oil shale mechanics
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Ontario Geological Survey
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E.G. Pye, Director Ontario Geological Survey
ill
Foreword
The Oil Shale Assessment Project is a component of the Hydrocarbon
Energy Resources Program which is funded by the Board of Industrial
Leadership and Development (BILD). For the assessment of the potential
oil shales of southern Ontario, knowledge of both the hydrocarbon
content of the shales and the potential for extracting these hydro
carbons is important. This report provides a general review of the
mechanical properties of oil shales and preliminary results of a
study of the mechanical properties of the Upper Devonian Kettle Point
Formation in southwestern Ontario. This information will lead to a better
understanding of the potential for extraction of hydrocarbons from this
formation.
E. G. PyeDirectorOntario Geological Survey
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
2.' MAJOR WORLD OIL SHALE DEPOSITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 Major Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3-1 Brazil. . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . * . * * . 42.3*2 Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.3.3 People's Republic of China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3.4 USSR - Estonia 6 Leningrad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3*5 England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.3*6 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3*7 Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * . . . . * . . . * 32.3.8 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123*1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123*2 Organic Content Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143*3 Tensile Strength Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153*4 Uniaxial Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173*5 Triaxial Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203*6 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213*7 Other Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4. MINING TECHNIQUES- . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . * . . * . * 254.1 General . . . . . * . . . . * . * * * * * * * * . * . * . *. * . 254.2 Open Pit Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.3 Underground Mining with Surface Retorts . . . . . . . . . . . . 264.4 Underground Mining with In Situ Retorts . . . . . . . . . . . . 294.5 True In Situ Extraction * . . . . . . . . . * . * . - . . . . . 32
5. CURRENT RESEARCH ( PRELIMINARY RESULTS ) . . . . * . . . . . . . . . 365.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365.2 Mineralogy* . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . * . * * . . . . 365*3 Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6. SUMMARY- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY * * * . * * . . . . . . . . . . . . * . * . . * . * . . 45
9. APPENDIX OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
vii
1. Map of eastern U.S. oil shale deposits,2. Map of Piceance Basin operations.3. Geological cross-section from Piceance Basin.4. Comparison of tensile strength properties of oil shales from the Mahog
any zone and lipton member.5. Uniaxial compressive strength vs. organic content of Mahogany zone oil
shales.6. Young's modulus vs. stress level for same formation.7. Poisson's ratio vs. organic content vs. stress level.8. Ultimate compressive strength vs. strain rate vs. organic content.9. Graph of (**-a-)X2 versus (cr *a )72 for Green River oil shale10. Effects of temperature on strength for two different oil shale grades.11. Effects of temperature on Young's modulus.12. Fracture stress and fragment size vs. strain rate.13* Creep behavior vs. stress level and temperature.14. Room and pillar mining technique.15. Tosco-II retorting system.16. Schematic of the Occidental Logan Wash Mine.
LIST OF TABLES
1. Oil shale reserves from various countries.2. Mineralogy of some major oil shale deposits.3* Chemical properties and assays of deposits.
IX
The Mechanical Properties of Oil Shales by
Maurice B. Dusseault} K. Lee Bradshaw2 , Kim Ehret2 and Matthias Loftsson^1. INTRODUCTION
During the past decade, as the result of the threatened shortage of conven
tional oil resources, there has been considerable interest in other potential
energy resources. As part of the Ontario Geological Survey's investigation
into alternative energy sources, the University of Waterloo was authorized to
undertake a literature review of oil shales. More specifically, the mechani
cal properties of the various oil shale deposits throughout the world were to
be catalogued.
Initial information for this study was located using the WATMARS computer
information retrieval system. This was followed by a search for other data
referred to in the initial articles, together with an in-depth search of the
university library, and the use of its interlibrary loan service. In total,
174 references were located.
This report summarizes the information obtained and presents it under the
following general headings: major world oil shale deposits, mechanical prop
erties, mining techniques, and preliminary results of current work.
Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences 2 Graduate Student, Department of Earth Sciences
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, OntarioManuscript approved by O.L. White, Section Chief, Engineering andTerrain Geology Section, October 18, 1983.
This report is published by permission of E.G. Pye, Director,Ontario Geological Survey.
2. MAJOR WORLD OIL SHALE DEPOSITS
2.1 General
Many countries have oil shale occurences. Table 1 lists the countries with
major deposits and their estimated reserves, according to 1964 figures, which
were the latest available. Since there has been very little oil shale mining
in the last 20 years the figures may be reasonably accurate. According to
this table, the United States of America has by far the largest reserves.
The mineralogy of oil shale deposits is listed in Table 2. There, the term
'oil shale* or 'torbanite* encompasses a wide range of mineral percentages.
The shales vary greatly in composition, indicating different source rocks and
depositional environments.
Some chemical properties and assays of oil shales are listed in Table 3*
New South Wales, Australia, has the highest grade of oil shale of the coun
tries listed but unfortunately the reserves are low (Table 1). Although there
are no corraborative figures, China may have the largest deposit in the
world. 165
There are many other countries which have oil shales but these are too
small or have too low a grade to be economically viable.
The countries which have exploited oil shales commercially are: Brazil,
China, Estonia, France, Germany, the Republic of South Africa, Scotland, Spain
and Sweden. Bulgaria, Canada, Italy, Hew Zealand, Thailand, the United
States, Yugoslavia and Britain have processed their shales experimentally or
on a small commercial scale.
2.2 History
A brief history of oil shale development with reference to specific depos
its and their mining is given here.
Oil shale use began in Austria in 1350 but the first significant oil shale
industry began in France in 1838. Other countries later began to develop oil
shales: England, Australia, Scotland, Canada and the eastern United States.
The North American industry was rather shortlived due to the discovery of
conventional oil.
Following World War I, oil shale exploration and development intensified
in the United States, Germany, Sweden, Estonia, Spain and Manchuria (now
part of the People's Republic of China) , 8 In 1926, the large oil fields of
o Texas were discovered. This cheap oil made it hard for other countries to
compete in the oil export trade, although some did manage to continue at a
reduced production rate. During World War II, oil shale production was very
important to Sweden, Japan, Great Britain, Australia, Spain and France. After
the war, the growth of the conventional petroleum industry caused most of the
oil shale industries to become lonprof itable . Processing of Scottish oil shale
ceased in 1964, leaving oil shale industries only in the USSR (Estonia) and
China.
As of 1979, China's production had decreased to 1(^ of its peak production
rate but the USSR (Estonia) was increasing its capacity. This was due to the
increase in efficiency of their mining process to 86%. 8 There has been a
renewed interest in oil shales during the past two decades due to the threat
of conventional oil shortages. Serious study of oil shales is underway in
Australia^ the United States, Morocco, Israel, Brazil, the Soviet Union, the
People's Republic of China, and Canada. Some of these countries have already
begun producing.
2.3 Major Deposits
2^3^ Brazil
Brazil has one of the largest oil shale deposits in the world. 165 These
shales were mined intermittently from 1882 to 1946. In the 1950's and 60's a
research program was implemented to develop Brazil's medium grade, extensive,
oil shale deposits. A 700 million barrel deposit was delineated, and opera
tion of a demonstration plant began in 1973. Brazil's oil shale occurs near
the surface, in two distinct beds which are separated by a barren limestone
zone. As of 1979, plans were underway for a large scale commercial plant.
Open pit mining will be employed to extract the shale.
2..2L2^ Israel
Israel contracted an American firm to study their oil shales and perform a
feasibility study on the possibility of employing above-ground retorting sys
tems (discussed later) to produce the shale from their 12 deposits.
Israeli deposits have been compared with those of the United States. Isra
el's shale makes three times more gas, contains more sulphur, oxygen and
nitrogen, and the oil produced is heavier than the United States shale oil.
Mineralogy is markedly different. Israeli oil shale contains 60% calcite,
15% quartz, 9% wilkeite, 9% gypsum and 5% pyrite, whereas in the United States,
Colorado oil shale contains 16% calcite, 15% quartz, 32% dolomite, 19% illite,
16% feldspar and 2% miscellaneous minerals, as determined by x-ray diffraction
analysis. ̂ 2
Below the one deposit that was intensely studied, the Israelis found^^2 a
3.2 m thick, high-grade phosphate deposit. This unit would make oil shale
mining more economically viable. The average overburden is approximately 35 m
thick (varies from 20 to 60 m). This one deposit contains approximately 600
MM tons of resource. Strip mining may be possible.
2^.jk People * s Republic of China
In China, oil shale overlies the thickest coal deposit in the world. It is
low grade; 5% organic content by weight (62 I/tonne by Fischer assay). When
the open pit coal mine was started in 1914, at Fushun in Northern China,
(formerly Manchuria), the shale was discarded as waste material. Only after
several years was its value recognized. Processing of the shale began, and
the profits from the coal mining made up for the loss due to the poor grade of
oil shale. When the shale industry peaked in the late 1960's and early 70's,
China had the largest production in the world. In 1979, it had declined to
10% of its peak. 9
The coal deposits are 40 to 130 m thick, underlying the 80 to 150 m thick
oil shale beds. When underground coal mining started, oil shale production
Q
was greatly reduced.
At Maoming, in the south of China, another deposit was mined, but not
extensively. Very little is known about this deposit; reports are conflict
ing. The last report suggests that mining is continuing, but producing only
p 36 tonnes/day (280 barrels/day). No coal is associated with this deposit.
^.3^.4^. U.S.S.R. - Estonia and Leningrad
The bulk of the U.S.S.R. oil shale industry is located in the Estonian
S.S.R. Mining began in the 1920's. The oil shale, 'kukersite 1 , is one of
the richest deposits in the world, averaging 208 I/tonne, and reserves are
large. Apart from minor disruptions due to World War II, oil shale mining
has continued from the 1920*s to the present. 9
For the past 15 to 20 years, Estonia has made great strides to improve its
oil shale industry, both economically and environmentally. Overall extraction
efficiency has been increased to 86$. The industry was still expanding inQ
1979* Sixty million tonnes was cited as the production goal for 1980.
The improved retorts are similar to the ones being used experimentally in
the United States. However, U.S. has the disadvantage of having to mine
underground, which is invariably more expensive on a portion mined basis.
2.-1.1 England
The oil shale occurs as thin seams in the Kimmeridge Clay deposits. During
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the shale was mined commercially on a68 small scale at Kimmeridge, in Dorset. Five oil shale-rich bands are present
and each is laterally continuous. Generally, the oil shales are less dense,
tougher and more fissile than the other Kimmeridge Clay lithologies, which
include sandstones, limestones and mudstones. As kerogen content increases,
the shale becomes darker brown and the specific gravity decreases. The Kim
meridge Clay oil shales all have high sulphur content (4 to 856). They are68 also rich in illite.
Moisture content of these shales is high (10 to 20?) near the surface.
2 Shear strength is between 100 and 400 kN/m (the author is unclear as to
whether these values represent shear strength or unconfined compressive
strength), whereas some of the Colorado shales have shear strengths of the
2 order of several thousands of kN/m . The English shales can be open pit mined
near surface but when the oil shale is 100 m deep, even though the shear
2 strength is higher, (400 to 900 kN/m ) substantial support would be required68 ' for underground mining.
