This article was downloaded by: [Universitaetsbibliothek Giessen]On: 15 November 2014, At: 05:05Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK

Scottish Geographical MagazinePublication details, including instructions for authorsand subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsgj19

Notes on Sweden, with specialreference to the forestsin relation to industry andcommercePublished online: 30 Jan 2008.

To cite this article: (1916) Notes on Sweden, with special reference to the forests inrelation to industry and commerce, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 32:5, 227-241, DOI:10.1080/14702541608541580

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14702541608541580

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all theinformation (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, orsuitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressedin this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not theviews of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content shouldnot be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions,claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilitieswhatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connectionwith, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expresslyforbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

THE INTEI=IRELATIONS OF EUROPE AND ASIA. 227

:no colonies at all, so that her desire to extend her boundaries may seem nat/~rM enough. But she has within her lands a very large Slav popu- lation, whose natural aspirations she has entirely failed to sa£isfy, and her advance to the East, if it occurs, must necessarily be through the lands of the free Slavs. But those free Slavs have had too clearly before ~heir eyes the fate of their fellows within the grip of the double monarchy not ~o resist ~o the death the attempt to override them, and with ~heir resistance we come to one of the root causes of the war.

2feTES ON SWEDEN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FORESTS tN RELATION TO INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. t

( f f ~ h S;et&-Ma2. )

TEE south-eastern part of the old Scandinavian plateau, situated almost entirely in latitudes north of that of Edinburgh, forms the Mngdom of Sweden. in size the country ranks sixth among European countries, being almost half as large again as the British Isles; in population, however, it takes only twelfth place, with slightly less than one-eighth as many people as the United Kingdom, and, in fact, with fewer inhabi- tants than Greater London ; it contains more than one and a half times as many people (82) to the square mile as Norway (19), but has not half so many as Russia (72), which, after Scandinavia, is the most sparsely peopled country of Europe.

PhysicMly, Sweden falls into four regions the Highland district of Upper Sweden; the Lowlands of Central Sweden; the Sm£land Highlands; the Plains of Skfine.

The Highland district of Upper Sweden may be subdivided into three bel~s which are demarcated roughly by the contours at 600 and 1500 feet. Thus we have the mountain and lake belt above 1500 feet rising to the ~' keel" (K51en) or watershed, where it forms the boundary with Norway. This mast elevated part of the ancient continent of Arctis consists of a deeply dissected plateau of Arch~ean rocks, on which, owing to long-continued erosion, followed by the severe conditions of the Glacial epoch, denudation has given a rounded form to even the highest peaks. Only a few peaks of exceptionally hard eruptive rook have retained ~he rugged grandeur usually associated with lofty mountains. From the more strictly geographical aspect it is noteworthy that there are numerous comparatively low passes across the "keel," so that this highIand barrier is not so formidable from the point of view of com- munications as from the climatic standpoint. Earth movements and glacial moraines have formed many mountain lakes of great size (Horna- van-Storavan has an area of 275 square miies), lying between 900 and 1~00 feet above the sea. There are also over 200 glaciers, covering an

t Except where definitely stated, the material for this article is derived almost exclu- sively from Sweden: Historiecd and Stc~tistica~ Handbook. By order of the Swedish Government (Second Edition). J. Guinehard, Editor. VoL L "Land and People." Vo]. H. ~';[ndustries." Stockholm: Government Printing Offie% 1914.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

228 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.

area of about 135 square miles. Large parts are mountain moorland with a lowly flora of lichens, mosses, and a few flowering plants. Only on the slopes does the birch (ietula odorata)struggle upward; below comes the Norway spruce (iPicea excelsa), which gives place in more northerly iatitudes to the Scots fir. In this subdivision cultivation is carried on, and is capable of extension in the fine glacial learns of the valleys.

Between 600 and 1500 feet is a region of old moraines with recent peat mosses and marshes, the latter covering between 15 to 30 per cent. of the area. This subdivision is the chief source of Sweden's forest wealth, the timber belt ' extending in the same direction as the country for over 600 miles with a breadth of from 100 to 150 miles~ giving a total area of approximately 40,000 square miles, more than one-fifth of the total area of Sweden. Scots fir predominates on the drier, Norway spruce on the wetter, parts. Little cultivation is possible in the district, but the mineral wealth is very great in the north, where Gellivara is the centre of the rich Lapland iron-ore mountain region.

