemir, et. al. The Effect of In-Situ Retorting on Oil Shale Pillars. USBM OFR-76-82. 387p. (1)

130. Parrish, R.L., Stevens, A.L. and Turner, T.F., 1981. True In-Situ Frac turing Experiment - Final Results. J. Pet. Technol. Vol. 33* No. 7* July, pp. 1297-1304. (2)

131. ' Peil, C.A. and Humphrey, J.P., 1978. Fracturing of the Antrim of Michi gan. 11th Oil Shale Symp., Golden Colo, USA, April, 12-14, pp. 227-241. (2)

132. Pelofsky, A.H., et al., 1979* .A Comparison of Above Ground Processing for Retorting of Isreali Oil Shales. 12th Oil Shale symp. pp. 32-42. (2)

133. Peng, S.S. and Thill, R.E., 1982. Stress Distribution and Pillar Design in Oil Shale Retorts. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report RI 8597* 33p. (4)

134. Penner, S.S.(preparer), 1975. Report on Net Energy in Shale-Oil Recov ery Identification of Research and Development Priorities of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 327-344. (4)

135. Penner, S.S. (organizer), 1975. Identification of Research and Develop ment Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Wash. D.C., U. S. A., 372 pp. (4)

136. Peterson, C.R. and Hill, W.S., 1980. An Investigation of Force and Energy Requirements for Deep Slot Cutting in Oil Shale. Proc. 21st U.S. Sym posium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla, Missouri, May, 28-30, pp. 95-102. (4)

137. Peterson, R.W., Townsend, F.C. and Bloomfield, R.A., 1978. Geotechnical Properties of a Fine-Grained Spent Shale Waste. Eleventh Oil Shale Symposium, Golden, Colo, USA, April 12-14. pp. 273-281. (6)

138. Rajaram, V., Wang, F.D. (editor) and Clark, G.B., 1977* Geotechnical Considerations, Mine Design, Federal Oil Shale Tract C-A, Colorado. Proceed ings 18th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, Golden, Colo, USA, pp. 5B2.1. (3)

139* Rajaram, V., Nielsen, I.P. and Raymond, H.D., 1979* A Plan for Mining Nahcolite in the Piceance Basin, Colorado. Min. Engng. Vol. 31* No. 12, Dec., pp. 1699-1703- (2)

140. Hajaram, V., Utter, S. and Hooker, V., 1978. Geotechnical and Environ mental Design of^a Mining Research Facility in Deep, Thick Oil Shale Deposits. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nev., USA, May, 1-3* Symp. Rock Mech, Proc. (VVV), Vol. 1, No. 19, pp. 484-491. (2)

141. Rajeshwar, K. and Dubow, J.B., 1979. Thermophysical Properties of Devo nian Shales. Soc. Pet. Eng. AIME, Annu. Fall Tech. Conf. Exhib., Pap. (USA), No. 54, pp. 1-8. (6)

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142. Rajeshwar, K., Du Bow, J. and Thapar, R., 1980. Radio-Frequency Elec trical Properties of Green River Oil Shales. Can. J. Earth Sci. Vol. 17, No. 9, Sept., pp.1315-1321. (4)

143. Raymond, H.D., Skelly, W.A. and Hoe, H.L., 1979* Prototype Underground Demonstration Mine in Oil Shale Deposits. USBM OFR 69-79, March, 227p. (5)

144. Readdy, L.A. and Pents, D.L., 1977- USBM Pilot Hole 'X* t Horse Draw,Rio Blanco County, Colorado, Vol. J. Section ±: Geology and Geophysics. USBMOFR 103CD-77, March, 44p. (5)

145. Reed, R.P. and Boade, R.R., 1979- Techniques and Problems Relating to In Situ Measurement of Stress Waves in Rubblization Experiments. Proc. 20th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp.381-392. (3)

146. Rundle, J.B and Schuler, K.W., 1981. Composite Model for the Aniso tropic Elastic Moduli of Lean Oil Shale. Geophysics Vol. 46, No. 2, Feb. pp. 163-171. (5)

147. Russmuss, J.E., 1967. Extensive Shales Promise to Provide Oil for Bra zil. World Oil pp. 118-121. (6)

148. Schlam, J., 1976. f± Study of Natural Resources in Rio Blanco County,Colorado; Geological Aspects of Land Use. Bachelor's; Yale Univ. New Haven,Conn., USA, (6)