The Kimmeridge Clays, other than the cementstones and oil shales, rapidly
68 slake when immersed in water. Because of the intermittent vertical nature of
the oil shale beds, this slaking property could be valuable. After extracting
the rock, mechanical slaking could be performed to eliminate the waste rock.
According to Gallois (1978), more studies were to be performed on these oil
shales by the British goverment. As of 1982, no further reports had been pub
lished .
^2.3*6 Australia
There are four deposits of oil shale (Torbanites) in Australia, two in
Queensland, one in New South Wales and one in Tasmania. The Queensland depos
its of the Toolebuc Formation are Cretaceous in age. They have a lateral
extent of 700,000 square kilometers, a depth of 30 to 915 m, and an average
24 thickness of 9 m.
The Toolebuc Formation of Northern Queensland is a fossilized, laminated
siltstone and mudstone which consists mainly of carbonate and clays. It con-
12 tains 2 x 10 Bbls of oil but yields only 50 I/tonne, which is considered
24 uneconomic. Some work was undertaken on these deposits in the last ten years
but nothing appears to have developed from it. The Toolebuc Formation con
tains 0.5/6 Vanadium, and some uranium and selenium which makes this deposit24 more economically attractive, but not enough to start mining.
The Rundle oil shale (torbanite) is found in Eastern Queensland. This unit
is below medium grade and contains up to 161 inherent moisture. It consists
of soft brown mudstones, shales, limestone, clays, and lignites. Organic con
tent is 16 to 25/1 yielding 104 l/tonne oil. The inferred resources of thisQ n
deposit are 2.2 x 10 tons (1.3 x 1Cr Bbls). Much exploration has been under-
taken on the Rundle Formation recently, and it is hoped that it will be under
24 production in the near future.
The deposit in New South Wales is Permian in age, and is associated with
high grade coal. The shale was formed in a series of fresh water lagoons
within a large coal swamp. Yield varies from 750 to 1250 I/tonne. It can
24also be a coaly shale with poor yields. These reported values may be incor
rect as they represent a rock comprised almost entirely of kerogen. This
deposit has been under production in the past.
The fourth deposit of oil shale in Australia is found on the island of Tas
mania, on the North coast. The only other major deposit similar to this one
24 is found in Alaska. This deposit contains little yellow discs, spores or
algal cysts, in a matrix of clay, silt and sand. These discs (Tasmanites)
give the bedding planes a 'speckled* appearance.
The shales were deposited in shallow coastal bays and inlets. They are
brownish, soft and are quite laminated. Yield varies between 4 and 292
l/tonne, with an average of 167 l/tonne. A single seam is 1 to 2 m thick.
Minor production was undertaken on these shales between 1910 and 1934. There
have been recent investigations but no major development of deposits has
24 occurred.
The Tasmanian and the Kettle Point, Ontario, formations have some similari
ties; these will be discussed later.
2..JJ .J Canada
There are numerous oil shale deposits across Canada. In Southern OntarioV
there are three oil shale formations, the Collingwood, of Late Ordovician age
and the Kettle Point and Marcellus of Devonian age. Because the Ontario
Geological Survey has been studying these in great detail, no chemical proper
ties will be given here. Except for the work being undertaken by the Univer
sity of Waterloo for the Ontario Geological Survey, it appears that there has
been no other investigation of the mechanical properties of these shales.
The Albert Formation of New Brunswick contains three main li tho types:
occur in the sequence.
In the dolostone marl, the kerogen occurs in dark brown, slightly undulat
ing laminae. In the barren zones, rip-up breccia sand, silt and sand layers
109 (some with sedimentary sills and dykes) occur.
The laminated marlstones, which contain the most kerogen, consist of alter
nating kerogen and carbonate layers, both dolomite and calcite. This unit has
109 been tectonically disrupted by folding and faulting. A selected sample
analysis (Table 3) gives a yield of 51.4 gallons per ton.
The third lithotype, the clay marlstones, are greyish- brown to brown. The
kerogen content varies as the clay content varies. This unit also has tec ton ing
ically induced structures.
There are other oil shale deposits in Nova Scotia, FEI, Alberta and the
Yukon.
.2.3.8 United States
Oil shale occurs over much of the United States (Figure 1 ) . The Devonian
black shales found in Indiana and Kentucky are of low grade, with a total con
tent of 18 billion barrels of oil. Very little work has been done on these
deposits, as compared with the other U.S. oil shales.
The Green River Formation of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah contains the larg
est oil shale deposits in the world. The Indians and the Mormons were the
first people to utilize the western U.S. oil shales. The first world war was
the first time the Green River shales were studied seriously, even though at
least 50 oil shale companies had operated on the eastern shales prior to the
discovery of conventional oil in 1859* Several companies erected pilot pro
jects on the Green River shale but none of them could compete with conven
tional oil fields.
The Green River Shales are mid-Eocene in age. Much of the work done on
these deposits is concentrated in the Piceance Basin (Figure 2). A typical
stratigraphic cross-section of Piceance Basin deposits can be found in Figure
4. The section is comprised of kerogen-rich marlstones, sandstones, silt-
stones, limestones and oolites. The Parachute Creek member, Mahogany Zone,58 has the highest yield of the shales in the basin (greater than 104 I/tonne).
The Mahogany Zone shales contain greater than 40# dolomite and 201 illite.
The comparable unit in Utah has an identical mineralogy.
In Wyoming, the major kerogen-rich unit is called the Tipton Member. It
contains greater than 501 illite and mixed-layer clays, and approximately 10/1
dolomite. The consequences of the differences in mineralogy of these units
will be discussed later in this report.
The Saline zone of the Parachute Creek member, in Colorado and Utah, con
tains the sodium alkaline salts, Nahcolite (NaHCO.- bicarbonate of soda), Daw
sonite (NaAlCO.(OH)p) and other compounds. The potential reserves of Nahcol
ite and Dawsonite are estimated to be 23*8 billion tonne and 15*6 billion
10
tonne respectively. By products of these minerals may positively affect the
economics of development. Tests are being run to determine the effectiveness
of dry Nahcolite in removing sulphur dioxide from the retorted oil shale. The
utility power plants, for glass making, and in the production of soda ash.
The effects of Nahcolite and Dawsonite on the mechanical properties of oil
shale will be discussed later.
The Green River Formation beds are a series of lake sediments. During
times of high evaporation the lakes became very saline and deposited the1 ̂ 8
saline zone shale (Figure 3). At least slightly saline conditions prevailed
during the deposition of the 'Uinta Formation* and the 'Upper oil shale zone'
(Figure 4) of the Green River Formation. The sodium alkaline salts, which
were derived from the digestion of basic volcanic ashes, were also deposited
138 at this time of increased evaporation.
The Antrim Formation of Michigan is the final deposit to be discussed in
this report. This unit has been studied by the Dow Chemical Company, under
87 contract to the U.S. Department of Energy. The Antrim has been correlated
with the Kettle Point Formation. The Antrim Formation is 20 to 65 m thick,
108 and reaches a depth of 490 m in the centre of the Michigan Basin. Unlike
the lacustrine deposits in Colorado, the Antrim shales were deposited in a
marine environment. Primary minerals include illite, quartz, feldspar, and
minor organic matter, pyrite and carbonate. The organic matter consists in
Point Formation.
11
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL SHALES.
3*1 General
'Laboratory tests should always have a secure place in rock mechanics for
civil engineering site studies even though their failure to duplicate the
response of complexly discontinuous rock masses invites disapproval. Obvi
ously, results of laboratory tests alone can not provide the main basis for
making decisions about rock engineering. But a full complement of laboratory
tests force us to handle, cut, grind, soak, deform and break the rock we will
rely upon and work with, increasing our awareness of its distinct attri
butes... It is mainly through laboratory study of rock specimens with and
without discontinuities, that we are now beginning to have unifying concepts
74 for understanding rock and joint behavior*.
In underground mining, stability is of great concern. Pillar design
depends on strength and elastic parameters of the pillar material, usually
obtained in uniaxial and triaxial compression tests. When estimating stabil
ity of the mine roof, knowledge of tensile strength as well as compressive
strength is required. Design or recommendation of excavation techniques in
mining depends on knowledge of rock strength and hardness. Design for the
stability of mine openings requires knowledge of time dependent behaviour,
creep and durability.
In surface mining, slope stability can become an important controlling fac
tor. Shear strength of the rock material as well as orientation of jointing
and local and regional hydrogeology must be considered in slope design.
For in situ fracturing through explosive or hydraulic techniques, failure
is due to shear and tension. Tensile and shear strength of the rock material
12
has to be considered when designing wellbore or blast hole pattern and explo
sive usage. In blasting, a very rapid dynamic load is applied on the rock
mass near the source of the explosion. The magnitude of this shock load
decreases with increasing radius from the center of charge. Strain rate
dependency of strength becomes an important controlling factor, as explosive
rise time is found to be critical in fragmentation processes. Drillability
estimation requires knowledge of strength (compression, shear and tension) and.
hardness when deciding on drill type and drill bits.
When considering technical and economical methods of processing, laboratory
tests can provide, to some extent, a useful source of information. Unfortu
nately, laboratory tests are not always consistent from one source to another
and results can vary considerably, even within the same rock formation.
Effects such as rate of straining, moisture, shape and size, mineralogy, temp
erature, and so on can have significant influences on the obtained results.
For oil shale, the effects of organic content on strength parameters are well
known, being the primary strength controlling variable.
Despite the abundance of oil shale deposits in the world, very little work
has been done on the mechanical properties of these shales. This fact is not
really surprising when one realizes that most of these countries had ceased
mining operations prior to the 1950's, when rock mechanics first came into
being. Many of the mining operations were of too small scale for the owners
to be investing in any significant behavioral investigations.
As a result, the bulk of the information gathered pertains to the Colorado-
Utah-Wyoming Green River Formation. Some information is available on the
Antrim Formation, and one article was located which gives the results of tests
performed on a few samples from the Kimmeridge shales of England. These
13
results have already been noted in section 2.3*5*
3*2 Organic Content Determination
A number of methods have been used to determine a quantitative measurement
of the oil yield, or organic content of oil shales.
Fischer assay laboratory retorting procedure is most commonly used to esti
mate the oil yield which would result from commercial processing of oil shale.
Percentage organic content (Oc) by volume can be calculated from oil yield,an
using the following relationship:
*0c s 157*76 M/C0.957M * 107) (D
where M is the Fischer assay oil yield in U.S. gallons per ton.
Rock density has been found to vary with oil yield of the Green River For-
168 matlon oil shale according to the following relationship:
OY s 31*563(DT ) 2 - 205.998(DT ) * 326.624 (2)
where OY is oil yield in U.S. gallons per ton and D- is the rock density in
gm/cc. The above equation is solved for density and 1 Oc by volume found by:
* 164.85 - 60.61 (D) (3)
For the oil shales in Ontario total organic carbon (TOC) is measured and
related to Fischer assay oil yield by the following expressions for the Kettle
Point Formation and Whitby Formation respectively:
FA s 4.6(TOC) - 0.73 Kettle Point (4)
FA s 5*7(TOC) - 4.4 Whitby (5)
where FA is the Fischer assay in litres per metric ton (tonne) and TOC is 1
total organic carbon by weight.