Between sea-level and 600 feet is the marine sand and clay belt, much of which has been raised above sea-level by tectonic action. Agriculture thrives along the lower river plains, while pine-trees grow abundantly on the fields of coarse sand along the upper limit of marine deposits. Xs the coast is still extending into the Gulf of Bothnia~ owing to the uplift of the land, more coastal plain becomes available for settlement° On these parts coniferous forests make their appearance, usually preceded by a belt of speckled alder (Alnus incana).

To the south of the Highland region are the Lowlands of Central Sweden, stretching from the Sound by the lake depression to the Baltic shore. This lowland area is to be explained by faulting in the under- lying rocks, so that in the Glacial period it was submerged under the sea. Thus the surface is thickly covered with marine deposits of great fertility, on which the national power of agricultural Sweden was base& The region is broken up by many forest-covered "horsts," but, on the other hand, unequal depression over the area has brought about the excellent water highway of the great lakes across the region. Numerous " eskers," left in the Glacial Age, cross this region from north-north-west to south-south-east. They are of value in that they afford a plentiful supply of excellent water, while the gravels of which they are composed are put to a number of uses. The Baltic islands of Gottland and 01and are covered with pine forests.

The Sm~.land Highlands are a replica in 2et~o of the moraine and peat- bog region already described; indeed, they are a disconnected part of the highland area. Extensive forests of pine and spruce, with a sprink- ling of birch, cover the region. Owing to the more favourable climatic conditions many of the peat mosses are reclaimed--an operation that is not attempted in the middle highland belt.

The fertile plains of Sk£ne lie in the extreme south. This is the most densely peopled part. Cultivation takes the place of forest indus- tries, but there are large areas under trees, the beech taking the place of the fir and pine.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

N O T E S O N S W E D E N .

m

m © m ©

~ 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 , 2 2

2 2 9

%3

o 4 o.)

t 2 ~

~<~ O~

b.0¢~

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

230 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.

These bread natural regions are also climatic regions, because they follow closely the latitudinal extent of the country. The accompanying tables are adapted from the section on " Climate" in VoI. L of the Official Handbook. They show that the climate of Sweden is rather extreme than equable, but partakes of both climatic types. I t is, maritime, for example, in that it benefits to some degree from the mild,. wet, south-west cyclonic winds, it is continental in that its summer temperatures are hfgh in relation to its latitude, and its maximum rains fall in late summer, while the period of minimum precipitation occurs in February, Narch, or April. Generally, while the slope of the land favours continental conditions, the path followed by cyclones, as well as the short distance intervening between the country and the warm Atlantic winds and currents, give many maritime features, especially in winter. But there are several local peculiarities that must be borne in mind. Northern Sweden is cut off from Atlantic conditions by the high plateau, and at the same time is in itself higher than the remainder of the country, so that the winter temperatures are exceptionally low. The shortness of the Swedish summer is counterbalanced to a consider- able degree by the length of the summer days, and their abundant sunshine. "This is partly due to atmospheric refraction, which increases the average length of the day by 30 minutes in the northern, and by 15 minutes in the southern part of Sweden, the corresponding figures at the equator being only 4 minutes. Still more important is the influence of twilight, which adds several hours to the length of the day during the summer in the north of the country. In fact, there is uninterrupted daylight as far south as Hernosand (62 ° 37') from June t6 to 27." The more abundant sunshine in summer "is explained by the length of the time during which the sun is above the horizon, and also by the relative scarcity of clouds in Sweden at this time of year. On an average for the whole country, only 50 per cent. of the sky is covered with clouds during the month of June, as compared with 75 per cent. in December. This phenomenon, of which the cause is unknown, has an exceptionally favourable influence on the climate of Sweden, for the heating effect of the sun's rays is thus relatively unimpared in summer, whereas the loss of heat caused by radiation is considerably diminished in the winter season, which results in a relatively hot summer and only a moderately cold winter." Another interesting point depends also upon the time the sun is shining, for the length of daylight tends to decrease the night-frosts which, towards the end of summer, arc dangerous enemies to the farmer.

Snow falls everywhere in winter, but, of course, remains unthawed much longer in the north (170 to 190 days against ~7 days in Sk~ne). The protective effect of snow on agricultural land is well known ; the part it plays in forestry will be discussed later. I t is a common fallacy that the Balt~:e Sea is frozen in winter. Although the Sound has been. frozen sufficiently hard to drive across in very severe winters, the west and south coasts are generally open, and even the Baltic shore is only exceptionally ice-bound. In the Baltic drift-ice is, however, common, often forming enormous masses of pack-ice. "Only during the mildest

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON SWEDEN. 231

win~ers can navigation in these waters continue through the whole season without interruption. During the very severe winters the Aland Sea (the strait between the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia) is covered with trafficable ice." The Gulf of gothnia is as a rule covered with ice in its northern parts every winter (November to May), but to the south only the coastal waters are frozen.

