Definition of Terms

Forensic photography sometimes referred to asforensic imagingorcrime scene photography is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of acrime sceneor an accidentscene usingphotographyfor the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation. It is part of the process ofevidencecollecting. It provides investigators with photos of victims, places and items involved in the crime. Pictures of accidents show broken machinery, or a car crash, and so on. Top of FormBottom of FormCrime scenephotography is a branch of the field of photography which is focused on taking accurate photographs of crime scenes andcriminal evidence, so that these photographs can be used in the investigation of crimes and in the prosecution of criminal activity.

ACETIC ACID A relatively mild acid used, in highly diluted form, asthe rinse bath (shortstop) which follows the developer in the normal film and paper developing processes. The acid in vinegar.ADAPTER RINGS Narrow metal rings, threaded on the outside tofit most popular lens, and threaded on the inside to accept accessories of other than normal lens diameter. Step-up rings adapt a lens for use with larger-than-normal accessories; step-down rings permit the use of slightly smaller accessories than the lens will normally accept.ADJECTABLE CAMERA A camera with manually adjustabledistance settings, lens opening, and/or shutter speeds.AGITATION The process of stirring, swirling, or otherwise causinga liquid to move freely over the surface of film or paper during processing. Agitation helps to speed and achieve even development and prevent spotting or staining.ANGLE OF VIEW The portion of scene that is covered through acamera lens. The width of this wedge-shaped portion is determined by the focal length of the lens. A wide-angle (short-focal-length) lens includes more of the scene a wider angle of view than does a normal (normal-focal-length) or telephoto (long-focal-length) lens.APERTURE The opening in a diaphragm of a lens through whichlight passes, expressed as a fraction of the focal length. The f/number.APERTURE PRIORITY A camera feature that lets you select thedesired aperture, and the camera sets the shutter speed for proper exposure. When you change the aperture or when the light level changes, the shutter speed changes accordingly.AUTOFOCUS The camera focuses automatically on the subject inthe center of the viewfinder when you press the shutter release.AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE (AE) A system whereby the cameraselects and sets an exposure based on prevailing conditions without intervention by the photographer.ARTIFICIAL LIGHT Any light other than produced by the nature(sun, moon, stars, phosphorescence, etc). Electric lights are the principal artificial light source in photography.AVAILABLE LIGHT The light condition which the photographerfinds existing at the subject position. The term usually implies an indoor or nighttime light condition of low intensity requiring fast film, large lens aperture, and slow shutter speed.AVAILABLE LIGHT PHOTOGRAPH Photography withoutsupplementary illumination even under poor lighting conditions.B (BULB) A marked setting on most shutters which permits theshutter to be held open for an indefinite period by continued pressure on the shutter release.BACK That portion of a camera which contains the film;specifically, the complete assembly attached to the rear standard view camera (and usually removable) which includes the focusing screen, and which accepts the film holders.BACK LIGHT Illumination from a source beyond the subject, asseen from the camera position, which tends to silhouette the subject, also called Back Lighting.BASE The transparent sheet material, usually acetate or polyester,upon which film emulsion is coated.BASEBOARD The large, flat board, usually plywood, to which theenlarger column is attached, and on which the enlarger easel is normally placed.BASE FOG Any uniform fog produced when an unexposedemulsion is developed.BASE-PLUS-FOG-DENSITY The density of an unexposed area ofa developed film (negative or positive).BELLOWS The center section of a view camera which connectsthe front and back standards. The bellows is usually made of leather, cloth, or plastic, is accordion-pleated for flexibility and is, of course, light tight.BELLOWS EXTENSION A term often used to refer either to thetotal bellows length or to the additional extension of thebellows (beyond that required for infinity focus) necessary for focusing at close subject distances.BELLOWS EXTENSION FACTOR A number (multiplier) indicatingthe exposure increase required for correct exposure.BETWEEN-THE-LENS SHUTTER A shutter designed to operate ina space between the elements of the lens.BLIND An emulsion not sensitive to certain colors; color blind.BLUE-SENSITIVE The sensitivity of an ordinary silver emulsion;red and green blind.BOUNCE FLASH Directing light from a flash gun toward a ceiling,wall or other large reflecting surface to obtain the contrast softening effect of a diffused light source spread over a larger area of the subject.BOUNCE LIGHT Light reflected onto the subject from surroundingsurfaces rather than directly on the subject.BRACKET To make a number of exposures (some greater andsome less than one considered to be normal) in addition to the "normal" one, with the intent of getting one near-perfect exposure.BURNING-IN-- The process of allowing some relatively small imagearea to receive more than the normal exposure by shielding most of the printing paper surface from the light.BURNED-OUT Describes an area of the print image in whichhighlight detail has not been recorded, usually because of severe overexposure of the negative.CABLE RELEASE A flexible outer casing containing a stiff wirewhich can be attached to the shutter release on a camera. Depressing the plunger at the end of the wire release the shutter while minimizing risk of camera movement during exposure.CAMERA MOVEMENTS Adjustments typically provided ontechnical and view camera to (1) enable the optical axis of the lens to be displaced relative to the center of the image while keeping the axis perpendicular to the image plane. (2) Position the lens plane and image plane at an angle to each other (swings and tilts). These adjustments may be provided as a swing front lens panel or a hinged camera back (swing back) or both. They are used for control of perspective and sharpness distribution in the image plane.CHEMICAL FOG Fog on negatives or prints appearing, duringdevelopment, in the unexposed areas.CLEAR The appearance of a negative after the fixing bath hasremoved all visible traces of undeveloped silver halide.CLEARING TIME The length of time required to clear a negative. Itdepends on