14
For the lipton member of the Green River Formation the following relation
ship was found to exist between organic content in weight percent and organic
28 carbon content:
W s organic carbon content (TOG)/ 0.805 (6)
Linear regression of tabulated data from the Antrim Formation, Michigan,
which is geologically related to the Kettle Point Formation, Ontario, gave theP8 following results.
Wfc r 89.13 - 33-33 (DT ) (7)
where W is fl weight loss due to retorting processes and D- is apparent den-
2 sity. The coefficient of determination (r ) was 0.79.
These equations can be used to provide some basis for standard comparison
of physical properties of oil shales from different information sources.
3*3 Tensile Strength Determination
At present, in situ retorting is considered to be the most environmentally
acceptable and economic method of processing of oil shale formations. As it
involves explosive or hydraulic fracturing of the rock materials, the tensile
strength or fracture toughness becomes an important strength parameter.
A detailed study has been performed on the tensile strength of the Green
River oil shale Formation which is subdivided into two rich members, Tipton
member and Mahogany zone. They are slightly different mineralogically (as
mentioned earlier in the report) which reflects a slight difference in
strength properties (Figure 4). For the Tipton member in Wyoming, the follow-40 ing data were obtained:
a fc s 23.16 - 0.35l6(0c) (MPa) (8)
15
E s 28.34 - 0.4800(0c) (GPa) (9)
V s 0.1026 - 0.00312(0c) ( 10 )-4 -1
Strain rate applied was 51 per min or approximately 8.3 x 10 sec and the
2 coefficient of determination (r ) ranged from 0.72 - 0.86. Oc is in percent
40 by volume, determined from equation (1).
For the Mahogany zone two different groups were tested, one in Utah and one
in Colorado. The same strain rate was applied:
a t(Colorado) s 14.78 - 0.0928(0c) (MPa) (11)
s 13-64 - 0.1211(0c) (MPa)
Oc is again the organic content in percent by volume from equation 1. No data
2 is given on the elastic parameters E and v. Coefficient of determination (r )oc
was approximately 0.57 for both groups.
By comparing these data, it was observed that the slope of the regression
line for the Tipton member is more than 3 times that for the Mahogany zone.
The organic matter for the Mahogany zone and Tipton member is sensibly identi
cal but there is a primary difference in mineralogy, as mentioned in section
2.3.8 in this report. Apparently dolomite provides a structural matrix to the
Mahogany zone but for the Tipton member dolomite amounts are apparently tooOC
low to exert a similar influence except at low organic contents. By adding
the dolomite content as a variable in the regression analysis for the tensile
strength of the Tipton member, a 51 increase in coefficient of determination
(r ) is achieved, indicating its effects at low 1 Oc but with increasing JJOcOC Ojl
the organic matter dilutes and weakens the dolomite matrix. '
Tensile strength of oil shales decreases significantly with increasing
44 47 temperature. ' This has been observed in the Green River Formation where,
for example, for 65 ml/mg grade oil shale, tensile strength was reduced to
16
o 44approximately 285 of its room temperature value at 200 C. Regression anal
ysis of data from the same experiment gave the following results for cr paral
lel and perpendicular to bedding planes respectively:Q
o*, x - -288 * 7 ' 79x1Q - 19300 * 0.229A2 (13) Moara.j T 0 T
V ' R
6.48x108 A^ 9 . 1 ..a f'norn \ * " 25 - 3 * T O ~ 20300 T * 0.386A^ (L4 ^
** V r"' r ' J l o^ InK K
A is the Fischer assay oil yield in gallons per ton, TR is in degrees Rankine,
44 and tensile stress is in psi. Regression analysis of the same material at
room temperature gives approximately the following results:
at s 14.48 - 0.141(00) (MPa) (15)
These results are similar to other tests of the same formation.
In the same test program it was observed that by increasing the rate of
3 -2 loading by a factor of 10, from 2x10 J -2x10 inches per minute,
strength increased by about Ity indicating strain rate effects on strength
44 properties.
3*4 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
A comprehensive mechanical characterization program on Green River Forma
tion Oil Shale from the Mahogany Zone gave the following results perpendicularQ
(z) and parallel (x,y) to bedding respectively (Figure 5):
d s 161.60 - 1.54l5(0c) (MPa) (16) uz
aux s 127 '73 " 1 ' 121 5(0c) (MPa)o
Coefficients of determination (r ) were 0.743 and 0.651 respectively and the
number of samples tested was 55 and 41.
17
The elastic constants are expressed not only as functions of organic con
tent but also as functions of stress levels (3), where 3 is a normalized quan
tity expressed as a percentage of applied stress over ultimate stress, rangingQ
from 0-10056 (Figure 6). The following was observed:
E s 12.34 - 0.2196(0c) * 0.07461(3) z
- 6.82x10"5 (OcS) - 9-869x10"8 (S4 ) (GPa) (18)
E s 10.45 - 0.1735(0c) -i- 0.3841(3) x
- 5.19x10"3 (OcS) - 1.833x10"7 (S4 ) (GPa) (19)
The coefficients of determination were 0.7217 and 0.8265 respectively and the
number of samples tested was more than 600. Poisson's ratio analysis indi-0
cated the following result (Figure 7):
Vzx s -O' 0441 ? * 0.00385(0c) * 0.00645(3) (20)
v s -0.03307 -i-- 0.00333(0c) * 0.00480(3) (21) xy
The coefficient of determination was approximately 0.78 and more than 600 sam
ples were tested. The strong dependency on stress levels makes it difficultQ
to determine the mechanical properties by acoustic methods.
Comparison of the Tipton member and the Mahogany zone of the Green River
oil shale Formation indicated the following results.
au (Tipton) s 91.27 - 0.709(0c) (MPa) (22)
*u (Mahogany) s 130.92 - 0.907(0c) (MPa) ( 23 )
Regression analysis was performed on the upper extreme values since they are
thought to be of most interest in oil shale fracturing. Coefficients of
2determination (r ) were 0.739 and 0.891 respectively. Experiments were per
formed at a strain rate of about 0.556 /min s 8.3 x 10 sec . The differ
ences in strength are again reflected by differences in mineralogy. Effects
of dolomite are also observed for each individual member. For example, the
Tipton Member has average dolomite percentages in the Upper and Lower values
18
of au (uniaxial compressive strength) of 1356 and 2656 respectively. Linear
regression analysis for the lower extreme values gave the following results,
indicating the effects of dolomite on strength properties:
au (Tipton) r 60 - 0.9(0c) (MPa) (24)
This represents a decrease in strength of more than 50/6. Other mineral matter
or micro-discontinuities might also have caused this significant change but
this was not investigated.
One other oil bearing zone in the Green River Formation, Parachute Creek
member, is the unleached Saline Zone (Figure 3)* This bed contains the sodium
alkaline salts Nahcolite and Dawsonite, as was noted in section 2.3*8. One
study was undertaken by the United Sates Bureau of Mines in 1978 to determine
the effects these minerals have on rock strength.
It was discovered that the greater the percentage Nahcolite in the sample,
the lower the compressive strength and the larger the Young's Modulus. The
greater the percentage Dawsonite, the greater was the compressive strength,
Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio. A regression analysis was calculated for
the results but the correlation coefficients were poor. Because some sections
in the unleached Saline Zone contain an abundance of these minerals, the
effects they have on the mechanical properties could prove to be very impor
tant.
The effects of strain rate have been studied for the Green River Formation,
Tipton member, in Wyoming (Figure 8). These studies indicated that the com
pressive fracturing strength is strongly dependent on organic volume and on00 .il
strain rate. Tests were performed on 300 specimens at strain rates of 10
10" . sec" and a volume range of organic matter of 13 - 44^6. Statistical00
analysis gave the following results.
19
59 - 1.74(0c) i- 4.02 log(e) (MPa) (25)vft
where e is the strain rate in sec" , Oc is the organic content by volume and
a u is the ultimate compressive strength in MPa. The coefficient of determina
tion (r2 ) was 0.78.
Another study was carried out on the Anvil Points oil shales of the Colo
rado, Mahogany zone. In this study Fischer assay oil yield and heigh t- width
152 ratio were used as variables in the statistical analysis:
au s 246.62 - 27.50(A) * 0.279(A2 ) - 0.830(A)(HXW) (MPa) (26)
A is the Fischer assay oil yield in litres per tonne (metric ton) and H/W is
the height-width ratio ranging from 1.85 - 1.0. The coefficient of determina-
2 tion (r ) was 0.699.
of Michigan, which is geologically related to the Kettle Point Formation in
12 Ontario and thus is of great interest, has been studied. Uniaxial compres
sive tests on six samples gave the following range of values:
a u s 92 - 136 MPa (27)
E r 10.8 - 16.9 GPa
V s 0.06 - 0.17
Values are tabulated as functions of density and weight loss due to roasting
at 500OC in air for 48 hours. Using equation 3 to calculate IQc by volume
gave Oc values ranging from 10.2 - 21.8^6. Linear regression of strength vs.
did not give reliable results, likely due to small sample size.
3*5 Triaxial Compression Strength
20
Few triaxial tests have been done on the Green River oil shales in Colo-
47 rado. Such results as are available are best described by plotting them on a
Ca.-cL)X2 versus (cr..-Ki-)X2 graph for various oil shale grades (see Appendix
Figure 9)* Obviously a decrease in 5tOc and increase in confining pressure
increases the axial strength of the intact rock.
The effects of temperature on triaxial strength are similar to the effects
on tensile and uniaxial compressive strength: lower strength at higher temper
atures (Figure 10 and 11). Statistical analysis of the effects of tempera
ture, confining pressure and oil yield on the compressive strength has beenli li
done for this same formation giving the following results:
oru r 2400(T~0 ' 615 ) a exp(0.058(p) - 0.005WA)) (MPa) (30)
where T is the temperature in OF, p is the confining pressure in MPa and A is
the Fischer assay oil yield in litres per tonne.
3.6 Shear Strength
There are not many references that give the actual shear strength of oil
shales. One experiment on the Mahogany zone, Colorado, gave the following
78 results:'*
't s 33.6 - 0.86(A) (MPa) (31)
where A is the oil yield in litres per tonne. Coefficient of determination
2 (r ) for this linear regression was only 0.247.
Our only data from outside the USA are on the Kimmeridge Clays in England.
This formation is known to have a series of dark seams of kerogen rich clay
(oil shale). Shear strength of this formation ranges from 0.1 - 0.4 MPa which
68 is a factor of 10 lower than the Green River Formation oil shales. As men-
21
3.7 Other Tests
There are many other tests that have been performed on oil shales to obtain
some idea of their physical properties under different conditions.