An interesting paragraph, concluding the section on "Climate," deals with the influence of forests on climate. This influence scarcely affects temperature and humidity, but causes an increase of rainfall, which is very slight in all regions, and most marked on the coasts. Owing to the difficulty of measuring the precipitation exactly, the real amount of the observed increase is not known, and it is probable that the greater part of it is due to,errors of observation.

While the soil and climate of Sweden, as regards farming, are to be reckoned by no means as specially favourable, the prospects of forestry, if directed scientifically and administered economically, arc bright and hopeful. For " i t is beyond argument that the forest land in Sweden, with the conditions secured by nature, can, with reasonable care, produce far more than virgin forests have done." We have already indicated that large parts of Sweden are covered with forests, and may proceed to discuss the distribution of these, and explain the part they play in the economic policy of the country.

Forests cover 52 per cent. of the land surface of Sweden, while arable land and natural meadow, on which the "mother indust ry" (agriculture) is practised, occupy only 12 per cent. of the land area. Though agriculture absorbs a larger percentage of the population than in western Europe generally, yet both relatively and absolutely it employs fewer of the inhabitants than in 1870, while other industries, trade and transport, have absorbed, and continue to absorb, a larger number and percentage of the population.

J'epu~tatiof, of Sweden i~ 21I~,i¢~ g,vups according ~o Occvpation.

! t'ereentage of whole Prol~sMons. Population. Population.

Agriculture and fishing, . Industry, 2 . . Trade and transport, Public service, a

TerM, 4,168,525

1870. 1900. 2,995,844 2,756,704

613,414 1,484,o30 210,940 544,324 348,327 351,183

5,136,441

1910.1 2,663,000 "1,831,000

670,000 358,000

5,552,000

]R~O ] g ,90o 53 "7

14'7 28 "9 5"0 10"6 8"4 I 6"8'

~ 100"0 ! - - i loo.o

1910. 48 "2 33 "2 12"1 6'5

We have just seen that more than half of the surface of Sweden consists of forest land. This large percentage, exceeded in Europe only by Finland, is due to the nature of the land surface in conjunction with the climate. These favour the growth of foresk~, which are not par-

I Estimate. ~ hmludes forestry and mining. 3 Includes professions, arts, etc.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

232 SCO'YrISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,

tieutarly exacting in their requirements. "The permanent snow- covering of winter is the chief cause of the presence of forests in North Russia and Sweden, although the annual rainfall is much less there than in western Europe." 1 The rainy autumn and snowy winters provide sutficient moisture for all seasons, anc[ the mild moist winter winds do not cause excessive transpiration in a season when the activity of the roots is at a minimum.

Except in the Alpine region, where tundra conditions prevail, and cold desiccating winds cause excessive transpiration when the tree can least easily replace the moisture, the forest is the natural plant-formation of Sweden. But owing to variations of temperature as well as of other climatic phenomena, there are differences in the composition of the forests from north to south. These differences hav~ been accentuated by human agency which, acting on an economic principle, cultivates trees that will yield most profit, while expelling those that are of less commercial value.

Four forest regions may be roughly distinguished: (1) the birch- forest region, (2) the northern region of coniferous forest, (3) the southern coniferous forest region, (g) the region of beech forest.

Birch forests are particularly interesting as contradicting a prevalent notion that only coniferous trees persist in higher latitudes and altitudes. 2 In Sweden the birch forest is found above 1500 feet in northern Lap- land, above 3000 feet in northern Dalarne (its southern limit). In the northern area, moreover, this forest has its greatest extension, stretching for some 20 mi]es with a vertical range of from ~50 to 650 feet. These forests are usually thin and low, and in addition to birch (Behda odorata, vat. subal2i~a), aspen (~Po2uZus tre~nula) and rowan (Sorb~s auc~aria) O c c u r .

The northern and southern regions of coniferous trees are naturally divided by the northern limit of the oak (Que~cus2edunculc~ta). Scots pine (P.i.~.s sil~Jestris) and common spruce (Picea excdsa) are the dominant trees, but in the northern region the common birch is widely distributed, and aspens, willows, wild-cherry trees, and rowans are not uncommon. To the south of the region, especially in the warmer parts, the elm, lime, maple, ash, and hazel are survivals of a formerly wider distribution. But pine and spruce are the commercial desiderata, and struggle in a nat~gral manner between themselves. For example, if the pine does not reproduce ~tself under the shadow of the spruce, the wood develops into a spruce forest ~ forest fires play havoc with the spruce, but may leave the pine unscathed to scatter its seed in the ground fertilised by spruce ash. Here also man has played an important part. By a too careless cutting of pine an insufficient number of seed trees has been left, and the spruce soon covers the region. Afforestation by means of these two trees requires care because the spruce grows slowly, so that ~he sylviculturist, to secure future equality of development in his plantation, sows pine seed at the same time that he plants spruce seedlings.