the strength, temperature, and agitation of the fixing bath and the kind of emulsion being used.CLOSE-UP Photograph made of an object to show greater detail.A photograph made with a reproduction ratio greater than 1:10.CLOSE-UP LENS A positive supplementary lens which, whenplaced over a camera lens, shortens its focal length and thereby permits closer-than-normal focusing.CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHY The techniques and practice of usingsupplementary lenses, extension tubes, bellows units, etc. to take pictures at closer ranges than the normal focusing adjustment of an ordinary hand-camera will allow. Refers to image magnification ratios of up to perhaps, 2x, and therefore overlaps "Photomacrography".COLOR BLANCE The ability of a film to reproduce the colors of ascene. Color films are balanced in manufacture for exposure to light of a certain color quality; daylight, tungsten, etc. Color balance also refers to the reproduction of colors in color prints, which can be altered during the printing process.COLORBLIND Descriptive of the partial or total inability torecognize or distinguish chromatic emulsion is sensitiveonly to blue, violet, and ultraviolet light.COLOR HEAD An enlarger light source containing adjustabledichroic filters which can be set to provide light of any color for color printing.COLOR TEMPERATURE A numerical rating given to the colorqualities of a light source. Expressed in degrees Kelvin. The lower the color temperature, the greater the ratio of yellow/red light. Daylight is considered to be 5000 5500 degrees Kelvin.COMPEMEMTARY COLORS Any two colors in the subtractivesystem which, when mixed in the proper proportion, produce black or dark neutral gray. In the additive system, any two colors whose mixture results in white light.CONCAVE Hollowed out. The side of spherical surface seen fromthe center of the sphere.CONDENSER ENLARGER An enlarger with sharp, undiffused lightthat produces high contrast and high definition in a print. Scratches and blemishes in the negative are emphasized.CONTACT PAPER Relatively slow development paper for makingpositives by contact printing.CONTACT PRINTING A method of printing in which the negative isplaced in contact with the printing paper, emulsion to emulsion, and held in that position in a printing frame. The exposure is made by exposing the frame to raw light so that the paper emulsion is exposed by light passing through the negative densities.CONTINUOUS TONE Describes an image containing a gradationof grays as well as black and white extremes.CONTRAST The difference in tones from the lightest to the darkestareas of negatives and positives.CONTRAST GRADE A number or descriptive term assigned to aparticular printing emulsion which identifies its contrast characteristic. In the range from zero through five, a normal contrast paper is usually considered to be two, with the lower numbers indicating a tendency toward lower contrast. Printing filters for use with variable contrast papers are numbered similarly. In some cases low contrast is indicated by the term "soft" while high contrast paper are labeled "hard".CONTRASTY higher than-normal contrast. The range of density ina negative or print is higher than it was in the original scene.CONVERTER An optical unit which can be interposed between thecamera body and lens to effectively double or triple the lens focal length; usually, but not always, with some loss of image quality, and always with a substantial loss of lens speed. Sometimes called an Extender.COPY To reproduce via photography. An original which issubjected to photographic reproduction.COVERAGE The area of the image (formed by a lens) which is ofuseful quality. Also, the area of the subject which the lens can record as an image of useful quality.CROPPING Printing only part of the image that is in the negative orslide.CROSS LIGHT Light striking the subject from one side.CURTAIN SHUTTER A shutter variety in which slit or opening in astrip of metal or cloth is made to travel past the film surface to effect the exposure.CURVATURE OF FIELD The tendency of a simple lens to form itsimage on a spherical, rather than flat, plane.DARK SLIDE The black plastic or fiber sheet which is inserted intoa FILM HOLDER through a light tight slot to seal the film chamber against light.DAYLIGHT Sunlight or skylight or any mixture of the two. For thepurposes of color photography, daylight is considered to have a color temperature of from about 5500 degree K. to 6000 degrees K. and this condition is likely to exist when the sun is high and slightly overcast. Under other conditions the color of daylight is likely to be quite different from the "norm" and must be filtered if "normal" color rendition is desired.DENSE Descriptive of a negative which is dark overall, or of anarea of a negative which has a heavy sliver deposit and therefore transmits only a little light.DENSITOMETER An instrument designed to measure the amountof light transmitted by individual small areas of a negative, thus appraising the density of the areas.DENSITY RANGE The range of densities represented by, forexample, a negative image. It is found by subtracting the lowest density value from the highest, and is expressed numerically.DEPTH OF FIELD The region of acceptable sharp focus aroundthe subject position, extending toward the camera and away from it, from the plane of sharpest focus. The boundaries of the depth of field are referred to as the neat limit and the far limit. Depth of field depends on the lens opening, the focal length of the lens, and the distance from the lens to the subject.DEPTH OF FIELD SCALE-- A calibrated scale, ring or chart, often apart of the camera lens mount, on which the depth of field for any distance and aperture setting is indicated.DEPTH OF FOCUS-- The distance range over which the film couldbe shifted at the film plane inside the camera and still have the subject appear in sharp focus; often misused to mean depth of field.DEVELOPER Chemical solution used to covert a latent image to avisible image. Converts exposed silver halide into metallic silver.DEVELOPMENT The process of chemically treating aphotographic material to produce a visible image. Sometimes used to include the fixing and washing operations.DEVELOPMENT FOG Fog formed by the partial development ofunexposed grains of emulsion; caused by developing the sensitized material under unsuitable conditions.DIAPHRAGM The assembly of thin metal leaves, usuallyincorporated into the lens barrel or shutter assembly, which can be adjusted to control the size of the lens aperture.DICHROIC FILTER A filter, usually of glass coated with a thin filmof some durable material, which has the unique ability to transmit certain colors while reflecting