Person/Action Turning Point?

Washington 1856-1915 First prominent leader of AAs -> gained TR’s interest -> inspiring tale of slave to university owner -> no legal changes -> Du Bois opposed for accepting low AA position

Garvey 1887-1940 First AA to encourage pride in heritage and has mass support –> short term -> no legal change -> lost support

WWI 1917-1918Mass AA numbers to north before involvement because of weapons manufacturing boom -> no fear of physical violence but still segregated. Segregated regiments -> inspired campaigns. Race riots/loss

of jobs after. Too short for real impact.

WWII 1939-1945 Mass northern immigration -> race/work riots and de facto segregation/discrimination. Segregated regiments -> experienced equality in England. Irony of fighting Nazis inspired more groups.

Eisenhower 1890-1969 Intervened in 57 Little Rock to enforce B vs. B -> only time (saw as last resort) -> 60 CRA to allow AAs onto registers -> weak/no impact

Brown vs. Board 1954 Overruled the P vs. F precedent -> integrated schools de jure -> slow – 57; 12% were integrated -> allowed morel liberal verdicts to follow.

King 1929-1968 Bridged gap between poor and CR campaigners as brilliant speaker to make united group -> more confrontational sit-ins/marches -> renewed CR fire -> death left movement leaderless + directionless.

Johnson 1908-1973 Used shock over LBJ’s and MLK’s deaths to push through legislation (64 CRA+65 VRA) -> Vietnam ended leaders-presidents relationships and took funding/attention/laws away

Booker T. Washington 1856-1915

1) Background:• Recognised that CR would have to wait until

they had developed a community.• Born into slavery and of mixed race, benefited

from education after EP. • So honoured, he set out to spread this to his

people – taught at Tuskegee Institute from 1881.

• Good at administration, leadership and had vision

• Personal morality heighted and encouraged at TI.

• Coincided with segregation – felt options were:1. Go back to Africa (quickly rejected)2. Assimilate (even less plausible; South’s

hostility)3. Move to North (rapidly industrialising but not

the answer – whites preferred Europeans)4. AAs should become skilled before demanding.• Therefore, TI focused on

literacy/maths/practical skills rather than intellectual with good teachers to get basic jobs that would lead to change.

CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) 1895 Atlanta Speech:• Argued that if whites viewed AAs as economic

partners and not political opponents, tensions would diffuse but segregation would continue for now so they must focus on education/economic opportunities and not campaigning for equality.

• Instant impact; ideas became known as Atlanta Compromise (AAs reach an accommodation (would compromised) with whites)

• 6 months after Douglass’s death (who had toned down in waning years and not led any prominent protests) and with no other AA leader, it shot BTW into AA leadership.

• Long term impact: gained interest of TR, who consulted him on AA questions and invited him for tea at the White House.

• 1900 – organised the Negro Business League to be national AA chamber of commerce.

• Autobiography; ‘Up from slavery’ furthered fame

3) Criticisms:• Seemed to accept white supremacy and did not challenge inequality,

lynching and played down importance of vote.• Despite his effort, educational gap widened further after 1900 with funding

differences.• William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963), the 1st AA to gain a PhD

from Harvard in 1895 was an early sociologist who helped fund the 1905 Niagara Movement and the 1909 NAACP, but moved away from this and was arrested as a communist in the McCarthy era, turned communist and moved to Ghana (61).

• Claimed that BTW limited/endangered the future of AAs as his ideas were necessary but were wrong as a basis for AA CRs as it did not mention segregation or defanchisation.

• Hurt, BTW resorted to petty rebuttals but his followers remained numerous. • In later years, he realised his campaign was not working.• Gave money to individual segregation challengers and encouraged others to

publish articles on AA CR progression.

4) Successes:• Career from slave to Collage Principle was inspiring.• Set strict behavioural standards that helped students.• From 1895 he was the main leader/spokesman for

AAs.• Created valuable political links for future AAs.• Long term aim was to show whites that AAs could be

equal if they learnt practical skills.

5) Failures:• Seemed to accept low AA position.• Tried to work in the system, not change it.• Did not focus on the vote.• After 1905, leadership was questioned by

AAs.• Not effective as he didn’t change law and

paranoia over critics.

Marcus Garvey 1887-1940CIVILIAN

CAMPAIGNER

1) Garvey state-side (1916):• He exploited WWI social changes briefly and

efficiently after arriving from Jamaica • Rapidly gained dynamic followers within a year

but downfall was just as fast. • Main AA leader for those years and although his

policies did not have immediate affects, they shaped next generation of campaigners by creating ‘Black Power’.

2) Ideals:• Inspired by BTW’s TI, he created the 1914

Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica to go further than BTW and improve economic prospect/white acceptance/AAs taking control of problems.