1 Woeikof, quoted in Schimper's Plant Geography, p. 167. Cf. Schimper, Pla~tt Geojra2ot~y , p. 557.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON SWEDEN. 233

The region just described is the great timber region of Sweden. In the southern belt of coniferous forest, owing to warmer summer conditions, there is a much higher proportion of deciduous trees, collectively called the oak-flora, and including, in addition to the oak, the deciduous trees specified above. But, on account of the better climate, large tracts have been cleared for cultivation, and the plains round Lake Malar, in lowland Merke, Ostergotland and V~stergotland, as well as the area below the marina limit, are among the most important agricultural districts of Sweden. Moreover, as climatic and soil considerations would suggest, it is the oak-flora mainly that has been cleared. The coniferous forests consist largely of pine and spruce of nearly equal age, though as in the northern region there are pure forests of each. The southern limit of coniferous trees is determined" by the immigrant spruce, which has advanced southward from Finland, whence it came.

To the south of this limit, in the region most favoured both in climate and in soil, on parts not yet brought under the plough, are the beech forests. Again, though the name is given from the predominating tree, oaks (Quercus l~edunculata and Q. sessiliflo~'a) are also common.

I t is to these forests that Sweden looks for her future ; in them lies vast wealth, to be exploited with discrimination under the guidance of those who h~ve made the most careful study of forestry in all its aspects. And it is just in proportion to the careful husbanding of her forest resources that the future of Sweden is assured. For, despite the enormous development of metal industries, the demand for timber has .steadily increased, especially in advanced countries where least is pro- duced : our own country is an awful example.

Many difficulties present themselves to the Swedish Government, which sees by far the largest of her forest-bearing areas in the hands of private owners who may, but often do not, administer them in the best way. Hence the various Forest and Conservation Associations and Boards, Forest Legislation, the Experimental Service, and the Institute and Schools of Forestry with their officials and foresters. So far as -theory is concerned, Swedish forests are well cared for.

The qualities that determine the commercial value of Swedish timber are well expressed by Dr. Ekstrand : 1

" T h e kinds of wood which Sweden exports are almost exclusively pine and fir. The north and centre possess a remarkable variety of the former. The northern pine ( 2 i ~ s sil~estris L., var. la22onica Fr.) is eharacteriscd by needles which are shorter, broader, harder and more lasting, by cones of a clearer colour, etc., as well as by a trunk which, above all, if the tree grows surrounded by fellows of unequal age, or if its flanks are kept in the shade by some means or other, assumes a handsome cylindrical form, tapering slowly and gradually from base to summit, with a spreading crown, small and easily broken branches, of a timber extraordinarily rich in sap. I t is those qualities of the northern p ine - - the columnar form united with great length, the absence of branches along the trunk, and the strength of the wood--which make it so

Trans. from quotation iu It. Key~ La Vie Eoono~mique de l~ lu~de~ p. 46.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

234 SOOeXTISH GEOGtCAPHIOAL NAGAZINltI.

valuable. Several varieties of the southern pine have a wood as hard and strong; however, the compactness of the northern pine is due to the fact that the annual rings are closer together, and not to the greater quantity of resin. This is what makes it more suitable for carpentry. The northern fir, the spruce, occurs in Sweden in many more or less remarkable botanical forms . . . . Its wood is also more compact and less branched than that of the firs of central :Europe, which makes it more suitable for flooring and carpentry work."

As in other cold temperate lands lumbering is a winter industry in Sweden. The work of the lumbermen usually begins in October or November and is continued all winter, because then the available labour is greater, the felled timber can be most easily brought out of the forest (on sledges), and the sawn goods from timber felled in winter are better. Work is commenced on trees farthest from the floating ways. The roads leading to these floating ways are usually well made and broad, with many tracks leading from them, and are often flooded to provide a good ice surface.