the rest of the spectrum. Because the transmitted and reflected colors are complementary the filter appears to change color in certain lights, hence the "dichroic." Dichroic filters are highly resistant to heat and fading and are therefore especially suitable for use in color printing applications.DIFFUSER Any light-scattering medium placed in the path ofa beam of light to soften its character, such as matt white reflectors behind or frosted or opal glass in front of the light source.DIFFUSION The scattering of light in all directions by reflectionfrom a rough surface or passage through a translucent medium.DIFFUSION-CONDENSER ENLARGER An enlarger that combinesdiffuse light with a condenser system, producing more contrast and sharper detail than a diffusion enlarger but less contrast and blemish emphasis than a condenser enlarger.DIFFUSION ENLARGER An enlarger that scatters light before itstrikes the negative, distributing light evenly on the negative. Detail is not as sharp as with a condenser enlarger; negative blemishes are minimized.DIOPTER An opticians term which identifies the power of a lens. Itexpresses the reciprocal of the lens focal length in meters and is usually preceded by a plus or minus sign to indicate whether the lens is positive (converging) or negative (diverging). Thus, a close-up (positive) lens having a focal length of 50 cm (1/2 meter) would be labeled a +2 lens.DISTORTION Sometimes referred to as linear distortion orcurvilinear distortion, it is an aberration of the lens which is characterized by variable magnification of the image. The effect increases toward the edges of the image area and will cause straight lines near the edges of the subject field to be formed near the image margins as curved lines. Two forms are identified, Pincushion and Barrel distortion.DODGE To shade a portion of a print during exposure.DODING Holding back the image forming light from a part of theimage projected on an enlarger easel during the part of the basic exposure time to make that area of the print lighter.DOUBLE EXPOSURE Two pictures taken on one frame of film, ortwo images printed on one piece of photographic paper.DRY-MOUNTING A method of mounting prints on cardboard orsimilar sheet materials. Dry-mounting tissue placed between the print and mount board is softened by the heat of a dry-mounting press to effect the bond.DRY-MOUNTING PRESS A machine for dry-mounting prints. Ithas a large flat metal pressure plate which can apply uniform pressure and thermostatically controlled heat on the prints to be mounted.DRY-MOUNTING TISSUE A thin tissue paper impregnated withshellac or some similar material, which, when heated sufficiently, softens to become an effective adhesive for paper.DX CODE A system of encoding ISO speeds onto 35mm filmcassettes. A DX coded camera can read the code and set the film speed automatically.EASEL A device to hold photographic paper flat during exposure,usually equipped with an adjustable metal mask for framing.EMULSION A thin coating of light-sensitive material, usually silverhalide in gelatin, in which the image is formed on film and photographic papers.EMULSION SIDE The side of the film coated with emulsion. Incontact-printing and enlarging, the emulsion side of the film - dull side - should fact the emulsion side of the photo paper - shiny side.ENLARGEMENT A print that is larger than the negative or slide:blowup.ENLARGER A device consisting of light source, a negative holder,and a lens, and means of adjusting these to project an enlarged image from a negative onto a sheet of photographic paper.EXHAUSTION Inactive state of a solution caused by depletion ofits chemical components.EXISTING LIGHT Available light. Strictly speaking, existing lightcovers all natural lighting from moonlight to sunshine. For photographic purposes, existing light is the light that is already on the scene or project and includes room lamps, fluorescent lamps, spotlights, neon signs, candles, daylight through windows, outdoor scenes at twilight or in moonlight, and scenes artificially illuminated after dark.EXPOSE To subject a material to the action of light.EXPOSURE The quantity of light allowed to act on a photographicmaterial; a product of the intensity (controlled by the lens opening) and the duration (controlled by the shutter speed or enlarging time) of light striking the film or paper.EXPOSURE DETERMINATION Measuring or estimating thebrightness of parts or the whole of a subject by exposure meters.EXPOSURE FACTOR Figure by which the exposure indicated foran average subject and/or processing should be multiplied to allow for non-average conditions. Usually applied to filters, sometimes to lighting or processing.EXPOSURE INDEX Number assigned to a photographic material.Based on emulsion speed and latitude, exposure meter characteristics and technique, and proposed conditions of processing. Used to determine the appropriate exposure under different lighting conditions when using correspondingly calibrated exposure meters. It is identical with the working speed of the material as specified by international standards.EXPOSURE LATITUDE The range of camera exposures, fromunderexposure to overexposure, that will produce acceptable pictures from a specific film.EXPOSURE METER An instrument with a light - sensitive cell thatmeasures the light reflected from or falling on a subject; used as an aid to selecting the exposure setting. The same as a light meter.EXPOSURE SETTING The lens opening plus shutter speedselected to expose the film.EXTENSION TUBE Hollow tube with male and female lens mountfittings on either end. Used to extend the lens from the film plane in close-up photography.FACTOR A number by which the duration or effect of some actionor process must, for some reason, be multiplied.FAST A term used to describe lenses of large relative apertureor films of high sensitive. Sometimes also applied to unusually sensitive papers.FILM A photographic emulsion coated on a flexible,transparent, plastic base.FILM HOLDER Thin container of plastic, metal, or wood, usuallyblack, designed to hold two sheets of film in separate compartments, back to back.FILM SPEED The sensitivity of a given film to light, indicated by anumber such as ISO 200; the higher the number, the more sensitive or faster the film.FILTER FACTOR The number by which an exposure given througha filter must be multiplied to compensate for the absorption of light by the filter.FIX To make the film insensitive to further exposure to light,usually by bathing the emulsion with a solution containing Hypo or some other effective silver halide solvent. Such a solution is called a fixing bath.FIXING BATH A solution that removes any light sensitive silverhalide crystals not acted upon by light or