149. Schmidt, R.A., 1974. Mechanical Properties of Oil Shale from AnvilPoints Under Conditions Uniaxial Compression. EOS (Am. Geophys. Union,Trans.) Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 1194. Summary only. (6)

150. Schuler, K.W., Lysne, P.C. and Stevens, A.L., 1974. Dynamic Properties of Oil Shale. EOS (Am Geophys. Union Trans.) Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 1194. Sum mary Only. (6)

151. Schuler, K.W., Lysne, P.C. and Stevens, A.L., 1976. Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Two Grades of Oil Shales. Int. J. of Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 13, pp. 91-95. (3)

152. Sellers, J.B., Haworth, G.R. and Zambas, P.G., 1972. Rock MechanicsResearch on Oil Shale Mining. Soc. Min. Eng. AIME, Trans. Vol. 252, No. 2,pp. 222-232. (2)

153. Sewell, P.A., Chang, N.Y. and Ko H.Y., 1979- Radial Permeabilities o? Oil Shale and Coal. Proc. 20th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 565-572. (2)

154. Shockey, D.A., Murri, W.J., Tokheim, R.E., Young, C., McHugh, S.L., Sea man, L., Curran, D.R., Timmerhaus, K.D.(editor) and Barber, M.S. (editor), 1979- A Computational Model for Explosive Fracture Oil Shale. Sixth Airapt International High Pressure Conference, Boulder, Colo. USA, July 25-29, No. 6, pp. 473-482. (4)

155. Shockey, D.A., et al., 1974. Fragmentation of Rock Under Dynamic Loads. Int. J. Rock Mech. Sci. and Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 11, pp. 303-317- (4)

56

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156. Shue, F.F., Yen, T.F. and Stauffer, B.C. (editor), 1981. A Comparison of Asphaltene3 from Naturally Occurring Shale Bitumen and Retorted Shale Oils; The Influence of Temperature on Asphaltene Structure. Oil Shale, Tar Sands, and Related Materials, ACS Symposium Series No. 1631 pp. 129-138. (6)

157. Singh, S.P., Bookings, W.A. and Kim, K., 1979. Change in Mechanical Properties of Antrim Oil Shale on Retorting. Procedings of 20th U.S. Sympo sium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 363-368. (2)

158. Snyder, P.W., Jr., Timmins, T.H. and Johnson, W.F., 1975* An Evaluation of In Situ Oil Shale Retorting. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shales. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 174-210. (4)

159. Sohns, H.W., and Long, A., Jr., 1975. In Situ Oil Shale Processing Research. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Cost ing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shales. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 148-173- (4)

160. Solberg, P., Lockner, D.A. and Byerlee, J.D., 1977. Shear and TensionHydraulic Fractures in Low Permeability Rocks. Pure Appl. Geophys. Vol. 115,No. 1-2, pp. 191-198. (4)

161. Stollenwerk, K.G., 1980. Geochemistry of Leachate from Retorted and Unretorted Colorado Oil Shale Doctoral; Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, Co., USA., 236p. (6)

162. Sundaram, P.N., Chong, K.P., Smith, J.W., Chang, B., and Roine, S., 1980. Oil Shale Properties by Split Cylinder Method; Discussion and Reply. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Vol. 106, No. GT5, May, pp. 587-589. (3)

163. Teller, E., 1975. In Situ Recovery of Fossil Fuels. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shales. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 141-147. (4)

164. Thomas, H.E., Carpenter, H.C. and Sterner, T.E., 1972. Hydraulic Frac turing of Wyoming Green River Oil Shale; Field Experiments, Phase I. U.S. Bureau Mines, Rep. Invest (USA) No. 7596, 18 pp. (4)

165. Thorne, H.M., et al, 1964. Oil Shale Technology; A Review. USBM 821*2)

166. Thorne, H.M. and Kraemer, A.J., 1954. Oil Shale Operations in the Union .of South Africa. Oct. 1947, USBM 5019- (4)

167- Tisot, P.R. and Sohns, H.W., 1970. Structural Response of Rich Green River Oil Shale to Heat and Stress and Its Relationship to Induced Permeabil ity. J. of Chem. and Eng. Data, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 425-434. (3)

168. Trent, B.C., Young, C. and Barbour, T.G., 1981. Coupled Gas Pressuriza- tion Explicit Fracture Model for Oil Shale Fragmentation. Proc. 22nd U.S.