To secure that only selected timber has been felled the trees to be out are marked on both the trunk and the root. Trees are sawn down to obviate undue loss of wood by axe-chipping. Similarly the saw is applied as near to the root as possible, so that it is necessary to remove the snow round the trunk where it may be 3 feet deep. The cut trunks are then "adapted" into logs for transport, and the farther these have to be carried, the longer they must be in order to cover the cost of carriage. Generally logs for sawing are 15 feet long with a top diameter of 5 inches for white, and 6 inches for red wood; building timber from 28 to 32 feet long with a minimum diameter of 7 inches~ The load for a one-horse sledge on frozen roads consists of ten to twelve logs of 18 feet in length, t~eindeer replace horses in the far north, and human labour is necessary where draught animals cannot be used. Such parts are fortunately few, and the method adopted is to slide the logs down snow-covered slopes.

Although some timber is conveyed t~o the mills by rail, floating is the usual method. Floated timber is considered less liable to warp, is freed from resin and sap, is easier to work, and has a more even eolour ; unfloated timber is supposed to be more durable. Britain will take only floated timber, but other countries are not so particular.

The numerous rivers of Sweden are peeuIiarly suitable for the floating of timber, as they follow comparatively straight courses from the interior to the shore. Flowing from north to south they thaw from mouth to source, so that the floods are not troublesome, and as their courses !ie below the general level of the plateau they seldom overflow their banks. Where, as in the rivers of southern Sweden .and in the smMier streams and tributaries of the northern part, the water supply is insufficient except in time of flood, the many small lakes along the courses have been dammed cheaply to form reservoirs.

Floating ways are prepared by blasting rocks in the beds of streams, building wooden troughs, facing the banks, etc.; floating channels (flumes) secure a tolerably equal depth of water throughout the course ;

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON SWEDEN. 235

and by many other devices the work of floating is economically and regularly maintained. This may best be realised by considering that before ~he floating ways were regulated logs might be two or even three summers on their way to the sawmills, while now they cover the distance in one summer. The loss of t imber in floating is less than 1 per cent° in some Norrtand rivers. Although many men are employed in the hazardous work connected with timber-floating, fatal accidents are rare. There are no uniform figures as to the quanti t ies of t imber floated down Sweden's 18,000 miles of floating ways, bu t in 1912 Norrland, Dalarne, and Ygrmland accounted for 90 million logs.

After passing through the sorting-booms, the logs are hauled up inclined pianos to the sawmills whence they emerge as boards or deals, to be classified for export, as is shown in the table.

Sz,Jede~'~ E~or't.s of Unw~vught, ~eu,n, aud Sa~,n TimT~er, accordi+~/ to Kind, 1912.

Cubic Feet J-:.:nds of Goods i (Thousands)

Timber and masts, . Spars ~nd small timber, Beams or balks, Rafters, Pit-props, Sleepers, Staves,

875 5,597 1,467

11,608 15,548 2,864 4,547

Kinds of Goods.

Fuel-wood, . ° . Deals. battens, and boards,

unplaned, . Planed boards, Deal and board ends, Other kinds,

Cubic Fee~ (Thousanas).

1,095

142,139 23,177 10,710 2,774

Of this total export the Uni ted Kingdom took over 34 per cent., France and the German Empire coming next with I~ per cent. each° Of th~ pit-props almost 97 per cent. came to the Uni ted Kingdom. This branch of the timber industry has long been regarded with some ill-will or suspicion by the Swedes, due to an apparently not unfounded fear of forest exhaustion by ruthless cut t ing of young trees.

The waste of the sawmills is utiliscd in the preparation of wood- pulp, charcoal, and tar. Charcoal is largely used in the iron and steel indus t ry ; much of the tar is exported.

Timber Tndust~'ies, 1912.

__ Mill, FactorY,Kind. etc.~

i Saw and wood-pleming, Wood-pulp, 5~aich, . . 5oinery and Furniture. Cooperies, . Wooden Shoes, . Chip-boxes, Paper, . . . Paper Manufactures, Charcoal,

Number.

1,248 167

18 565 38 45

6 73

]71 497

Number of Workers.

37,908 13,910 6,592

10,464 422 400 170

8,609 4,44t 6,639

Outputin ,SlO00,!

9,675 6,439

921 1,713

85 68 33

3,563 765 709

I Converted from kroner (18 kr. =£i.)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

236 SCOTTISH GEOC4RAP}tIOAL N A G A Z I N E .

As the timber industries of Sweden are closely related to the distri- bution of its vast supplies of water-power, some account of these may not be out of place.