developer, leaving a black - and - white negative or print unalterable by further action of light.FLASH A brief, intense burst of light from a flashbulb or anelectronic flash unit, usually used where the lighting on the scene is inadequate for picture taking.FLAT Too low in contrast. The range in density in a negative orprint is too short.FOCAL LENGTH The distance from the optical center of the lens toIts focused image, when the lens is focused at infinity.FOCAL PLANE Plane through the principal focus of a lens andperpendicular to its optical axis. To record a sharp image the emulsion surface of the film in a camera must be positioned in the focal plane of the taking lens. That plane in the camera where the sharply focused image is formed.FOCUS To adjust the lens/image plane separation to obtain asharp image of an object at a specified distance in front of the camera.FOGGING Darkening or discoloring of a negative or print or lightingor discoloring of a slide caused by: (1) exposure to non-image forming light to which the photographic material is sensitive, (2) too much handling in air during development, (3) over-development, (4) outdated film or paper, or (5) storage of film or paper in a hot, humid place.f/STOP The numerical expression of the aperture diameter of alens as a fraction of the focal length. Number indicating the light-passing power of a lens.GRAIN The visible granular texture of the silver image, caused byapparent clumping of the individual silver particles, viewed under magnification.GRAININESS The sand like or granular appearance of a negative,print, or slide resulting from the clumping of silver grains during development of the film. Graininess becomes more pronounced with faster film, increased density in the negative, and degree of enlargement.GRAY CARD A card of known reflectance, usually 18 percent,intended to be placed in the subject area and used as a meter target in the determination of exposure. Also used in color photography to establish a neutral reference for the adjustment of print color.GRAY SCALE The gradation of an image. A strip of film or paperdisplaying individually uniform areas of density ranging from light to dark in a series of steps. Also sometimes called step tables, they are used in testing the sensitivity and contrast characteristics of photographic materials.GUIDE NUMBER Figure allocated to a light source, usually flash,representing the product of lens aperture and light-to-subject distance required for correct exposure under average conditions using a specified photographic material.HYPO The common name for sodium thiosulfate, also used byphotographers when speaking of the complete fixing bath.ILLUMINATION The distribution of light from one or more sourcesover the subject being photographed and over thesurface of the sensitive material.IMAGE The photographic representation of the subjectphotographed. The visible result of exposing and developing a photographic emulsion.INCIDENT LIGHT The light reaching the subject from any and allsources.INCIDENT LIGHT METER Exposure meter designed to integratethe light reaching it over a very wide acceptance angle and used to measure the light intensity falling on a scene rather than that reflected from it. The usual form is a photoelectric meter with a diffusing screen or cone over the face of the cell. It is pointed toward the camera from the subject position.INFINITY In photography, lens setting position on the focusingscale of a camera (indicated by the symbol of a lazy eight) which results in a sharp image of distant objects.INVERSE SQUARE LAW A statement to the effect that"Illumination intensity on a surface will vary inversely with the square of the distance from the light source to the illuminated surface".ISO International Standards Organization. An organizationwhose major purpose is to gather, correlate, and standardize information about photographic material, processes, and equipment. In 1974 the ISO adopted a standard for determining film speeds that, in effect, combined out existing ASA system with the German DIN system. ISO film speeds, as presently used in this country, include both, so that, for example, Plus-X film is now rated ISO 125.22` the degree sign indicating the DIN logarithmic value.ISO EXPOSURE INDEX A numerical value assigned to film by theInternational Standards Organization to indicate its speed and for use in computing correct exposure.LATENT IMAGE The invisible impression on the sensitizedemulsion produced by exposure to light in the development-out processes. Development converts the latent image to a visible one.LEAF SHUTTER A type of shutter, usually operating in the spacebetween the major lens components or immediately behind the lens, which consists of a number of then metal leaves or blades, arranged concentrically around the lens axis, pivoted so that they can either form an opening for the passage of light or overlap to block it.LENS SPEED Maximum light-transmitting power of a lens. Theterm is often used when referring to the maximum working aperture of a lens (its smallest f number)LIGHTING TENT Enclosure of translucent material inside of whichsubjects such as glass, silverware and jewelry are sometimes photographed, the camera lens projecting through a hole in one wall. Light entering the tent is so diffused that it is substantially shadowless and there is no reflected image of the camera from polished surfaces.LIGHT METER An instrument which measures light intensity. Ifsupplied with a suitable computing scale, it becomes an exposure meter. The term is commonly used interchangeable with exposure meter. See exposure.LIGHT TIGHT Describes a container, room or space which lightcannot enter or leave, or a door or baffle or aperture which light cannot penetrate.LINE NEGATIVE Negative consisting of two tones only, cleartransparent lines or letter against a maximum density background, with no intermediate densities.MACRO LENS Camera lenses (typically interchangeable lenses on35mm cameras) fitted with an extended focusing mount to permit focusing from infinity to same size reproductions. Camera lens specially corrected for optimum definition at same size reproduction.MAGNIGICATION Relationship between the size of the objectphotographed and the image of it formed by the lens.MAXIMUM APERTURE The largest useful opening of the lens.Wide open.NEGATIVE A photographic image in which the tones of the subjecthave been recorded in reverse.NEGATIVE CARRIER The frame of glass or metal which holds thenegative in printing position in the enlarger.NITROGEN BURST Method of agitating processing solutions byintroducing nitrogen gas into the bottom of the processing rank through a distributor nozzle. The bubbles of gas rising through the liquid form an