• Saw the only solution to move back to Africa but was vague on details. Short term, believe AAs should focus on building education/businesses/pride in being AAs.

3) UNIA:• Aim; to campaign for equal rights and the

independence of AAs rather than absorption into melting pot.

• Did not ask for government help, but told AAs to develop their own means of salvation through self-help groups/own industries/factories.

4) Why successful:• In tense atmosphere, his movement made

progress.• His 1917 Harlem speech was cheered and he

moved his base to NY.• Made use of growing interest in AA newspapers to

laugh ‘The Negro World’, funded by northern AA middle-class.

• Talented speaker.• Aided by BTWs death and post-war tensions.• Idea that AAs had to be proud of heritage appealed

to ghetto AAs as they could relate.• Disagreed with Du Bois that integration would work

which also appealed to poor AAs who felt true equality would never happen.

• Black Eagle Star Steamship line (4 ships) to raise capital was popular but then became broke.

5) Why failure:• Lacked political strategy/more bothered with

fancy ventures than immediate social and economic problems.

• Ran out of money.• As immediate post-war tensions calmed, so did

support.• Suspicion increased when he talked to the KKK

in 1922 and colleague (Easton) was murdered soon after.

• ‘Garvey Must Go’ – attack in popular magazines. AA TU/NAACP opponents created Friends of Negro Freedom to highlight his failures.

• Arrested in 1925 and deported in 1929 on release back to Jamaica – leaving AA CR behind.

World War I1) Pull of north/Push of south:• Number of AAs heading north during and

after WWI rose significantly.• Even before joining in 1917, war had

impact because of decreasing number of European immigrants workers and weapons industry exploded. After the war, numbers continued to grow because of demands of US economy for workers in 1920s.

• South encouraged move with segregation, inequality, disfranchise and violence. Sharecroppers remained poor/attacked by boll weevil.

• Heard stories of northern AAs with better lives but refused to go into the melting pot.

2) AA WWI soldiers:• 350,000 served, with 40,000 in active

service and 1,300 officers.• Half drafted to France in segregated

regiments and did awesomely (none ever convicted of disloyalty during war).

• The experience broadened horizons on inequality which stimulated campaigns

3) WWI end:• White soldiers returned to find no jobs (taken

by AAs).• Produced brief but intense tension causing

race riots in Chicago (teenager accidently drifted onto white only beach; stoned and drowned to death. 13 days of violence insured when Irish/Polish attacked AA ghetto’s; 23 AA/15 white dead and 1000s homeless).

• Ghetto’s rapidly developed as laws forbade AAs from moving from where they originally settled because of fears over riots – ended freedom of movement.

4) Northern AAs:• Though different from south, CRs were

blocked. • Ghettos caused de facto school segregation

because of population patterns which were under funded/staffed.

• Discrimination in work, mainly clerical/skilled jobs.

• BUT – no lynching. If AAs on voting register, they could be jurors. Trials were fairer.

• Institutional racism was weaker but still segregation/discrimination/poverty.

5) 1920s Jazz era:• De facto segregation encouraged developing culture.• Outpouring of writers/poets/musicians/painters.• Many talented AAs were discovered in the poverty of

Harlem and so the era became the Harlem Renaissance – AAs expressing their equality desires in songs and writing.

• Even this showed de facto inequality – whites owned the jazz clubs and the only AAs allowed in were performers, prostitutes and cooks.

• AA middle-class developed – more AA businesses/professional than ever.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

World War II1) Impact:• AA immigration increased

dramatically, with the number of AAs in San Fran increasing from 4,800 in 1940 to 32,000 in 1945.

• This caused tensions and violence to rise – resulting in the 1943 Detroit riot (after an AA ‘raped and murdered’ a white women. 25/34 of the dead and most of the 1,600 arrested were AAs)

• Also work tensions – if AAs were promoted, whites would walk out (as it Mobile, Alabama 1943)

2) AA WWII soldiers:• Brought its own

tension/reinforced segregation.

• Red Cross forced to segregate AA/white blood.

• Long term positives; 100,000 AAs were sent to England – experienced more equality.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Irony:• Irony of fighting Nazi fascism while

oppressing own people.• CR campaigners emphasised difference and

fought for fully AA CRs.• Fought by groups such as Congress of

Racial Equality, set up by James Farmer in 1942 to protest against formal Northern segregation (split in 1966 over BP and after Farmer’s resignation, it became more moderate) [CORE in 60].