Sweden's total available water-power is computed at 6"2 million turbine horse-power, which can be utitised for about nine months in the year. Estimates on the same basis for other European countries show that this figure is exceeded only by Norway (7"5), while Great Britain Js almost at the foot of the list (1'0). As in other countries Sweden's water-power is found in the less accessible parts of the country where population is sparse, communications lacking, and industrial prospects relatively poor. These inter-related disadvantages are partly neutralised by methods of transmitting energy over long distances from the source of power, and it has been calculated that, of the total existing water-power, 3"5 million turbine horse-power, or over 56 per cent., can, with suitable regulation of the lakes, be utilised with profit. Of this utilisable total about 750,000 turbine horse-power (21 per cent.) is now equipped. The accompanying table shows, by percentage of the available water- power in each district, how geographical situation determines utiHsation.

~elation of Utilised to XrailabIe fUc#e~'-2ower , 1913.

Central Sweden, . 76"0 per cent. South-East Sweden, 29"0 ,, Sk'~ne, . 13" 5 ,, West Sweden, 40'0 ,, Lower Norrland and ])alarne, 12"5 ,, Upper Norrland, . 2"7 ,,

The percentage of water-power used directly to that used indirectly (i.e. transmitted as electricity) was 36 in 1912, and it is certain that this disproportion will diminish still further in the near future. Sweden's poverty in coal in conjunction with the destructive consumption of wood for power, forces the question of water-power on the Government. Of the total power used in !912, 68 per cent. was water-power: as a result of State activity in the establishment of electric water-power plant, this percentage must steadily increase. The reader will appreciate the relation of this section to the war conditions affecting British coal export (which normally forms about one-third of our total exports of raw materials to Sweden) and freights, in relation to our immediate subject it may be noted that of the 750,000 turbine horse-power utilised, 32 per cent. is consumed by paper and pulp industries against 29 per cent. by the iron industry.

Wood-pulp accounts for about 12 per cent. of the total export trade of Sweden. This industry dates from 1857 when a wood-grinding mill was erected at Trollhattau where the Gets river escapes from Lake Vener. This is the region in which water-power has been most largely harnessed. Wood-pulp is prepared by three principal methods, one mechanical, the other two chemical.

tn the mechanical process, blocks of wood are ground against sand- stone grindstones, the whole being kept constantly supplied with water.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON S W E D E N . 237

In some mills the wood is first steam-boiled, and then either ground or defibrated by some other means. Most of the mechanical pulp is made from spruce, but aspen is used for a specially white, resin-free product~

BRITISH ISLES DISTRIBUTION

OF

PAPER MILLS, 191%

¢

.:.... ~: t

(Prepured f rom in format ion in the Directory of PaNef Makers, 1914. )

Fir is employed to a small extent in brown pulp. Of the total number of wood-pulp mills about 100 use this mechanical process; the output is valued at about ~1,000,000.

The earliest chemical wood-pulp was prepared by the soda or sulphate

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

238 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL NAGAZ[NE.

method, in which chips of wood are boiled under pressure in caustic soda- lye. Sodium sulphate ~ is now the chemical principally used, because it gives a larger output of cellulose. Spruce and fir are both used in the sulphate facgories. The pulp is brown in colour, and is employed chiefly in ~he manufacture of namral-colour papers. For finer papers bleaching is necessary, and three sulphate factories have large bleaching establish- ments for this purpose. There are twenty-one sulphate cellulose factories producing annually to the value of about ¢g90,000.

By far the greatest amount of pulp is now prepared by the ~ulphite method, in which calcium bisulphite is the solvent most employed. Spruce wood is almost exclusively used, and the pulp (cellulose), being fairly white, can be used without bleaching for the cheaper writing and prinbing papers. At present there are some sixty-five sulphite factories with an output valued at about £4,700,000. Among the by-products of the chemical factories are turpentine, resin, and sulphite spir i t -- chiefly methyl alcohol.

All these pulps are exported either " w e t " (with 40-50 per cent. of moisture), or " d r y " (10 per cent. moisture), but it is chiefly " w e t " mechanical pulp that is exported, while the bulk of the chemical export is "dry." " D r y " pulp is prepared to avoid mildewing, and to reduce sea freight and o~her ~ransport charges. ~

The economic importance to Sweden of this wood-pulp industry is that it utilises the timber waste of the sawmills :~ as well as timber cut for the thinning of forests. In the latter respect it seems to encourage ~cientific forestry. The industry centres in VSrmland, Vgsternorrland, and C~efleborg, which produce half of the total for the country.