effective and harmless stirring device.NORMAL LENS Any lens whose focal length is approximatelyequal to the diagonal measurement of the film frame.OBLIQUE LIGHTING Light striking the subject from the siderelative to the position of the camera; produces shadows and highlights to create modeling on the subject.OPAL GLASS A translucent glass having a milky or "opal-scent"appearance, used to diffuse light.OPAQUE Incapable of transmitting light. A special fine-groundtempera paint, usually brick-red or black, for use in blocking out unwanted areas of the negative image prior to printing.OPEN FLASH Method of taking pictures with flash in which theshutter is opened on time or blub and the flash is fired manually.ORTHO Abbreviation of orthochromatic.ORTHOCHROMATIC Photographic materials sensitive to all colorsexcept the orange and red regions of the spectrum. Type of emulsion which is sensitive to visible blue and green, but not to red.OVERDEVELOPMENT Excessively long development ofphotographic material which results in very dense and contrasty negatives or fogged and stained prints.OVEREXPOSURE Excessive amount of light falling on thesensitized material during exposure resulting in dense negative with opaque highlights or prints with blocked up shadows and veiled highlights.PAN It describes a type of emulsion, "panchromatic" which issensitive to all colors of the visible spectrumPANCHROMATIC Describes an emulsion sensitive to blue, greenand some, or all, of the red region of the spectrum.PAPER NEGATIVE A negative image on a paper base, preparedeither by exposing the paper directly in a camera or by printing from a positive transparency.PERSPECTIVE The apparent relation between the shape, visualscale and position of visible objects.PERSPECTIVE DISTORTION Change in the shape andforeshortening of the three-dimensional objects in apicture, resulting from the use of a wide-angle lens.PHOTOMACROGRAPHY Small objects photographed at greaterthan life size by the use of long bellows and short focal length lens on the camera.PRIMARY COLORS Three colors of light, Blue, Green, and Red,which when mixed in equal amounts, produce white light.PRINT In photography, the term is generally used to identify andimage on paper, produced by photographic means. It is usually understood to mean a positive image, and implies a final image rather than an intermediate one in some longer process.PRINTING FRAME A shallow, rectangular frame of wood or metalequipped with a removable front glass and a separate folding back which can be fastened to the frame with leaf springs so as to hold a negative and a sheet of printing paper against the glass smoothly and tightly. In use, light is allowed to shine through the front glass and through the intervening negative to reach the printing emulsion. Also called a contract printing frame.PRINTING PAPER Paper coated with a light-sensitive substance,to be used for making photographic images.POSITIVE An image in which the tones or colors are similar tothose of the subject.PROCESS To subject photographic films or papers to chemicaltreatment, such as, for example, development. The sequence of chemical steps required to produce the desired image or result.PUSH PROCESSING Increasing the development time of a film toincrease its effective speed (raising the ISO number for initial exposure) for low-light situations; forced development.RECIPROCITY FAILURE When the product of light intensity andtime of exposure remains constant there is a relative loss of sensitivity of photographic emulsion at very low or high intensities for correspondingly longer or shorter exposures.REFLECTANE Describes the ability of a surface to reflect light.REFLECTED LIGHT METER Exposure meter used to measure thelight reflected from a scene as distinct from incident light meters which measure light falling on the subject. Most meters built into cameras are reflected light meters and indicated exposures on the assumption that the proportion of light to dark areas in most scenes is roughly constant.REFLECTION Re-direction of light or other radiation by a surface.Reflection may be specular if the surface is polished, each light ray being thrown back in the direction from which it came. If the surface is matted, reflection becomes more or less diffuse, the light being scattered in all forward directions.REFLECTOR A surface used to reflect light. Photographicreflectors are usually sheets of cardboard, plywood, masonite, or stretched fabric, painted white or covered with metal foil.RELATIVE APERTURE The relationship between the diameter ofthe lens opening and the focal length of the lens. It is found by dividing the focal length by the diameter and is, strictly speaking, the number so found-as distinguished from the Aperture which included the prefixf.RESIN COATED PAPER RC Paper. Printing papers employing aspecial base material treated during manufacture with a "Resin Coating" which, by limiting water absorption, allows for very rapid processing and reduces drying time.RETICULATION Cracking or distorting of the emulsion duringprocessing, usually caused by wide temperature or chemical activity difference between the solutions.REVERSAL (1) Process of exposing or processing a normallynegative working photographic material to obtain a positive instead of a negative image. (2) Effect in which a negative image is converted locally or entirely into a positive or vice verso under particular conditions of exposure or processing.REVERSED NEGATIVE Negative in which the image is reversedleft to right by either photographing the original through a right angled (reversing) prism or mirror or by stripping and laterally reversing the emulsion. The final print is a lateral inversion of the negative.REVOLVING BACK Technical or studio large format camerafeature which permits the film holder to be rotated in its plane so that the long dimension of the negative material is either vertical or horizontal.RISING FRONT Camera lens panel or frame constructed so that itcan be moved vertically to allow the lens to be raised above -or dropped below- the normal position. Used when photographing objects such as tall buildings from a near viewpoint with the camera pointing at an upward angle, while keeping the camera back vertical to ensure parallel rendering of vertical lines.ROLL FILM Film supplied in rolls rather than sheets, but especiallythose films protected from light by paper leaders rather than those supplied in protective cartridges of metal or plastic.SAFELIGHT Illumination, used in various darkroom processed,which is of color and intensity which will not appreciable affect the emulsions being handled. Blue sensitive emulsions can be handled in a yellow safelight and orthochromatic emulsions are generally unaffected