57

Page 68: Oil Shale Mechanics

Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Cambridge, Mass, 29 June-2 July, pp. 211-217* (4)

169* Trimmer, D. and Heard, B.C., 1980. Compaction and Permeability of Oil Shale Aggregates at High Temperatures. Soc. Pet Engr. J., Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 95-104. (4)

170. Utter, S., 1981. Range of Mining Techniques to Meet Site-Specific Con ditions . Min Engng. Vol. 33* No. 1, Jan., pp. 39-43. (6)

171. Utter, S. and Hawkins, J.E., 1978. Drilling and Casing a Large-Diameter Shaft in the Piceance Creek Basin. Proc. 11th Oil Shale Symposium, Golden, Colorado, April 12-14, Publi: Colorado School of Mines, pp. 292-310. (4)

172. Weichman, B.E., 1974. Some Effects of the Rio Blanco Project Nuclear Detonation on the Leached Zone in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation. Rocky Mt. Assoc. Geol., Field Conf., Guideb. No. 25, pp. 205-215. (6)

173. Williams, F.A. (Chairperson), 1975. Report of the Retorting Panel. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shales. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann, Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 47-82. (4)

174. Williams, F.E., Russell, P.L. and Sheridan, M.J., 1969. PotentialApplications for Nuclear Explosives in a Shale-Oil Industry* U.S. Bur. Mines,Inf. Giro. (USA), No. 8425, 37 pp. (6)

175. Whitcombe, J.A. and Vawter, R.G., 1976. The Tosco-II Oil Shale Process. In: Science and Technology of Oil Shale, ed. T.F. Yen. Ann Arbor Science Pub lishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 47-64. (2)

58

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APPENDIX

59

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Devonian And Mississippian Ovpofia (Rnourc* Esti- natM Indudad For Hachurad Arw* Only). Boundary Daihad Where Concealed Or Where Location Is Uncertain

Figure 1. Map of eastern U.S. Oil Shale Deposits87

60

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01 o

•H-p cd

c•Hcd

t* o

s

O)

300

61

Page 72: Oil Shale Mechanics

fenvMtiiM

CI •28*'UtrTm)

li

fill

P*am

129138*1

•Eyikal aHvdtdlooJd CTdfdctor

Send, gravel, eldf-wdto*-

Sdnditand, tiltstono,

(•liafttly tall**).

LM*O*| tltal* (mwK

and inttratadtd Mlbtd miiMrdlt tax k*** iMdMd— Mlvfiaii eaviK** wd cotta*** Afaccto oo*rr WdJI *Mvn* df-

MWi oil skald (mrlotwitJ vIMi Ots.m- lnd*od ond intortoddad •alind mMarals (ndfteelltt. ddManita. how f*, its )- rvlotivdy wnfrac'urtd and No wdtor praMAt.

2369'rrZlml T0.237I

(723mlCloy oil (tala, flaky man

2333Trr3m) rolatlvary u**ractwtd ond iai**nnr**U. (otlimatadl Sdnditono. lhala. HmodtoM, Iddn all

ImodrmodMd.

171Figure 3. Geologic cross-section from Piceance Basin.

62

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(A)

Ea 10

3O 40 50Organic Volunw W

2400

2400

^ 2200

g 2000 "3 1800

J 1600 :? 1400M

J 1200 j* 1000

800600

10 20 30 40 50 Organic Velum* (7.)