The decreasing import of wood-pulp into the United Kingdom owing to the war shows how the industries of a neutral country may be affected. 3?he decrease is due to a lessened production which is explained by Sweden's difficulty in obtaining coal and chemicals for the industry, as well as by the higher wages, freights, and insurance she has to pay. Thus for some kinds of wood-pulp prices have risen over 100 per cent., and supplies can hardly be obtained. The distribution of paper mills in the British Isles is shown in the accompanying map.

Paper-making scarcely holds the position that consideration of the wood-pulp industry would suggest. This is partly owing to the absence of coal in Sweden. Yet Sweden exports large quantities of two classes of paper in which cheapness is of prime importance. These are news- paper paper (over £500,000 in value), and fine and coarse wrapping-paper (over £1,000,000 in value). 4

i Sodium sulphate has no action whatever on wood, but, when the waste liquors are recovered by concentrating and roasting, the sulphate is changed to sulphide and carbonat G both of which are effective agents in boiling.

2 Yoz~r~al of the Swedis/~ Ckamber of Co~merce i s London. "Special Wood Pulp Issue," December 1915.

s The relative quantity of saw-mill waste used in the pulp industry is very small, and this waste can be put only into the lowest grades of pulp.

4 I am indebted to the chemist of a large Scottish paper mill for revising, and writing the ~footnotes to, the part of this article dealing with wood-pulp.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON SWEDEN. 239

One of the most interesting of Sweden's forest industries is equally related to timber and to chemistry. But because the match industry sprang _~rom the forest wealth (aspen wood) it is usually described under the timber industries. The famous safety matches, with the &fabian Nights' Shibboleth on the box (" J~nk5pings s~kerhetst~ndstickor'% were first made at Jhnk5ping in 1852. The success of the industry depends upon the extensive use of labour-saving machinery. The machine in use at present turns out some 66,000 packed boxes in a working day of ten hours. The further development of this industry is practically arrested by the high tariffs abroad, and the State monopolies of match-manufacture in e.g. France and Spain. About 37 per cent. of the export comes to the United Kingdom, frequently packed in other wood manufactures, e.g. coffins, to lower cost of transport.

From the joinery factories the United Kingdom imports large quan- tities of house-fittings, e.g. doors and window-frames, so that we build our houses, schools, etc., round these. Many complete wooden summer- houses are also exported. The quantities of planed deals, packing-ease material, staves, etc., exported to this country amount to over 50 per cent. of the total export. Most of the carpentry products depend upon the plentiful supply of cheap oak, birch, alder, and white wood.

in Sweden, where geographical extension is accompanied by sparse- ness of population, and where food-stuffs have to be carried to the out- lying parts whence raw materiMs are derived, communications are an important consideration. They determine the price of imported food in outlying districts, and the cost of transport of native products which must be taken expeditiously to centrcs of manufacture or export. Similarly, a mercantile marine is necessary for foreign trade in bulky commodities, and the carrying trade must help to pay for Sweden's adverse trade balance. As has been indicated, the northern ports alone are icebound in winter; in the south the time during which shipping is held up by ice is growing shorter--i.e., the advent of steamships and ice-breakers has made ice-obstruction less formidable.

With a ~ong coastline on an almost tideless and stormless sea, into which several lakes open, and from which many fiords, navigable water- ways, and canals extend inland, Sweden has many deep-water harbours protected by natural or artificial means. The most important seaports (in order of term tonnage enter.~ng and leaving, 1910) are S~ockholm, Gothenburg, Malmh, Helsingborg, Trelleborg, Lule'~, Gefle, SundsvM1, Axelhsund, Kalmar, Norrkhping, and Landskrona.

Swedcn's railway lines, stretching for nearly 9000 miles (1913), give over 16 miles per 10,000 inhabitants. From this point of view Sweden is the best provided of European countries, Denmark coming next with little more than half that mileage, and the United Kingdom holding sixth place with about 8 miles5 The greatest network lies in the south, but a main line runs north near the coast, with extensions across the frontier to Trondhjem and Narvik, and branches to the chief towns

1 Note, however, that by this criterion Argentina, Anstralia, and Canada would ]~ead the world's list. Cf. H. Key, La Vie Economique de la Suede, p. 124 (note).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

24:0 b c o T r l S H G E O G R A P H I C A L MAGAZINE,

along the Bothnian coast. Of the total length of railways more than half are run by private companies. There are steam railway ferries between Malta5 and Copenhagen, and between Trelleborg and Sassnitz (Rugen Island). For reasons that are patent, Sweden is proceeding with the electrification of her railways. Naturally this has been done first in the large cities of the south, especially Stockholm and Gothen- burg. The first electric State line stretches between Kiruna and l~iks- grgnsen (about 60 miles). This section was selected because i~ has the largest regular traffic of the State system, and owing to the increased output of Gellivara ores, a further increase of traffic must be provided for. Power to drive this line is developed from the Porjus waterfalls in the upper Lule river.