by orange or red safelight. Image density resulting from excessive exposure to safelight or to an inappropriate safelight color, is known as safelight fog.SCALE In image formation, the liner ratio of image size to objectsize. If this ratio is greater than one the result is magnification. In a photographic enlargement the image is the projected image and the negative is the object. When subject and image are the same size the scale is 1/1 usually indicated by s/s (same size). Because the scale is linear it must be in squares to give the area. A linear magnification of 4x is equal to an area magnification of 16x.SENSITIVITY In photography, the susceptibility of an emulsion toalteration by light energy.SEPARATION The visual quality of any image area which makes itvisible against its background.SHADOW AREA Any region of a photographic image whichcorresponds to an area of shade or shadow in the original subject.SHARP Term used to denote the distinctness of detail inphotograph or the focused image on the ground glass of a camera.SHEET FILM Film supplied in individual pieces; also called cut film.SHEET FILM HOLDER See Film Holder.SHELF LIFE Period of time before deterioration results in anappreciable loss of speed or growth of fog in an unexposed, properly wrapped and stored sensitized material. Refrigerated storage increases the useful working life of most types of photo-sensitive material.SHIFTS AND SWINGS The various adjustments of the front andrear standards of a view camera, provided for the purpose of facilitating framing, control of perspective, and the efficient use of the available depth of field.SHUTTER A device installed in front, behind, or between theelements of a lens, or at the focal plane of the camera, to control the duration of exposure.SHUTTER PRIORITY A camera feature that lets you select thedesired shutter speed, and the camera sets the aperture for proper exposure. When you change the shutter speed or when the light level changes, the aperture changes accordingly.SHUTTER RELEASE The lever or plunger which, when pressedallows the shutter mainspring to operate the shutter mechanism and make the exposure.SHUTTER SPEED (1) The duration of the interval of exposure. (2)The marked settings on a shutter dial. The numbers represent the denominators of fractions of which 1 is the numerator.SLOW A term used to describe the linger exposure intervalsprovided by the shutter, as "one-half second is a slow speed." Also applied to relatively insensitive emulsions, as a slow film.SOFT Describes an image which is not sharp; that is, one whichis blurred, diffused, or not accurately focused. Photographic emulsions, specifically printing papers, which tend to produce images of lower-than-normal contrast; for example, the paper grades 0 and 1, and some others of similar characteristics, are called soft papers.SPLIT-IMAGE RANGEFINDER A variety of rangefinder in whichthe opposite halves of the image are displaced along a dividing line when the instrument is not properly focused. Correct distance is indicated when the image halves are adjusted to match.SPOT METER An exposure meter which measures reflected lightor luminance, over a field of only a degree or two.STOP The aperture orf/number of lens. A change in exposure,from any cause, which doubles or halves the preceding one.STOP BATH A weak acid solution used immediately afterdevelopment and before fixing, to stop the action of developer and prolong the life of the fixer.STOP DOWN To reduce the size of the aperture of a lens.SWING BACK On a screen focusing camera a hinged back whichcan be turned at an angle to the vertical to improve the perspective of the image and extend the depth of field covered.SWING FRONT Lens panel of a camera hinged about its axis sothat it can be used, in conjunction with the swing back, to control perspective and/or relocate the plane of maximum sharpness producing a similar result to an increase the depth of fieldTACKING IRON A small electrically heated, thermostaticallycontrolled tool used to tack or attach dry-mounting tissue to the back of a print or to the mount board, so as to hold it in place while the print is being trimmed and heated in the dry-mount press.TANK A small, light tight container, in which film is placed forprocessing.TELEPHOTO LENS A lens that makes a subject appear larger onfilm than does a normal lens at the same camera-to-subject distance. A telephoto lens has a longer focal length and narrower field of view than a normal lens.TENT LIGHTING Lighting technique that involves isolating thesubject in a plain environment or "tent", so that surface reflections and lighting effects can be closely controlled.THIN describes the appearance of a transparency image(usually the negative) of low overall density.THIN NEGATIVE A negative that is under exposed orunderdeveloped (or both). A thin negative appears lessdense than a normal negative.TIME One of the marked speeds on some shutters. A shutterset on (T) time will open when the shutter release is pressed and will remain open until the release is pressed again. It is a convenient setting for exposure intervals of more than a few seconds.TIME EXPOSURE A comparatively long exposure made inseconds or minutes.TRANSLUCENT Describes a diffusing material which will transmitlight, but not focused light. A very thin translucentsurface is used on screens for back projection and backlighting of objects.TRANSPARENCY A positive photographic image on film, viewedor projected by transmitted light (light shining through film).TRIPOD A three-legged stand, usually adjustable in height andprovided with a tilting and swiveling head, on which a camera can be fastened for support and stability during use.TUNGSTEN LIHGT Generally, the light emitted by a heatedtungsten filament such as is contained in conventional electric light bulbs. Sometimes used to refer specifically to the light of special photographic tungsten filament bulbs which are designed to burn at either 3200K or 3400K. Also often used loosely to apply to artificial light in general, as distinguished from daylight.TTL Through-the-lens; describes a type of exposure meter,incorporated in the structure of a camera, which reads theIntensity of the image light transmitted by a lens.TYPE L FILM Color sheet or roll film balanced for 3200K lamps andexposure time of 1/10 to 60 seconds. L indicates that thefilm is designed to show minimum reciprocity failure at therelatively long exposure times.TYPE S FILM Color sheer or roll film balanced for daylight,electronic flash or blue flash bulbs and exposure times of 1/10 second or shorter, S standing for short exposure time.UNDEREXPOSURE A condition in which too little light reaches thefilm, producing a thin negative, S standing for short exposure