(C)

E0.11

60 70

Figure 4. Ultimate tensile stress versus organic content for the Green Forma tion oil shales, (a) Tipton member,^Wyoming; (b) Mahogany zone, Colorado; (c) Mahogany zone, Utah. *

63

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JSf44. CD 49.0048.0841.00

9.0090.0997.00 30.00 35.00 31.CO 99.09

n.oo

{20.09 W 27.00 g 20.00 225.00 J 24.00 J 13.00 8:22.00 321.00

18.0017.00

0.00 14.00 19.00 O.OO 11.00 10.00 9.00 5.00 7.00 9.00 S.OO

-l l l l l l l l l l t l l l l M l l l l l M l l l l l l l M l l l M i l l l i l M l l l l t t M l l l l l l l l l l l l M l l l l l l l l l

l l l l l l l l l l l l 1 t l l l l M l l l l M l C r l l M l M l l l l l l l l l l f l l l l l l L M t III l II l l l t l M l l l l

(A)

10.09 SO.M

OROMIC CQNTOfT NOUM rOCENTI

70,00 80.30

l l l l l l l l i l l l l I l i l IT ri l l l l i l l l l l l l l l l l I ITT r FT! M l l l l l l l l I l U M M M 1 l l l l l l ! l

t t M t f l t t t l 1 t l t l f t l M l l l l l l l l l l t l t l t f l l l l t l l t M l l l l l l l l t l l 1 l l l M l l l t l l l l t

10.00 20.00 a.OD SO.C9 O.90 70.00 90.00

^ (B)

Figure 5. Ultimate compressive stress versus organic content for the Green River Formation oil shales, Mahogany zone OaJ parallel to bedding planes; (b) perpendicular to bedding planes. 3

64

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l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l i l i

30. 40. SO. 60. m. G3. 90. 100.

.i rii I i i in i i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i i IT i i t i i i i i i i i i.

90, ICO.

Figure 6. Young's modulus versus stress level versus organic content for the Green River Formation oil shales, Mahogany zone, Ca) parallel to bedding planes; (b) perpendicular to bedding planes.

65

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1. 10

1.00

.90

.80

.70

S iw0.00

i w .50

JO

.20

.10

.00

i. to

1.00

.so

.30

.TD

i i l l i i i i l i i i i i i i t i i i i i i i i i i i i t i i i i i i i i i i i i i i l i ' i

(A)

O. 9. 10. 19. 20. 29. 30. 39. 40. 49. 50. S3. 80. 89.OCdWlC CONTENT

.80

2-40

.30

JO

.10

.00

-i i i i i i i i i i i i i i I i i j i I i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 ir i i i i i i t i

(B)

3. 10. 19. 29. 29. 30. 39. 40. 49. SO. S3. 80. 89.

Figure 7. Poisson's ratio versus organic content versus stress level for the Green River Formation oil shales. Mahogany zone (a) loading perpen dicular to bedding; (b) loading parallel to bedding.

66

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Figure 8. Relationship among ultimate compressive stress, organic content and logarithmic strain rate for Green River Formation oil shales.

67

Page 78: Oil Shale Mechanics

z oH

o: o

o. oa"

(T3

O

?sO i,CNJ t"^ Oh-

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o o to

s oc. s. o fa ^t.*

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io O Q.

CO

O cvJ

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o a

jJ Cf* (JJ0) S- *t. v c-(D CM ^.

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o t. JP

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O OJ^ ™

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cdD Vi c a*-o B\ —j d)

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(90

68

Page 79: Oil Shale Mechanics

•pc0)k0)

en ^e SCM

usen

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69

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19O.

a i/*out

o

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2

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ur\ 23 bO

70

Page 81: Oil Shale Mechanics

co.

o Got gun 00. o Ccpocifor

A Hoptonscnbor * Tmfltbor

3C -

•S 20

Strain ml* (sec'1)

101*

fOmnrfracture

to' K)' IO

Figure 12. Fracture stress and fragment size tarsus dymanic strain rate for SO ml/kg grade Green River oil shale.

71

Page 82: Oil Shale Mechanics

6O

3020

10

Samplt NO. A 2-3-4 B 2-3-3 O 2-3-2 C, 2-3-M

*F )75-F

KX3TF 150* F

250* F

Ttrtlary Crtcp Rupture

Straw RatioO 3O O 45 O 6O O 75 O 9O

40 80 120 16O 200 24O 26O 320 360 Tbnt ( hrs. )

48

l"ip* 2 32

i-i-

8

O

Stonpl* NO Slrm Ratio A: 1-4-11 0.45 B 1.4-10 0.60 C : 1 - 4 - 12 0. 75 Ttnptuturts , 1 T- 75*F 2. T- KXf F

3. T-BO*F 4. T-20CfF 9 Crttp Ruptur*

'•——~~J, f —a ——— 2/ ; A

^ i y^^ , ,4O 80 120 I6O 2CO 24O 20O 320 360 '

Tim* ( Krs. )

Figure 13. Creep oT oil shale at different temperatures and different stress ratios.