Dynamic fracture strength of oil shales has been studied by a number of
researchers. They have used different testing techniques such as gas gun,
capacitor, Hopkinson bar and tensile bar. All these methods indicate that a
linear relationship exists between fracture stress (i.e., the maximum dynamic
tensile strength material can support before failure by fracture occurs) and
78 strain rate (Figure 12). These experiments are extremely important when one
considers in situ retorting techniques for oil shale processing.
Creep tests are, on the other hand, extremely valuable for stability of
mine openings. One such test was performed on the Tipton Green River Forma
tion, to demonstrate correlation between various stress levels and organic07
contents. Statistical analysis gave the following equations:
E 1 s 558.84 - I6.50(0c) - 979.29(S) * 38.93(OcS) (MPa) (32)
E2 s 1989.93 - 52.38(0c) - 3188.96(8) * 2l8.99(OcS) (MPa) (33)
n s 183675.86 - 6057-38(0c) + 13**65.38(OcS) (MPa-hours) (34)
E. and E~ are spring constants in a standard linear viscoelastic model and n
is the viscosity. Oc is the organic content in percentage by volume and S is
37the stress level as a function of the ultimate compressive stress. Coeffi
cient of determination was approximately 0.7*
22
The effect of temperature on creep was found to be significant for the oil
41 shales in the Green River Formation, Colorado (Figure 13)* To demonstrate
temperature effects, identical samples were tested at different temperatures.
Results showed that strain rate increased from 3-33 x 10" min" at 24OC to
81 o16.7 x 10 min" at 121 C for a constant stress ratio of 0.45. The Kelvin
model' was used to predict the primary and secondary creep behavior under con-
41 stant temperatures and gave reasonable agreement with the measured data.
Porosity and permeability studies on the Antrim oil shales, Michigan, indi-
157 cated that the porosity could be expressed as a function of weight loss.
Linear regression analysis of tabulated results gave the following:
*n s 5.61 - 0.44(W.) (35) t
where W. is percentage weight loss due to roasting of the sample at 500OC
(optimum retorting temperature) and the porosity is calculated as apparent
porosity equal to (Da- Dg)XDa where Da is the apparent density and Dg is the
geometric density.
For 5-10^ weight loss apparent porosity should range approximately from
0.034-0.012 and, assuming saturation, water content (w) can be calculated
157 using the following expression:
n s wG/d+wG) or (36)
w s nX(1-n)G (37)
Solving this equation for n s 0.012 and 0.034 and G s 2.65 (specific gravity
of quartz) gives water contents ranging approximately from 0.5 - 1.356*
Because of the geological similarity between the Kettle Point Formation oil
shale and Antrim Formation we could expect similar results. Preliminary
results of percentage of w indicate a range of 0.7 - 2.22.
23
Average permeabilities of the same formation ranged from 0.123 - 0.025 mil-
lidarcies parallel to bedding planes and 0.044 - 0.004 millidarcies perpendic-
-11 2 ular to bedding planes. One millidarcy is approximately equal to 10 cm
or, if expressed as hydraulic conductivity, 10" cm/sec for water at 20OC.
Unfortunately, most of our data comes from studies on the Green River For
mation oil shales. Since these shales are mineralogically quite different
than the Antrim Formation oil shales in Michigan we could expect differences
in the mechanical behaviour. Great care must be taken in imposing behaviour
models derived for the Green River Formation to the Michigan Antrim (Kettle
Point) oil shales.
24
4. MINING TECHNIQUES
4.1 General
There are four basic methods of oil shale production. These are open pit
mining with surface retorting, underground mining with surface retorting,
underground mining with in situ retorting and true in situ extraction using
injection wells. A brief description of these methods follows.
4.2 Open Pit Mining with Surface Retorts
Many of the older mines were open pit operations which existed in China,
Australia, Canada (at Collingwood, Ontario), Brazil and England. The methods
of retorting have changed over the years. Some of the recent experimental
surface retorts will be discussed in Section 4.3*
A study was performed on the Federal Oil Shale Tract C-a in Piceance Basin
(Figure 2) for the feasibility of an open pit mining operation. Both limiting
equilibrium and stress-strain analysis using the finite element method were
used for the study. It was assumed that failure was most likely to take place
along discontinuities. Tests showed the cohesion values to be 1.7MPa or more,
and the angle of friction, 30O . For these values a slope angle of 45 O was
deemed adequate. When measuring tensile stresses, which were in the order of
O.TMPa for a 366 m deep pit, it was found that 60O slopes were adequate. The
tensile stresses were found to occur near the toe of the slopes. Also, they
concluded that differences in physical properties of the rock mass contributed
to the significant increase in the extent of the tensile stress zone.
25
4.3 Underground Mining with Surface Retorts
The room and pillar method (Figure 14) for underground mining seems to be
the most widely used technique, expecially with the Green River Shale experi
mental projects. In this method benches are mined from the top of the room
downwards. Pillars of oil shale are left to support the roof. The dimensions
of the rooms are dependent on the tensile and compressive strengths of the
rock, the discontinuities of the rock mass (joints, fractures, etc), the com
petency of the roof rock, and the hydrology of the mine area.
The ideal roof consists of low grade rock for greater strength, formedgo
along smooth bedding planes or other natural partings. Less spalling occurs
with a smooth surface.
A study of the Colony Pilot Mine in Piceance Basin (Figure 3) was under
taken to discover the reasons for the roof falls which had been occurring
there. It was found that bedding plane separations had formed at 1.5, 3*0 and
4.5m above the roof. These separations increased, forming a sag in the roof
between pillars, which in turn resulted in high horizontal compressive
stresses directly above the pillar. Hence, an arch was formed. The larger theQQ
distance between pillars the more sagging occurred, blasting and benching
152 could lead to further sagging.
Hardy et. al. (1978) compared the use of elementary beam theory and dis
placement discontinuity analysis in the calculation of stresses in a mine
roof. They assumed that the roof was acting as a set of beams of roughly
equal thickness. The displacement discontinuity analysis method gave stress
results similar to those measured. A span of 18.3m appears to be an optimumgo
spacing for the Colony Mine.
At the Anvil Points Mine near Rifle Colorado, a room of 24 x 30 m remained
26
stable for years without rock bolts. When It was extended to 24 x 60 m, roof
failures occurred, which probably would have been prevented with rock
152bolts. Also in this study, it was noted that the sagging was cyclical, sag
ging in the winter and moving upwards in the summer due to temperature changes
in the mine. This phenomenon was more pronounced at the mine opening, and
rock falls occurred as the result of this cycling. Mine stabilization techni
ques (rock bolts) should be employed to guard against this problem. Because
of the variability in chemical and mechanical properties of the oil shale,
detailed studies should be performed on each deposit in order to ensure sta
bility.
Pillar dimensions are important for achieving maximum safety and extrac
tion. Studies have been undertaken to determine the stresses on oil shale
pillars in order to find the optimal size. In the Anvil Points project men
tioned above, stress on the pillars increased during benching and cross out
removal. When final stresses were measured, they were less than those hypoth-
152 esized, probably due to arching over the pillars. This shows the need for
in situ testing as well as lab work, in determining the maximum possible
extraction ratios. Other pilot projects have not performed these studies, as
a result, their extraction ratios are generally lower.
Other parameters worthy of investigation include mine orientation with
respect to direction of stresses and joints sets in the rock mass. The long
axes of the rooms, if they are rectangular, should be perpendicular to major152 joint sets for enhanced stability.
Principal stresses should be studied in order to determine whether the
joints are tensional or compressional. This is important in order to orient
the rooms in such a way as to take advantage of the stabilizing effect of
27
these stresses. If the lateral stresses are greater than the vertical ones,
and if they happen to be tensional as is the case with the Anvil Points Mine,
the stresses help create high friction forces across the joints, helping to
152 support them.
After the shale is blasted and extracted from the mine, it has to be
crushed to a uniform size before it is loaded into the retort. There are many
types of surface retorts. These will be discussed briefly.
The Tosco-II retorting method (Figure 5) was used in the pilot project at
Parachute Creek. The 1.5cm crushed material is heated to approximately 500 C
by direct contact with heated ceramic balls of the same diameter, in a rotat
ing kiln (retort). The organic matter rapidly decomposes to a hydrocarbon
vapour which flows through a cyclone separator which separates the gas from
the solids. It then goes into a f rae t i ona t or where the vapour is cooled to
produce heavy oil, distillate oils, naptha and light gases. The yield is
175 close to 100^ of the Fischer assay quantity.
The other two retorting systems were developed by the Russians. They are
called the Kiviter and the Galoter retorts. As mentioned earlier in the sec
tion on the USSR deposits, the Estonians have recently improved their retort
ing processes. The Kiviter retort is similar in some respects to the gas com-Q
bustion, Paraho and Petrosix retorts, of the United States. These other
methods are discussed in reference no. 50. In the Kiviter system, the shale
flows downwards against a rising, heated gas in a modified vertical retort.
The Kiviter retort handles coarse-grained feed, 2.5 cm and larger. Special
burners were designed for the low heating value gas which is produced from
this retort. This gas provides some of the heat for the process. The pro-Q
duced H.S is removed and the sulphur is recovered.
28
The Galoter retort was developed to refine the fine oil shale feed that Is
less than 2.5 cm In lump size. As In the Tosco-II process, the retort rotates
but the heat carrier is a solid, spent oil shale. With this method there is a
5 to 10* increase in yield, 12 to 18* increase in thermal efficiency, reduc
tion in electric power and steam requirements, a higher quality crude oil,o
and, a sulphur-free gas product with high heating value.
There are various other types of retorts. Those discussed are Just a few
of the more recent developments in oil shale retorting technology.
4.4 Underground Mining with In Situ Retorts
The room and pillar mining technique is also used with the in situ retort
ing process. Another name for this type of mining is modified in situ mining.
As mentioned earlier, good fragmentation and uniform void distribution are
essential for maximum oil shale extraction. As stated previously, lean oil
shales (less than 165 l/tonne) behave in a brittle manner and rich shales
70 basically flow in a plastic manner. The oil shale hydrocarbon content varies
in Piceance Creek, Colorado, vertical retorts are the most practical. In
70 thinner beds, horizontal retorts are being employed.
Several modified in situ processes have been developed. They all require
removal of a certain percentage of rock in the retort by conventional mining
methods. This creates a void into which the rest of the rock can expand upon
explosive fragmentation.
29
The Occidental process appears to be one of the most accepted and certainly
the best developed methods of modified in situ retorting. Since 1972, Occi
dental has built and tested several underground retorts at the Logan Wash
Property near DeBeque, Colorado (Figure 16). The first retorts were small
(9x9x21m); then in 1975 the first commercial sized (36x36x85m) retort (no.4)
was ignited and produced 4,800m of oil in its first six months of production.
Retorts five and six were finished in 1977 and 1978 respectively. Retort No.
6 measured 49x49x103m.50
Retort no. 4 had two vertical slots extending from the floor to the mined
out room at the top. Blastholes were drilled parallel to the slots from the*
upper room. Blasting and geologic problems resulting in poor recovery rates
prevented proper Fragmentation.