Why is Photography an Art?Photography that is done as a fine art -- that is, done to express the artist's perceptions and emotions and to share them with othersPhotography is an art because it takes a special eye for composition, lighting, and background.

Think about drawing. If you are drawing, say, a face, you can change the expression your subject by a slight change in the way you draws the eye, the mouth, any part of the face. You can shade darkly, use a thick, soft pencil to create heavy lines, and use the positioning of the face to entirely change the mood to dark , deep, disturbed, or sad.Photography is most definitely art! There is so many things you can do to photography. You can change the tints and colors. You can paint over photos, and develop them

Importance of Crime Scene Photography1. Permanent RecordA permanent record of the crime scene is considered indispensable to a successful presentation of the case in court. A crime scene that is altered through careless and haste can never be restored to its exact original condition.2. Significance of certain aspects of the crime sceneAlso, in the initial stages of an investigation, the significance of certain aspects of the crime scene may not be evident, although later they may vitally affect the issues in the case. The first step in the investigation of any crime is to photograph all aspects of the crime scene completely and accurately before any of the objects are removed or otherwise disturbed. Photographs should always be taken after the body or bodies have been removed. It is always better to take many photographs than to few.3. Reconstruction of the crime sceneA study of photographs can also assist the trained investigator in reconstructing the crime scene and developing conclusions about how the crime occurred. In addition, the photographs will make the job of the prosecutor much easier when a case if presented in a court room.