Imports into United Ki¢~gdom (1912). 1

Total Value Per cent. of (sglO00), each total from

Sweden.

Raw Materials, etc. Total i m p o r t , Of w h i e i l - - W o o d a n d T i m b e r , .

P a p e r - m a k i n g m a t e r i a l s , Mgnufaetured Goods, s~c. T o t a l i m p o r t , . . .

Of w h i c h - - M a n u f a c t u r e s of W o o d a n d T i m b e r , P a p e r , e t c . ,

2 7 5 , 6 6 8 2 8 , 3 5 7 - 5 , 5 6 7

185 ,467 :2,874 7 , 2 3 4

2"4 1 3 9 40-5

0- 2 6"9

19"5

The returns for 1912 have been selected for comparison with the tables in the Swedish Handbook. If, will be noted that while Swedeu's share in our term imports is small, her contributions to the commodities derived from forest products are far from being negligible. From the accompanying more detailed summary of her exports to the United Kingdom, the predominant part played by forest products in Sweden's trade is strikingly shown.

Swedish E~Norts to United Ki)~gdom (1912). 1

A ~ood~ e t c . , .

]B ]~aw ]VIater ials , . C M a n u f a c t u r e d a r t i c l e s , e t c . , . D Misee l l aneo l l s ,

Total Value (£1ooo).

2 , 5 2 2 6 , 6 9 0 4,011

13

Forest Products.

Per cent. of each total.

47

Keeping these totals before us we may proceed to indicate the forest products that we have included in classes ]3 and C.

1 F igures f rom " A n n u a l S t a t e m e n t of the Trade of the Uni ted K i n g d o m . "

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14

NOTES ON SWEDEN. 241

S, vedish Ezports [o U~ited Kingdom--Forest Products (1912.) 1

Percentage of Total Value.

B flaw Materials. Total, Of w h i c h - - W o o d pulp,

Wood and t imber, hewn, , , , , sawn or spl i t , p laned

dressed, and sleepers, . . . Wood and Timber , Staves of al l d imensions ,

Manufac tu red art icles, etc. Total , Of which Matches, . . .

Pape r and Manufactures, . Wood. and Manufactures , . Carriages, etc., .

Value in thousand ag.

£ 6,189 2,256

550 o r

3,276 107

1,886 273

1,410 197

6

°/o (]o0)

36 9

53 2

(lOO) 14 '5 74'7 10"5

"3

Forest products represented 61 per cent. of the value of Swedish exports to this country. Finally, the part that forest products played in Snreden's to~al foreign trade is shown in the table below.

S~vedish Expods according to Productio~t grou2s (1912).

Produc t s of ag r i cu l tu re , da i ry ing , etc. , . ,, fo res t ry and the t imber i ndus t ry , , the sewing and t e x t i l e indus t ry , ,, t he pape r i n d u s t r y , . .

-~inerMs and products thereof (except meta ls) , MetMs and p roduc t s thereof , P roduc t s of o ther indus t r ies ,

Value in thousand

(is Kr. = ~ ) .

£ 7,258

10,706 529

7,593 6,430 8,821

920

Percentage.

7° 17.'2 25 "3

1"2 18 "0 15 "2 20"9

2"2

Tota ls , 42,257 100"0

From this table it will be seen that what we have described as forest products form by far the most important part of Sweden's foreign trade. 2

There seems to be an interesting contrast between Swedish and Canadian forest industries. In the March number of the S.g.M. Mr. OadelI shows how Canada is exhausting her resources ; but in Sweden the general tone of the Official Handbook is also found in Dr. Key's little volume : "Nous pouvons dire que la base du ddveloppement 6eonomique de la Suede est trbs sMne ~ l'heure actuelle." s J . H . BIRR~LL.

1 Figures from "Annual Statement of the Trades of the United Kingdom." 2 See La Vie Economiq~e de ~a S~$de, chapter xi., where Dr.!Key shows that in the

decenniM period 1900-1910, " L a valeur %otale de l 'exportation du bois, de ta p£te £ papier et des articles en papier a 4td presque trois fois sup6rieure £ celle de l'exportation du for, de l'acier et du mineral de for."

a Ib id . , p. 161.

¥OL° XU~XII. R

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

itaet

sbib

lioth

ek G

iess

en]

at 0

5:05

15

Nov

embe

r 20

14