Retort no. 5 used a single slot and a 12 m silt pillar above the fragmented
zone of the retort. The initial blast holes were used to circulate the output
gases to the retort. As in Retort no. 4, poor distribution and channelling of
the gases was observed with a resultant, reduction in yield.
Number 6 retort had two intermediate levels, instead of the slots, to cre
ate the needed void volume into which the material could expand upon blasting.
Due to overmining of the lower level, a portion of the silt pillar collapsed
but it was cleaned up without interrupting production.
Some other modified in situ methods include using a subsurface chimney
formed by explosives or chemical spalling of rock from the sides of boreholes;
using natural fractures which are opened and enlarged by gas pressure; and150
using lasers to produce voids and heat.
30
One study was undertaken to test the use of microwaves in oil shale retort
ing. It was found that permeability decreases with vertical stresses but
increases with microwaving under no stresses. More studies have to be per
formed to explore the usefulness of this technique.
For fufher information on modified in situ mining methods, reference no. 50
has excellent descriptions of the various technologies.
One concern of those studying in situ retorting is the possible reduction
of permeability due to heating of shales in the retort. Despite the lack of
data on the subject, one author believes that the pressures developed during
retorting are not very different during or prior to retorting. He also claims
that these pressures should not cause serious loss of permeability unless a
large overburden pressure is placed on the fragmented shale during retort-
ing.25
Other concerns are sensitivity of wall rock to increase in temperature and
the effect of temperature on thermal conductivity. It was found that compres
sive strength decreases tenfold on heating. At room temperature, strength
increases approximately 10/t for each 20 I/tonne decrease in O . High gradesc
are very sensitive to temperature but confining pressure significantly
increases strength. Tensile strength is affected in the same manner as com-
119 pressive strength.
Thermal conductivity is more dependant on grade than temperature except
during active retorting. Thermal expansion during retorting can exert consid-110
erable force on the sides of the retort. It was also found that the convec
tion coefficient has no great influence on heat flow in the retort walls.
This implies that any temperatures likely to cause structural damage will not
31
penetrate very far into the pillar. As a result it was concluded that
119 temperature effects must be taken into account for mine design.
The modified in situ mining technique is particularly appealing for envi
ronmental reasons. Further investigations, particularly of prototype retorts,
must be performed on this method before large scale production is begun. The
technology is at a relatively advanced developmental stage, but the economic
and detailed knowledge is not at the same stage of development as for mining
and surface retorting techniques.
4.5 True In Situ Extraction
This type of 'mining* basically involves drilling boreholes and placing
explosive charges in them. These charges are detonated, fracturing the oil
shale and making it more permeable. Heating of the shale by various methods
is the next step. Hydrocarbon vapour is driven off through other wells to the
surface where it is condensed and refined.
Because of the impermeable nature of shales, fracturing is very important
in making the rock more permeable in order to facilitate combustion. The more
uniformly fractured the rock is, the better the fireflood coverage; hence, the
more extraction. Horizontal fractures are needed in order to link well bores
in the geometric pattern to be used for a true in situ method. There have
been many fracture studies performed on the Green River and Antrim Formations
to develop the best method for oil shale fracturing. These studies are listed
in the bibliography; a few will be discussed in this report.
Fracturing of oil shale is dependent on the grade, discontinuities, and
strain rate. There is a minimum resistance to fracturing for leaner specimens
because they are stronger and the stuctural damage is much greater than for a
32
•TC *Tfl 1 h OOrich shale.' ' ' * JO This is due to the increased tendency of rich shale to
deform plastically and the leaner shales to deform in a brittle manner upon
shock impulse. The effect of strain rate is to reduce the fragment size as78 70 33 iu un
strain rate increases.'' *'* i:"'' This is useful for in situ methods
because the finer the shale fragments, the more surface area which comes in
contact with the heat source, hence better extraction can be achieved.
'Elect relinking 'using high voltage electricity was tried as a method of
increasing oil shale permeability. It provided additional fracture zones but
1 18 not enough to allow in situ retorting. Blasting with commercial ANFO (Ammo
nium Nitrate- Fuel Oil Mixture) was attempted. ANFO is an inexpensive explo
sive but it does not undergo high order detonation, which is desirable to
achieve maximum fragmentation. Even with extremely large charges; ANFO has
91 too low a 'brisance 1 to effectively fragment oil shale. Hydraulic fracturing
by injecting viscous water based gel and 8 to 12 mesh sand through double
packers was tried. This method was unsuccessful in causing enough permeabil-
f i ve- spot we l l bore pattern. Ignition of the resultant fractured rock was sue-118 cessful. Hydro fracturing, with subsequent sand propping of resultant frac
tures, followed by explosive detonations seems to be a promising method of
increasing permeability; however, great care has to be taken not to fracture
the rock of the underlying formations. If these formations are permeable,
they may cause fluid leakage. Another problem can arise with this method if
there are natural fractures. In one case, the explosive slurry pumped down
the hole continued down along natural fractures. The detonation resulted in a
random distribution of fractures which did not generate sufficient permeabil
ity to implement an in situ process.
33
Fragmentation experiments on the Antrim Formation have included blasting as
well as leaching of the underlying limestone formation with hydrochloric acid.
These methods create a void into which the overlying shale can expand upon
blasting. Repeated experiments resulted in vertical fractures which are of
131 little use in linking wellbores.
00One other method of obtaining permeability was suggested by Perner, 1975.
In the leached zone of the Green River Formation, further leaching of the
matrix by bacterial cultures may be sufficient to make the shale more porous,
and hence, more permeable. Much more research has to be done before this
method could be implemented.
One experiment performed on the oil shale the Anvil Points Mine in Colorado
studied the effects of explosives on permeability. The original permeability 8
was 3 x 10~ Darcies in a 167 I/tonne sample. After the sample was exploded 2
once, the permeability rose to 8 x 10 Darcies. Near the borehole permeabil-
shot.
Much experimentation and testing still remains to be done before any true
in situ method becomes economically viable. It is an attractive method
because of the environmental aspects, particularly since there is no worry
about waste disposal. Another reason that this method is appealing is the
reduced need for water. Because of the arid climate and due to the increasing
use of the Colorado River for irrigation and municipal use, there is insuffi
cient supply for any technology requiring large volumes of water or stream.
The BX in situ oil shale project was producing oil shale by true in situ
methods at least until 1980. This project used superheated steam to retort
34
the leached zone of the Green River Formation in Colorado. Over five months
235,060 barrels of water (steam) were injected into eight wells at 235OC with
a wellhead pressure of 1199 PSIG. The project could not operate at peak con
ditions (538OC, 1500 PSIG) because of problems with equipment. As of 1978,
plans were to continue production into 1981.
Apart from steam, in situ retorting under air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide
has been suggested. Tests have been run using different atmospheres,and
results of these tests are reported in reference no. 87.
The true in situ extraction method is environmentally attractive but it
requires much study before the technology can uniformly fracture the oil shale
and extract it on an economic basis. Compared to mining and retorting, the
technology is at a very early development stage.
35
5. CURRENT RESEARCH
5.1 General
shale, composed dominantly of clay minerals, illite and quartz. It contains
87 minor amounts of organic matter, pyrite, and carbonate.
This shale differs from the Green River Shale in the small amount of carbo
nate minerals present. The Green River Shales contain carbonate materials
such as calcite and dolomite which comprise much of the mineral matter found
in these shales. 87 ' 113
As part of the contract with the Ontario Geological Survey, the University
of Waterloo has been performing laboratory tests on selected Kettle Point For
mation cores. Some preliminary results of these tests are given here.
5.2 Mineralogy
The Kettle Point Oil Shale has the same characteristics as the Antrim
Shale. The total organic content (TOC) found in the core KP24 of the Kettle
Point ranges from 0.2 to 15.4 percent, with an average of 7*7 percent. This
is comparable to the 6.5 percent TOC of the Antrim. In addition the Kettle
Point has minor amounts of carbonate and pyrite and is composed mainly of
quartz and illite.
Derivative thermogravimetric analysis (DTG) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
were performed on three samples of the Kettle Point Shale. One sample from
each of the cores KP22, KP27 and KP28 was tested. A fourth sample from core
36
KP24 was analyzed through DIG testing only. The DIG analysis is based on
material decomposition resulting in weight loss with heating. Volatile
materials and chemical decomposition products lost from the sample cause a
decrease in weight. The chemical reactions are temperature dependent rate
51 processes which occur over a range of temperatures. A DTG curve is the first
derivative of the weight loss relationship and consists of a series of peaks
which correspond to various stages in decomposition. The peak area is propor
tional to fractional weight loss at each particlar stage. The curve returns
to the baseline when sample weight reaches a plateau but shows a minimum value
above the baseline if weight does not remain constant as temperature rises.
The samples taken from cores KP27 and KP28 show two peaks of organic decom
position. It is suggested that one of the peaks is kerogen and the other is
bitumen. The absence of a significant clay dehydroxylation peak in the 550 C
range indicates a very low clay content. There are also no discrete carbonate
peaks in the range of 750O-800OC. In the sample taken from core KP24 a clay
peak is seen overlapping with the organic peak.
A sample of a light lamination was taken from core KP22. This sample shows
no peaks in the 300O-400OC range which indicates very low organic matter con
tent. However, it does show two peaks in the 550O-600OC range indicating con
siderable clay content. It is possible that these two peaks are indicative of
two reactions, each of a different clay type. The DTG curve also indicates
carbonate materials in this sample. These very preliminary data suggest a
mineralogical control on organic content.
An x-ray diffraction analysis on samples from cores KP22, KP27, KP28 con
firmed the results of the DTG analysis. In cores KP27 and KP28 the minerals
that could be reliably determined were quartz and illite with possible carbo-
37
nate minerals, calcite and dolomite. Core KP22 shows similar mineralogy with
the possible identification of kaolinite.
These results indicate that the Kettle Point is similar in composition to
the Michigan Antrim Shale.
5.3 Mechanical Properties.
.5-2.J. Slake Durability Index
One sample was tested from hole KP27 at depth 22.0-22.15m. Average total
organic carbon (TOC) was 9.056. After two cycles of wetting and drying the
percentage retained was 99*356- According to Gamble's slake durability classi
fication this result is grouped as having a very high durability.
5..3 .2 Point Load Index
Seven samples were loaded in the Brock and Franklin apparatus parallel and
perpendicular to bedding. The average corrected point load index was calcu
lated for parallel and perpendicular loading respectively:
I (para.) s 0.0 - 2.1 MPa (5 samples) (38)SO
I gc (perp.) s 3.5 -6.7 MPa (2 samples) (39)
Obviously the point load resistance is strongly dependent on bedding plane
orientation.
5..3.3 Brazilian Tests
Twenty-eight samples have been tested to date. Their TOC values range from
4 to 111. Data are quite scattered. The average tensile strength is 9.33 MPa
with a standard deviation of 1.95 MPa. The highest value is 16.5 MPa and the
lowest was 7.2 MPa.