Dwight D. ‘Ike’ Eisenhower1890-1969

President – 1953-61FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in

WWII.• 2 terms as Republican President – popular

because of military past.• Conception of Presidency; passive not active

(only active as last resort)• Appointed Earl Warren as Chief SC judge.• Failed to enforce B vs. B.• Failed to act in 1956 when Governor Daniel

of Texas sent in Rangers to stop integration enforcements so as to avoid opposition.

• However, did take action in Little Rock in 1957.

Little Rock, Arkansas 19571) Background:• Eisenhower did act after blatant southern resistance to integration in

Central High School, Little Rock.• Governor Orval Faubus used Nation Guard to ban 9 AA students from

the school after federal ruling that the school must be desegregated. • Annoyed with Faubus’ dereliction of duty (thought Faubus had agreed

to obey ruling), Eisenhower used his authority as Commander-in-Chief to send in paratroopers (federal troops) to put the NG under federal control.

• The soldiers who had banned entry now had to hold back protesters and escort the children to school.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Impact:• Only time Eisenhower used authority to enforce B vs. B ruling.• Showed limitations of SC power in terms of acceptance, enforcement

and presidents caution when implementing their rulings.• 1957 CRA – proposed bi-partisan CR Commission and division in

Justice Department to look at CR problem. Thurmond spoke for 24 hours in Congress against it. Senator Lyndon Johnson only scrapped bill though the Senate by watering down its provisions.

• 1960 CRA – renewed CRC to allow judges to make special appointments of pro-AA whites who would help them get onto voting register and introduced federal criminal penalties for bombing and mob action.

• Both CRAs very weak and had no impact.

Linda Brown vs. Board of Education COURT CASE

1) 1954 SC verdict:• Unanimously ruled that

Brown should be allowed to go to the much closer white-school and that to bar her would be unconstitutional.

2) Earl Warren (1891-1974):• Lawyer and Republican

politician.• As Attorney-General of Cal.,

made over 100,000 Japanese-American arrests in 1943 because of WWII.

• Appointed Chief Justice of SC in 1943 by Eisenhower (helped him win election).

• Surprised Eisenhower with liberal AA judgments.

• Later headed investigation on JFK’s assassination.

• In B VS. B, accepted all the arguments of Marshall (schools should have equal funding and integrated – used psychologist to show segregations effect on AA children's self-esteem).

3) Immediate impact:• Created legal precedent and expected to

make changes.• Effected non-DS states; Washington DC,

Baltimore, St. Louis etc.. started integrating schools.

• Process was slow – by 1957, only 12% of southern schools were integrated.

• Southern states used state rights to argue against ruling. Federal government was seen as dictating its values onto states and southern states would simply close public schools so there was no AA education and fund white children to attend private schools

4) Long-term impact:• TURNING POINT: showed SC would no longer

block AAs CR – which Presidents and Congress were still doing.

• ENDED P VS F!!!! Which had dominated race relations since then.

• Went further than attacking inequality by insisting segregation was psychologically harming AAs.

• Allowed more liberal verdicts to follow.• Gave southern AAs confidence in legal

system which was then exploited by MLK• Signalled new era of fair judgments for more

campaigns.

5) Southern attitude before:• Although economic, political and educational AA advances were small, still met

southern opposition.• All Confederate states remained segregated – politicians increased racism near

elections to gain votes.• Sharecroppers/labourers were easily fired if they attempted to vote.• Few AAs took legal action and fewer hoped for favourable verdicts.• KKK still present in DS/lynching less but occurring - Emmet Till 1955• Still used state rights to dismiss ruling. Strom Thurmond disliked Truman’s army

desegregation/CR Commission so deserted Democrats in the 1948 election to run as a 3rd Party Candidate (gained 1 million votes compared to Truman's 24 million and Dewey’s 22 million).

• 1948 election – reminded to DS that no one else believed in segregation/state rights anymore. Since Roosevelt’s New Deal, presidents had more power and used it. States were depended on federal grants and could therefore not refuse demands. Resistance after B vs. B was last phase of opposition.

6) South attitude after :• DS now had new measures to resist change; developed White Citizen’s

Councils (1st in 1955 because of B vs. B to maintain segregation through economically smiting supporters) and passing segregationist measures (Miss. and Loui. amended constitutions to retain segregation) – the whites were now on the defensive.

• Became apparent that the ruling would have to be enforced in south because of their resistance (north accepted decision; respected fed. gov.).

• Problem needed Eisenhower to enforce ruling but he did not act – not because of racism (outlawed any segregation in Columbia) but out of fear of opposition – did nothing when Texas brought in Texas Rangers in 1956 to prevent forced integration.

1) Background:• Born in Atlanta was brought up in well off

family but suffered from inequality.• Forced to move north to Boston to gain his

PhD.• Became a Baptist Minister in 1954 to 1960

after which he returned to Atlanta and ran his fathers church and became fully involved in the CR campaign.