72

Page 83: Oil Shale Mechanics

9)

cr •HB

O 0)

s•H

•HSt- cd

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8

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. i i\V A —— ' —— ' —— r^ ! f 3 iff

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J3 0)

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75

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Table 1. Oil shale reserves from various countries. 165

TABLE 1. - Major shale-oil reserves1

Country or area Oil in place, million bbla

Australia...................................................... 200Brazil......................................................... 342,000Bulgaria....................................................... 200Burma and Thailand.........................................^... 17,100Canada......................................................... 34,200China:3

Fushun, Manchuria (27)....................................... 2,000Other deposits............................................... 2,700

England........................................................ 1,400Estonia (49)4 .................................................. 17,300France......................................................... l,400Germany (West)................................................. 2,000Israel (19).................................................... 20Ttaly...................... .................................... 34,200Malagasy Republic...................................... 4 ........ 200New Zealand (51, 52, J3)........,...................,....,..... 200Republic of the Congo (former Belgian Congo)................... 103,000Republic of South Africa....................................... 30Scotland....................................................... 600Spain.......................................................... 300Sweden......................................................... 2,800United States (17)............................................. 1,132,000U.S.S.R.*...................................................... 6,800Yugoslavia..................................................... _____1,400

Total..................................................... 1.702,0501 Except as noted by citations, estimates are based on descriptive pamphlet of

Swedish oil-shale operation by Claes Gejrot: Swenska Skifferolje, AB,Orebro, Sweden, 1958, 33 pp. Underlined figures in parentheses refer toitems in list of references at end of report.

3 Conversion to barrels of 42 U.S. gallons each is based on shale oil having anassumed specific gravity of 0.92 at 60 0 F (27.8 0 C).

3According to George Rosu in World Petroleum, November 1959, pp. 94-99, afterdiscoveries in 1958 and 1959, proved oil-shale reserves (yielding 6 to 20percent oil) are 60 billion tons, and probable oil-shale reserves are 360billion tons.

4U.S.S.R. Ministry of Geology and Conservation, publication Coal and Fuel,1958, p. 180, reports larger reserves estimated at 172 billion tons of oilshale; grade is not stated.

76

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Table 2. Mineralogy of some major oil shale deposits 26

I5l i 2•si l pSvi l l l l

v* v* PIi i i 332-22

•5 ^ 00

IS* 2 2y Q "H P*ae p- S i JQ

j PI A P^ ^o q ^o ^ P^ rt rt v^ ^p p^— ' "* H "" ** ** "" dd pi — do —

ICO^ rt ^ " oo i.^a? " ^ ^^^T^-: z * ™ ^ *S (J S ^ — O O ae O — m — t^ O O O O O ^

• g'7 ^ * "? * T "R T T * * ^ ^ "? HcE, rt d *i d o? rt p* p^ p4p*Wr*p^ w -g — ^ ^ P* P* P* PI — PiPim — — a

Seg S"5i *ow -^^*o^ecccec

f S ^ O*Ap*rt rt rta ^ 't "5 *5 "" *^ *** * ^^"5®**?

Q 3 S o! PI *b ae d *o "* P* ^ * S ^ S

te^^^c* *** ** ^ w* *t oe m p* vo o* O 03. ae ea — ae *e q p^ PI ^r p^ p* p^ "o^ w t P* *B *o d P* PI *o ci rt vo f' d o^2 fi ^ w ^ ^ 'V ** ^ f* ae ae eo ri vo

•Sj? *^ t *^ "S *i 1 *5 ^ ^"1^*^*5<"* * *O ae p^ pC V o! rt vi vtyap^dvi•^ m \e *c rt ^ p* T ve r- 3 r* PI vo

JS

tn 3 Ss Sf si 1218J? *

l3li

77

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Table 3- Chemical properties and assays of deposits 165

Modified Fischer assay: Oil........................ gal/tonOi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percentWe ter ...... do . .