38
In progress are direct shear tests, uniaxial compressive tests and triax
ial tests.
39
6. SUMMARY
There are many oil shale deposits throughout the world, some having been
mined commercially in the past, and several being exploited at present. Much
interest has been shown in these deposits in the last decade due to a threat
ened shortage of conventional oil. Because of the fairly recent development
of the field of rock mechanics, very little rock mechanics work has been done
on oil shales. As a result, the majority of the data comes from the American
deposits, the Green River and Antrim Formations, which have been subjected to
intense study in the last 10 years.
The Green River Formation is actually a marlstone, and is very different
from the Antrim Formation. The Kettle Point Formation in Ontario has been
correlated with the Antrim Formation; therefore, any general mechanical prop
erty observation developed on the Antrim should also be true for the Kettle
Point.
Oil shale yield varies inversely with bulk density, with low densities giv
ing high yields. The relationship between these two parameters is given by
the equations discussed in section 3*2.
The Mahogany zone of Colorado and Utah has been compared with the T ip ton
member of Wyoming. Tensile and compressive strengths were the compared param
eters. The tensile and compressive strengths were different due to differ
ences in mineralogy. The dolomite of the Mahogany zone gives the rock struc
tural support whereas the dolomite content of the Tipton member does not have
this. Strength of oil shales decreases significantly with increasing tempera
ture and increases with increased strain rate. Uniaxial compressive strengths
have been given for the Antrim Formation of Michigan.
40
Some results from triaxial and shear strength tests have been reported.
Creep test results indicate a correlation between various stress levels and
organic content. Temperature also greatly affects creep. Water content for
the Antrim ranges between 0.5 and 1.356* Average permeabilities ranged from
0.124 to 0.125 millidarcies parallel to bedding and 0.044 to 0.004 millidar-
cies perpendicular to bedding.
There are four basic mining techniques available: open pit with surface
retorts, underground with surface retorts, modified in situ and true in situ
mining.
The technology and equipment for surface mining and retorting is available
for certain areas of the United States. This would of necessity be low cost
and high production mining. However, the environmental impact would be great,
and the problems of handling and disposing of water would be significant.
Also, grade control would be difficult, and initial capital costs are much
higher for surface than underground mining.
As a result of all these problems, oil shale mining has been forced to move
underground. As some of these methods are fairly new, much research has been
undertaken to define the mechanical properties in order to achieve maximum
extraction and safety. For underground mining, the room and pillar method
seems to be the most widely used. The dimensions of the rooms are dependent
on strength of rock, discontinuities, competency of the roof and the hydrology
of the mine area. Cyclical sagging and raising of the roof due to seasonal
temperature change has been noted. This phenomenon also causes arching of the
roof over the pillars. Mine orientation with respect to rock stresses and
discontinuities is also very important*
41
The Tosco-II seems to be the most widely used surface retort in the U.S.
Two other retorts in use now, in the U.S.S.R., are the Kiviter and the Galoter,
These are environmentally and economically more efficient than previous
U.S.S.R. retorts.
The modified and true in situ techniques require fracturing of the oil
shale to create permeability in order for continuous retorting to take place.
The Occidental in situ retorting system seems to be the most advanced technol
ogy in the U.S. This technique requires mining of between 15 to 20ifc of the
retort to allow for the fragmentation and expansion of the rest of the shale.
Increasing temperature greatly reduces rock strength; therefore, it should be
taken into account when designing retorting systems.
True in situ mining involves drilling boreholes and fracturing the rock
using various techniques. If the rock has been sufficiently fractured, the
shale is ignited and the hydrocarbon gas is brought to the surface to be
refined. The more finely fractured, the better the fireflood. Hydrofractur-
ing, sand propping and then exploding appears to be a fairly successful
method. The strain rate affects fragment size. Steam, air, nitrogen and car
bon dioxide have been suggested as mediums for in situ retorting.
Current research on Kettle Point material includes: DTG and XRD analysis,
slake durability, point load and Brazilian tests. The mineralogical results
indicate relatively low clay and carbonate contents in the Kettle Point
shales. The mechanical tests indicate: a very high slake durability, and
tensile strengths between 16.5 and 7.2 MPa. Tests in progress are direct
shear, uniaxial and triaxial tests.
More information is needed on the mechanical properties of oil shales
42
before evaluation of any commercial venture is undertaken. Some of the
research reported to date can be found in the bibliography. This report will
be followed by a major report on Kettle Point mechanical properties.
43
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Susan Andrews for her exhaustive
efforts in typing this report and Chris Fordham for
carrying out the thermal analyses.
44
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
The articles listed below have been rated as to their relevance. The rat
ing system is:
1. Very informative on the mechanical properties of oil shales.
2. Very informative on other related topics
3. Moderately useful for mechanical properties
4. Moderately useful for related topics
5. Possibly informative but they have not been received through the
interlibrary loaf} system as yet.
6. Not very useful or they have not been read because the titles
did not relate directly to the topic, may be interesting to
someone.
The rating numbers have been placed at the end of each reference listed.
45
1. Adams, T.F., Stauffer, H.C., (editor), 1981. Computer Simulation of Explosive Fracture of Oil Shale. Oil Shale, Tar Sands, and Related Materials, ACS Symposium Series (USA) ACS Symp. Ser., No. 163, PP- 13-24. (4)
2. Agapito, Jose F., 1974. Rock Mechanics Applications to the Design of Oil Shale Pillars. Min. Eng., Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 20-25. (2)
3. Agapito, J.F. and Page, J.B., 1976. ± Case Study of Long-Term Stability in the Colony Oil Shale Mine, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado. 17th U.S. Sym posium on Rock Mechanics, Snowbird, Utah, USA, Aug. 25-27, Symp. Rock Mech., Proc.- (USA) No. 17, pp. 3A4.1-3A4.6. (4)
4. Alfred, V.D., 1964. Some Characteristic Properties of Colorado Oil Shale Which May Influence In Situ Processing. Col. Sch. Mines Quarterly, Vol. 59, No. 3, PP- 47-76. (6)
5. Arrhenius, G., 1975. Shale-Oil Production in Sweden by In Situ Pyrolysis and by Aboveground Retorting; Environmental Restoration. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, p. 302-311. (6)
6. Bader, B.E. (editor), 1981. Oil Shale Program; Twenty-First Quarterly Report, Jan. f 8l-Mar.'8l. Sand. 81-1659. (4)
7. Bader, B.E. (editor), 1982. Oil Shale Program; Twenty-Third and Twenty- Fourth Quarterly Reports. July '81 through Dec. '81. Sandia Report Sand 82-0606. (4)
8. Baker, J.D., 1979- World Oil Shale Resources and Development History* Symposium Papers: Synthetic Fuels from Oil Shale, pp. 1-19. (2)
9. Baker, J.D., Hook, C.O., 1979. Chinese and Estonian Oil Shale; 12th Oil Shale Symposium, pp. 26-31. (2)
10. Barker, J., 1983. Unpublished data, 1983. (1)
11. Berg, R.R., 1976. Deformation of Mesozoic Shales at Hamilton Dome, Big horn Basin, Wyoming. Am. Ass. Pet. Geol. Bull., Vol. 60, No. 9, Sept., pp. 1425-1433. (6)
12. Bethea, R.M., Barber, D.R., Parker, H.W., Guven, N. and Anonymous, 1982. Effect of Groundwater and Ph Modification on Quality of Leachate from Simu lated In Situ Retorted Utah Oil Shale. International Symposium on Oilfield and Geothermal Chemistry, Dallas, TX, USA, Jan, 25-27; AIME, Soc. Pet. Engl., pp. 341-351. (6)
13. Boade, R.R., et al., 1978. True In Situ Processing of Oil Shale: An Evaluation of Current Bed Preparation Technology. Sand 78-2162. (2)
14. Boade, R.R., Kipp, M.E., and Grady, D.E., 1981. Dynamic Fracture and Fragmentation of Oil Shale: Application of a Numerical Model to a Blast Design. Fourteenth Oil Shale Symposium, Golden, Co. USA, Apr. 22-24, 1980. Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings Aug. 1981. No. 14, pp. 31-52. (4)
46
15* Bondurant, E.J. and Chang N.Y., 1980. Statistical Analysis and Modeling of the Physical, Mechanical , and Strength Properties of Oil Shale; Proc. 21st U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Rolla Missouri, May 28-30, pp. 604-613* (D
16. Brady, B.T., Hooker, V.E. and Agapito, J.F., 1975. Laboratory and In Situ Mechanical Behaviour Studies of Fractured Oil Shale Pillars. Rock Mechanics ( Vienna) ( III ) , June, Vol 7, No. 2, pp. 101-120. (6)
17. Bridwell, R.J. and Carter, W.J., (compiler), 1978. Variation of Fracture Patterns as a Function of Detonator Position and Tensile Strength. Explo sively Produced Fracture of Oil Shale; Oct. -Dec., 1977 , Los Alamos Sci. Lab. (rep.MUSA) No. 7164, pp. 17-21, (5)
18. Brown, A. .and Heley, W., 1977. USBM Pilot Hole 'X'. Horse Draw, Rio B lane o County, Colorado. Vol. Jk Section 2: Permeability Testing. USBM OFR 103(2)-77, March, 26p. (5)
19. Brown, J.W. and Repsher, R. C., 1972. Detection of Rubble Zones in Oil Shale by the Electrical Resistivity Technique. U.S. Bur. Mines, Rep. Invest. (USA), No. 7674, 17 pp. (4)
20. Cameron, I. B. and McAdam, A. D., 1978. The Oil Shales of the Lothians , Scotland; present resources and former workings. Institute of Geological Sciences, U.K., Report 78/28. (4)
21. Campbell, D.L. and Olhoeft, G. R., 1976. Laboratory Measurements of Com plex Resisitivity Characteristics of Oil-Shales from Piceance Creek, Colorado. Soc. Explor. Geophys., Annu. Int. Meet., Abstr. USA No. 46, pp. 43-44, Sum mary only (6)
22. Campbell, G. G., Scott, W. G. and Miller, J.S., 1970. Evaluation of Oil Shale Fracturing Tests Near Rock Springs, Wyo. USBM Report No. 7397. (4)