• Assassinated in 1968.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER60s

2) Turing point?:• Chosen for his cautious reputation, was an

effective organiser, brilliant speaker and great motivator.

• Organised night-time church rallies that recharged AA commitment and determination.

• By articulating all AAs frustrations in persuasive way, made vital link between CR campaigners and less educated general public (NAACP/Du Bois failed at).

• Non-violence argued throughout life which set next 10 years of campaigning agenda.

• Set up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 – widened CR field to react to events, not individuals (NAACP)

1) Background:• Disillusioned by lacking white

support for campaigns.• Realising that CR movement

must address social/economic problems to achieve northern equality.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNERBeginning

2) 1966 Chicago Campaign:• Confirmed MLK’s pessimism. • Invited to Chicago and tried

to address their de facto segregation in education, housing and employment.

• Found less cooperation from AAs and resistance from racist whites.

• Mayor Daley more weasely than Connor so no direct violence towards SCLC but also no co-operation/evasive.

• Highlighted the housing problem but did not solve it as Daley broke promise to improve housing and end housing segregation.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support

from LBJ and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside

Church – violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair

Housing Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

4) View change:• Never changed non-violent views but

was disillusioned in 60s to lack of de facto change

• Realised that unless problems stopped, rioting (big in 65-8) would continue – undermining non-violent strategy.

• Moved towards socialism bordering on Communism and planned a Poor Man’s March from Mississippi to D.C. to protest poverty.

• 4/4/68 – assassinated in Memphis while supporting AA dustmen’s fight.

5) Impact of death:• After, non-violent

wishes were ignored and there was a swathe of rioting nationwide.

• The movement was now leaderless, directionless, divided and confused.

Lyndon B. Johnson – 1908-1973President – 1963-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• President after JFK’s assassination and won

landslide victory in 1964 election.• Though not always consistent, he was one of the

few southern Senators who gave support to CR in 50s.

2) 1963 CRA:• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully

used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ

and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –

violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing

Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

1) Background:• The assassination of JFK while he was preparing the

Bill seemed to be a setback.• However, MLK/SCLC kept pressure on with strong

campaign in Florida.• Also, LBJ needed little persuasion to act and

skilfully used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

1964 Civil Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATION

3) Impact:• Made universal what was already happing out of

DS and was a major achievement as it largely defeated southern resistance.

2) Content:• Ban on exclusion from public places.• Attorney-General could file law suits to speed up

desegregation, mixed schools and voting rights.• Fair Employment Practices Commission set up on

permanent legal basis.• No racial, sexual or religious discrimination was

lawful.• No discrimination in any federally aided

programmes.• Community Relations Service was set up to deal

with disputes.

1) Background:• Movement now focused on gaining legislation for

voting rights after 64 CRA.• Slow but steady progress made before with 50s

voters drives but voting was still low.• SCLC pursued similar tactic to Birmingham March

by targeting Selma, Alabama which also had rigid segregation.

• Selma had a 50% AA population but only a 1% AA voting rate and a violent police chief, Jim Clark.

1965 Voting Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATIONImpact

2) Protest:• As in Birmingham, TV showed violence of police

towards peaceful protesters lead by MLK.• This generated public support for CRs and federal

protection for a march to Montgomery.• Also lead to Johnson passing the 65 VRA in the

summer.• As the march reached the place of the successful

Montgomery Boycott 10 years earlier, LBJ prepared to sign the Act.

3) Act:• Following conditions for voter registration were

made illegal:1. Demonstration of educational achievement.2. Knowledge of any subject.3. Ability to interpret material.4. Proof of moral character.• Meaning that AAs could register to vote on equal

terms to whites.

1) Background:• NAACP tried to encourage AAs in southern

states to register – voters in Mississippi rose from 6.7% in 1964 to 67.5% in 1968.

• However, after initial rise numbers levelled out so that by the 1976 election only 50% of AAs voted

1965 Voting Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATIONImplication

2) AA representation:• AAs were being elected into public offices,

even in the DS.• Supported by Democrats (turned tables) as

VRA meant that AAs had control in politics.

3) North:• Smaller numbers and so harder to become

elected.• Reflected economic upturn; 100,000 AA

voters convinced to vote by AA businessmen.

• More in public offices; 1964, only 100 AAs were in but rose to 8000 by 1992.

• 36 HoR by 1992, meaning that they occupied 8% of the representatives (for a 11% population)

4) Make difference:• Political involvement only benefited rich

AAs and not rest.• AA mayors had to avoid alienating white

supporters.• Overall mood was not money-giving and

support of wealthy AAs was uncertain.• Advantage of public office places ended

with financial/political troubles and lack of AAs voting.