Conversion of organic

Rock characteristics: Specific gravity, at 60* . F........Heating value. ............. .Btu/lbAsh ..................... percent

Assay oil: Specific gravity, at 60* r........Carbon. .................. ..percentHydrogen ..................... do . . .nitrogen ..................... do . . .

Ash analysis, percent: SHfc..............................A^O..............................Vtt nCaO. ..............................MgO...............................

Modified Fischar assay: Oil............. ...........gal/ton

Water........ ... ... ..do...

Gas and loss... . .............do. . .Conversion of organic material to oil4 ........... .do...

Rock characteristics:

Beating value. ............. .Btu/lbAsh. ...................... .percent

Assay oil: Specific gravity, at 60* F........

Ash analysis, percent: SiOa..............................AL. 0..............................

CaO............... ......... .....MgO...............................Other oxides ................ . . . . . .

Australia, Glen

Davis3

82.9 30.9 0.7

64.1 4.3

66

1.60 8,100 51.6 39.7

0.89 85.4 12.0 0.5 0.4

81. i 10.1 3.0 0.8 0.8 3.8

New Zealand, Orepukl3

66.2 24.8 8.3

57.6 9.3

45

1.46 9,150 32.7 45.7

0.90 83.4 11.8 0.6 0.6

44.2 28.1 20.5 4.6 1.4 1.2

Brazil, TreoMtnbe'- Taubate *

31.3 11.5 6.2 78.4 3.9

59

1.70 3,520 71.4 16.5

0.88 84.3 12.0 1.1 0.2

53.8 26.7 8.5 2.8 3.7 2.5

Scotland, Uestwood mine3

22.2 8.2 2.2

86.6 3.0

56

2.22 2,540 77.8 12.3

0.88

55.7 25.1 9.9 2.6 3.1 3.6

Canada, Nova Scotia3

51.4 18.8 0.8 77.7 2.7

60

5,420 62.4 26.3

0.88

61.1 30.1 5.0 1.1 1.6 1.1

South Africa , Ermeloa

45.6 17.6 3.0 75.6 3.8

34

1.58 8.230 42.5 43.8

0.93 84.8 11.1

0.6

61.3 30.5 2.9 1.6 1.7 2.1

France , Autun3

25.8 9.7 3.2 84.0 3.1

44

2.03 3,810 70.8 18.8

0.90 84.9 11.4 0.8 0.3

55.1 27.6 9.3 1.7 1.9 4.4

Spain, Pvertol- Isno3

46.9 17.6 1.8

78.4 2.2

9 57

1.80 5.380 62.3 26.0

0.90

0.9 0.3

56.6 27.6 9.1 2.6 2.2 1.9

Israel, Oro

Barek3

15.6 6.4 2.2

88.4 3.0

48

60.0 10.6

0.97 79.6 9.8 1.4 6.2

26

45

Sweden, Kvarntorp3

13.9 5.7 2.0

87.2 5.1

26

2.09 3,870 72.1 18.8

0.98 85.0 9.0 0.7 1.7

62.4 17.6 10.7 1.2 1.7 6.4

Lebanon3

61.5 24.8 11.0 56.5 7.7

18.3

0.96 83.210.3 0.6 1.5

Thailand, Maesod3

71.4 26.1 3.3

66.3 3.8

71

1.61 6,630 56.4 30.8

0.88 84.4 12.4 1.1 0.4

60.8 19.9 4.3 3.3 3.8 7.4

Manchuria,Fushun3

7.6 3.0 4.9

90.3 1.8

33

2.29 1,460 82.7 7.9

0.92 85.7 10.7

02.3 26.7 6.1 0.1 1.8 3.0

United StacuColorado9

24.5 9.3 1.0

87.5 1.6

70

2.23 2.200 66.9 11.3

0.91 84.6 11.6 1.8 0.5

43.6 11.1 4.6 22.7 10.09-0 n-

x Data obtained largely from analyses of air-dried camples given in BuMiims Rapt, of Znv. 5504, Petrographic Exasiw tlon and Chemical Analyses for Several Foreign Oil Shales, by H. N. Smith, J. W. Smith, and W. C. Homes, 195?. 34 pp.

'Average sample. 3 Selected sample. 4 Based on recovery of carbon in oil from organic carbon In shale. Carbon content of oil estimated as 84 percent. Approximate.

78