23* Campbell, J. R., Colgate, S. A. and Wheat, B. M., 1980. Subterranean Stress Engineering Experiments. In: Underground Rock Engineering, 13th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Toronto, May 28-29. pp. 31-35, Publ Montreal: CIMM,
24. Cane, R.F., 1979. The Oil Shales of Australia and Their Industrial His tory; 12th Oil Shale Symp. pp. 17-25. (2)
25. Carley, J. F. and Thigpen, L., 1980. Modeling of Vertical Pressure Dis tribution in Large In Situ Retorts. 13th Oil Shale Symp. Golden Colo. April 16-18, pp. 180-190. (2)
26. Carmichael, R.S. (ed.), 1982. Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks. Vol. 1, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. (4)
27. Chang, N.Y. and Bondurant, E.J., 1979- Oil Shale Strength Characteriza tion Through Multiple Stage Triaxial Tests. Proc. 20th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 393-401. (3)
28. Chang, B., Costello, K. and Chong, K.P., 1978. Fatigue Tests of Oil Shale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May 1-3, V1, pp. 408-413, Publ. Reno: University of Nevada. (2)
47
29. Chang N.Y. and Jumper, A.L., 1978. Multiple-Stage Triaxial Test on OilShale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May1-3* V1, pp. 520-522. Publ. Reno: University of Nevada. (1)
30. Cheng C.H., 1981. Dynamic and Static Moduli. Geophys Res. Lett. Vol. 8, No. 1, Jan. pp. 39-42. (4)
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32. Chong, K.P. et al., 1979. Complete Elastic Constants and Stiffness Coef ficients for Oil Shales. U.S. DOE/LETC/RI-79/8, (5)
33. Chong, K.P., Hoyt, P.M. and Smith J.W., 1980. Effects of Strain Rate on Oil Shale Fracturing. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 17, No. 1, Feb. pp. 35-43. (D
34. Chong, K.P., Roine, S., Chang, B., Smith, J.W., Wang, F.D. (editor), and Clark, G.B. (editor)., 1977. Mechanical Properties cif Oil Shale by, Modified* Split Cylinder Testing Energy Resources and Excavation Technology. 18th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Keystone, Colo, USA, June 22-24, Colo. Sch. Mines Press, Golden, Colo., USA, pp. 5B3.1-5B3.5. (1)
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37* Chong, K.P., Smith, J.W. and Khaliki, B.A., 1978. Creep and Relaxation of Oil Shale. Proc. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nevada, May 1-3, Vol. 1, pp. 414-418. Publ Reno: University of Nevada. (1)
38. Chong, K.P., Uenishi, K. and Munari, A.C., 1979* Three-Dimensional Char acterization of the Mechanical Properties of Colorado Oil Shale. Proc. 20th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Austin, Texas, June 4-6, pp. 369-379. (D
39. Chong, K.P., Uenishi, K. and Smith, J.W., 1980. Non-Linear Three Dimen sional Mechanical Characterization of Colorado Oil Shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min Sci. Vol. 17, No. 6, Dec., pp. 339-347. (D
40. Chong, K.P., Ward, J. and Chang, B., 1979. Oil Shale Properties by Split Cylinder Method. J. Geotech. Engn. Div. ASCE, Vol. 105, Ngt. 5, P 595-611,(l)
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42. Clark, C.E. and Varisco, D.C., 1975. Net Energy and Oil Shale;
48
Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Shale Oil, Natl. Sci. Found., Rann Doc. Cent. Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 345-372. (4)
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44. Closmann, P.J. and Bradley, W.B., 1979- Effects of Temperature on Ten sile and Compressive Strengths and Young*s Modulus of Oil Shale. Society Petrolum Engineer Jurnal, vol. 19, No. 5, Oct, pp. 301-312. (1)
45. Closmann, P.J. and Phocas, D.M., 1978. Thermal Stresses Near a HeatedFracture in Transversely Isotopic Oil Shale. Soc. Pet. Engr. J. Vol. 18, No.1., Feb., pp. 59-74. (2)
46. Cole, D., 1974. A Recent Example of Spontaneous Combustion of Oil-Shale (Letter). Geol. Mag., Vol. 111, No. 4, p. 355. (4)
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48. Covaci., S., Popescu, A., Badulescu, D. and Vacaru, I., 1978. Possibili ties of Applying Underground Methods for the Exploitation of Bituminous Shale. Mine, Pet, Gaze (Buchar.) (Rom) March, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 113-119. (6)
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51. Daniels, T., 1973. Thermal Analysis. Kogan Page Limited, pp. 53-63- (2)
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68. Gallois, R.W., 1978. A Pilot Study of Oil Shale Occurrences in the Kim- meridge Clay. Inst. of Geological Sciences Report 78/13. (2)
69. Gallois, R.W. and Horton, A., 1981. Field Investigation of British Meso zoic and Tertiary Mudstones. The Geological Society, pp. 311-323* (4)
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71. Gazizov, M.S., 1971. Karst and Its Effects on Mining Operations, UnderConditions in the Baltic Shale Basin. Moscow, Akad, Nauk Sssr, INST. Gorn,Dela, 204p. (6)
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51
County, Colo. USBM RI 8297, 21p. (1)
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125. Murri, W.J., Curran, D.R., Shockey, D.A., Seaman, L., Tokheim, R.E., McHugh, S.L., Young, C., Timmerhaus, K.D. (editor), and Barber, M.S. (editor), 1979. Computer Simulation of Fracture in Small Scale Borehole Experiments in Oil Shale. Sixth Airapt International High Pressure Conference, Boulder, CO, USA, July, 25-29, 1977, No. 6, pp. 465-482. (4)
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132. Pelofsky, A.H., et al., 1979* .A Comparison of Above Ground Processing for Retorting of Isreali Oil Shales. 12th Oil Shale symp. pp. 32-42. (2)
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137. Peterson, R.W., Townsend, F.C. and Bloomfield, R.A., 1978. Geotechnical Properties of a Fine-Grained Spent Shale Waste. Eleventh Oil Shale Symposium, Golden, Colo, USA, April 12-14. pp. 273-281. (6)
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139* Rajaram, V., Nielsen, I.P. and Raymond, H.D., 1979* A Plan for Mining Nahcolite in the Piceance Basin, Colorado. Min. Engng. Vol. 31* No. 12, Dec., pp. 1699-1703- (2)
140. Hajaram, V., Utter, S. and Hooker, V., 1978. Geotechnical and Environ mental Design of^a Mining Research Facility in Deep, Thick Oil Shale Deposits. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Stateline, Nev., USA, May, 1-3* Symp. Rock Mech, Proc. (VVV), Vol. 1, No. 19, pp. 484-491. (2)
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142. Rajeshwar, K., Du Bow, J. and Thapar, R., 1980. Radio-Frequency Elec trical Properties of Green River Oil Shales. Can. J. Earth Sci. Vol. 17, No. 9, Sept., pp.1315-1321. (4)
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56
156. Shue, F.F., Yen, T.F. and Stauffer, B.C. (editor), 1981. A Comparison of Asphaltene3 from Naturally Occurring Shale Bitumen and Retorted Shale Oils; The Influence of Temperature on Asphaltene Structure. Oil Shale, Tar Sands, and Related Materials, ACS Symposium Series No. 1631 pp. 129-138. (6)
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173. Williams, F.A. (Chairperson), 1975. Report of the Retorting Panel. Identification of Research and Development Priorities and of Costing Problems Associated with Implementation of In Situ Recovery of Oil Shales. Natl. Sci. Found., Rann, Doc. Cent., Washington, D.C., United States, pp. 47-82. (4)
174. Williams, F.E., Russell, P.L. and Sheridan, M.J., 1969. PotentialApplications for Nuclear Explosives in a Shale-Oil Industry* U.S. Bur. Mines,Inf. Giro. (USA), No. 8425, 37 pp. (6)
175. Whitcombe, J.A. and Vawter, R.G., 1976. The Tosco-II Oil Shale Process. In: Science and Technology of Oil Shale, ed. T.F. Yen. Ann Arbor Science Pub lishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 47-64. (2)
58
APPENDIX
59
Devonian And Mississippian Ovpofia (Rnourc* Esti- natM Indudad For Hachurad Arw* Only). Boundary Daihad Where Concealed Or Where Location Is Uncertain
Figure 1. Map of eastern U.S. Oil Shale Deposits87
60
01 o
•H-p cd
c•Hcd
t* o
s
O)
300
61
fenvMtiiM
CI •28*'UtrTm)
li
fill
P*am
129138*1
•Eyikal aHvdtdlooJd CTdfdctor
Send, gravel, eldf-wdto*-
Sdnditand, tiltstono,
(•liafttly tall**).
LM*O*| tltal* (mwK
and inttratadtd Mlbtd miiMrdlt tax k*** iMdMd— Mlvfiaii eaviK** wd cotta*** Afaccto oo*rr WdJI *Mvn* df-
MWi oil skald (mrlotwitJ vIMi Ots.m- lnd*od ond intortoddad •alind mMarals (ndfteelltt. ddManita. how f*, its )- rvlotivdy wnfrac'urtd and No wdtor praMAt.
2369'rrZlml T0.237I
(723mlCloy oil (tala, flaky man
2333Trr3m) rolatlvary u**ractwtd ond iai**nnr**U. (otlimatadl Sdnditono. lhala. HmodtoM, Iddn all
ImodrmodMd.
171Figure 3. Geologic cross-section from Piceance Basin.
62
(A)
Ea 10
3O 40 50Organic Volunw W
2400
2400
^ 2200
g 2000 "3 1800
J 1600 :? 1400M
J 1200 j* 1000
800600
10 20 30 40 50 Organic Velum* (7.)
(C)
E0.11
60 70
Figure 4. Ultimate tensile stress versus organic content for the Green Forma tion oil shales, (a) Tipton member,^Wyoming; (b) Mahogany zone, Colorado; (c) Mahogany zone, Utah. *
63
JSf44. CD 49.0048.0841.00
9.0090.0997.00 30.00 35.00 31.CO 99.09
n.oo
{20.09 W 27.00 g 20.00 225.00 J 24.00 J 13.00 8:22.00 321.00
18.0017.00
0.00 14.00 19.00 O.OO 11.00 10.00 9.00 5.00 7.00 9.00 S.OO
-l l l l l l l l l l t l l l l M l l l l l M l l l l l l l M l l l M i l l l i l M l l l l t t M l l l l l l l l l l l l M l l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l l l l l l l 1 t l l l l M l l l l M l C r l l M l M l l l l l l l l l l f l l l l l l L M t III l II l l l t l M l l l l
(A)
10.09 SO.M
OROMIC CQNTOfT NOUM rOCENTI
70,00 80.30
l l l l l l l l i l l l l I l i l IT ri l l l l i l l l l l l l l l l l I ITT r FT! M l l l l l l l l I l U M M M 1 l l l l l l ! l
t t M t f l t t t l 1 t l t l f t l M l l l l l l l l l l t l t l t f l l l l t l l t M l l l l l l l l t l l 1 l l l M l l l t l l l l t
10.00 20.00 a.OD SO.C9 O.90 70.00 90.00
^ (B)
Figure 5. Ultimate compressive stress versus organic content for the Green River Formation oil shales, Mahogany zone OaJ parallel to bedding planes; (b) perpendicular to bedding planes. 3
64
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l i l i
30. 40. SO. 60. m. G3. 90. 100.
.i rii I i i in i i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i i IT i i t i i i i i i i i i.
90, ICO.
Figure 6. Young's modulus versus stress level versus organic content for the Green River Formation oil shales, Mahogany zone, Ca) parallel to bedding planes; (b) perpendicular to bedding planes.
65
1. 10
1.00
.90
.80
.70
S iw0.00
i w .50
JO
.20
.10
.00
i. to
1.00
.so
.30
.TD
i i l l i i i i l i i i i i i i t i i i i i i i i i i i i t i i i i i i i i i i i i i i l i ' i
(A)
O. 9. 10. 19. 20. 29. 30. 39. 40. 49. 50. S3. 80. 89.OCdWlC CONTENT
.80
2-40
.30
JO
.10
.00
-i i i i i i i i i i i i i i I i i j i I i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 ir i i i i i i t i
(B)
3. 10. 19. 29. 29. 30. 39. 40. 49. SO. S3. 80. 89.
Figure 7. Poisson's ratio versus organic content versus stress level for the Green River Formation oil shales. Mahogany zone (a) loading perpen dicular to bedding; (b) loading parallel to bedding.
66
Figure 8. Relationship among ultimate compressive stress, organic content and logarithmic strain rate for Green River Formation oil shales.
67
z oH
o: o
o. oa"
(T3
O
?sO i,CNJ t"^ Oh-
UJ ^5 to coID uj h-
(T 2 COUJ S LUQ. Q CC
n 0*tu-
H- Id O
o o to
s oc. s. o fa ^t.*
0)4J
io O Q.
CO
O cvJ
b"* rviVXI
o a
jJ Cf* (JJ0) S- *t. v c-(D CM ^.
4- -H 0)•H TJ O•O C
o t. JP
CM 03C
1 'IP-**? w -o* o c*TK .p
O OJ^ ™
M . 3n n .o3 O ecP iH -Pfe (Ofl) *- *>•g g SX^3
cdD Vi c a*-o B\ —j d)
o oi
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O OCM
O O
ON 0)
(90
68
•pc0)k0)
en ^e SCM
usen
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0
s
S S S3 o o O o oo
BdW
CM F-l
69
19O.
a i/*out
o
C?
•O
2
•O
ur\ 23 bO
70
co.
o Got gun 00. o Ccpocifor
A Hoptonscnbor * Tmfltbor
3C -
•S 20
Strain ml* (sec'1)
101*
fOmnrfracture
to' K)' IO
Figure 12. Fracture stress and fragment size tarsus dymanic strain rate for SO ml/kg grade Green River oil shale.
71
6O
3020
10
Samplt NO. A 2-3-4 B 2-3-3 O 2-3-2 C, 2-3-M
*F )75-F
KX3TF 150* F
250* F
Ttrtlary Crtcp Rupture
Straw RatioO 3O O 45 O 6O O 75 O 9O
40 80 120 16O 200 24O 26O 320 360 Tbnt ( hrs. )
48
l"ip* 2 32
i-i-
8
O
Stonpl* NO Slrm Ratio A: 1-4-11 0.45 B 1.4-10 0.60 C : 1 - 4 - 12 0. 75 Ttnptuturts , 1 T- 75*F 2. T- KXf F
3. T-BO*F 4. T-20CfF 9 Crttp Ruptur*
'•——~~J, f —a ——— 2/ ; A
^ i y^^ , ,4O 80 120 I6O 2CO 24O 20O 320 360 '
Tim* ( Krs. )
Figure 13. Creep oT oil shale at different temperatures and different stress ratios.
72
9)
cr •HB
O 0)
s•H
•HSt- cd
•o(O
8
l•Hh*
73
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in
0}
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4J(Ct.
a to
74
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Sg1
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cd S vo
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75
Table 1. Oil shale reserves from various countries. 165
TABLE 1. - Major shale-oil reserves1
Country or area Oil in place, million bbla
Australia...................................................... 200Brazil......................................................... 342,000Bulgaria....................................................... 200Burma and Thailand.........................................^... 17,100Canada......................................................... 34,200China:3
Fushun, Manchuria (27)....................................... 2,000Other deposits............................................... 2,700
England........................................................ 1,400Estonia (49)4 .................................................. 17,300France......................................................... l,400Germany (West)................................................. 2,000Israel (19).................................................... 20Ttaly...................... .................................... 34,200Malagasy Republic...................................... 4 ........ 200New Zealand (51, 52, J3)........,...................,....,..... 200Republic of the Congo (former Belgian Congo)................... 103,000Republic of South Africa....................................... 30Scotland....................................................... 600Spain.......................................................... 300Sweden......................................................... 2,800United States (17)............................................. 1,132,000U.S.S.R.*...................................................... 6,800Yugoslavia..................................................... _____1,400
Total..................................................... 1.702,0501 Except as noted by citations, estimates are based on descriptive pamphlet of
Swedish oil-shale operation by Claes Gejrot: Swenska Skifferolje, AB,Orebro, Sweden, 1958, 33 pp. Underlined figures in parentheses refer toitems in list of references at end of report.
3 Conversion to barrels of 42 U.S. gallons each is based on shale oil having anassumed specific gravity of 0.92 at 60 0 F (27.8 0 C).
3According to George Rosu in World Petroleum, November 1959, pp. 94-99, afterdiscoveries in 1958 and 1959, proved oil-shale reserves (yielding 6 to 20percent oil) are 60 billion tons, and probable oil-shale reserves are 360billion tons.
4U.S.S.R. Ministry of Geology and Conservation, publication Coal and Fuel,1958, p. 180, reports larger reserves estimated at 172 billion tons of oilshale; grade is not stated.
76
Table 2. Mineralogy of some major oil shale deposits 26
I5l i 2•si l pSvi l l l l
v* v* PIi i i 332-22
•5 ^ 00
IS* 2 2y Q "H P*ae p- S i JQ
j PI A P^ ^o q ^o ^ P^ rt rt v^ ^p p^— ' "* H "" ** ** "" dd pi — do —
ICO^ rt ^ " oo i.^a? " ^ ^^^T^-: z * ™ ^ *S (J S ^ — O O ae O — m — t^ O O O O O ^
• g'7 ^ * "? * T "R T T * * ^ ^ "? HcE, rt d *i d o? rt p* p^ p4p*Wr*p^ w -g — ^ ^ P* P* P* PI — PiPim — — a
Seg S"5i *ow -^^*o^ecccec
f S ^ O*Ap*rt rt rta ^ 't "5 *5 "" *^ *** * ^^"5®**?
Q 3 S o! PI *b ae d *o "* P* ^ * S ^ S
te^^^c* *** ** ^ w* *t oe m p* vo o* O 03. ae ea — ae *e q p^ PI ^r p^ p* p^ "o^ w t P* *B *o d P* PI *o ci rt vo f' d o^2 fi ^ w ^ ^ 'V ** ^ f* ae ae eo ri vo
•Sj? *^ t *^ "S *i 1 *5 ^ ^"1^*^*5<"* * *O ae p^ pC V o! rt vi vtyap^dvi•^ m \e *c rt ^ p* T ve r- 3 r* PI vo
JS
tn 3 Ss Sf si 1218J? *
l3li
77
Table 3- Chemical properties and assays of deposits 165
Modified Fischer assay: Oil........................ gal/tonOi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percentWe ter ...... do . .
Conversion of organic
Rock characteristics: Specific gravity, at 60* . F........Heating value. ............. .Btu/lbAsh ..................... percent
Assay oil: Specific gravity, at 60* r........Carbon. .................. ..percentHydrogen ..................... do . . .nitrogen ..................... do . . .
Ash analysis, percent: SHfc..............................A^O..............................Vtt nCaO. ..............................MgO...............................
Modified Fischar assay: Oil............. ...........gal/ton
Water........ ... ... ..do...
Gas and loss... . .............do. . .Conversion of organic material to oil4 ........... .do...
Rock characteristics:
Beating value. ............. .Btu/lbAsh. ...................... .percent
Assay oil: Specific gravity, at 60* F........
Ash analysis, percent: SiOa..............................AL. 0..............................
CaO............... ......... .....MgO...............................Other oxides ................ . . . . . .
Australia, Glen
Davis3
82.9 30.9 0.7
64.1 4.3
66
1.60 8,100 51.6 39.7
0.89 85.4 12.0 0.5 0.4
81. i 10.1 3.0 0.8 0.8 3.8
New Zealand, Orepukl3
66.2 24.8 8.3
57.6 9.3
45
1.46 9,150 32.7 45.7
0.90 83.4 11.8 0.6 0.6
44.2 28.1 20.5 4.6 1.4 1.2
Brazil, TreoMtnbe'- Taubate *
31.3 11.5 6.2 78.4 3.9
59
1.70 3,520 71.4 16.5
0.88 84.3 12.0 1.1 0.2
53.8 26.7 8.5 2.8 3.7 2.5
Scotland, Uestwood mine3
22.2 8.2 2.2
86.6 3.0
56
2.22 2,540 77.8 12.3
0.88
55.7 25.1 9.9 2.6 3.1 3.6
Canada, Nova Scotia3
51.4 18.8 0.8 77.7 2.7
60
5,420 62.4 26.3
0.88
61.1 30.1 5.0 1.1 1.6 1.1
South Africa , Ermeloa
45.6 17.6 3.0 75.6 3.8
34
1.58 8.230 42.5 43.8
0.93 84.8 11.1
0.6
61.3 30.5 2.9 1.6 1.7 2.1
France , Autun3
25.8 9.7 3.2 84.0 3.1
44
2.03 3,810 70.8 18.8
0.90 84.9 11.4 0.8 0.3
55.1 27.6 9.3 1.7 1.9 4.4
Spain, Pvertol- Isno3
46.9 17.6 1.8
78.4 2.2
9 57
1.80 5.380 62.3 26.0
0.90
0.9 0.3
56.6 27.6 9.1 2.6 2.2 1.9
Israel, Oro
Barek3
15.6 6.4 2.2
88.4 3.0
48
60.0 10.6
0.97 79.6 9.8 1.4 6.2
26
45
Sweden, Kvarntorp3
13.9 5.7 2.0
87.2 5.1
26
2.09 3,870 72.1 18.8
0.98 85.0 9.0 0.7 1.7
62.4 17.6 10.7 1.2 1.7 6.4
Lebanon3
61.5 24.8 11.0 56.5 7.7
18.3
0.96 83.210.3 0.6 1.5
Thailand, Maesod3
71.4 26.1 3.3
66.3 3.8
71
1.61 6,630 56.4 30.8
0.88 84.4 12.4 1.1 0.4
60.8 19.9 4.3 3.3 3.8 7.4
Manchuria,Fushun3
7.6 3.0 4.9
90.3 1.8
33
2.29 1,460 82.7 7.9
0.92 85.7 10.7
02.3 26.7 6.1 0.1 1.8 3.0
United StacuColorado9
24.5 9.3 1.0
87.5 1.6
70
2.23 2.200 66.9 11.3
0.91 84.6 11.6 1.8 0.5
43.6 11.1 4.6 22.7 10.09-0 n-
x Data obtained largely from analyses of air-dried camples given in BuMiims Rapt, of Znv. 5504, Petrographic Exasiw tlon and Chemical Analyses for Several Foreign Oil Shales, by H. N. Smith, J. W. Smith, and W. C. Homes, 195?. 34 pp.
'Average sample. 3 Selected sample. 4 Based on recovery of carbon in oil from organic carbon In shale. Carbon content of oil estimated as 84 percent. Approximate.
78