Elements of Photography1. Camera2. Sensitized Materials (film and the Photo paper)3. Light4. Chemical Process

Uses of Photographs:

a. Identification of the subject

Basic requirements of photographs to be admitted as evidence in court:a) Accurate representationsb) Free of Distortionc) Material and relevantd) Unbiased

What is a Camera?Is a light tight box, with a means of forming the image( lens) with a means of holding a sensitize materials (film holder) and a with a means of controlling the amount of light that will reach the film( shutter) The camera is a box that controls the amount of light that reaches a piece of light sensitive film or other surface inside.

Important controls in the camera1) Focusing Controla) Split Image

Out of FocusSharp Focus

b) Microprismc) Ground Screen

2) Aperture

3) Shutter Speed

SLR CAMERA

Asingle-lens reflexcamera(SLR) typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured, contrary toviewfindercameras where the image could be significantly different from what will be captured.

The photographer can see the motive before taking an image by the mirror. When taking an image the mirror will swing up and light will go to the sensor instead.Camera lensReflex mirrorFocal-plane shutterImage sensorMatte focusing screenCondenser lensPentaprism/pentamirrorViewfindereyepiece

Loading and Unloading a 35mm Camera

Camera Motion

Camera motion can be the cause of lack of sharpness .There is two prime causes of camera motion:

First cause is vibration and it is usually caused by body movement including the beating of the heart.

Second Cause of camera motion is actual camera movement caused by the improper handling of the camera.

THE TEN LEGAL COMMANDMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHYI. Anyone in a public place can take pictures of anything they want. Public places include parks, sidewalks, malls, etc. Malls? Yeah. Even though its technically private property, being open to the public makes it public space.II. If you are on public property, you can take pictures of private property. If a building, for example, is visible from the sidewalk, its fair game.III. If you are on private property and are asked not to take pictures, you are obligated to honor that request. This includes posted signs.IV. Sensitive government buildings (military bases, nuclear facilities) can prohibit photography if it is deemed a threat to national security.V. People can be photographed if they are in public (without their consent) unless they have secluded themselves and can expect a reasonable degree of privacy. Kids swimming in a fountain? Okay. Somebody entering their PIN at the ATM? Not okay.VI. The following can almost always be photographed from public places, despite popular opinion:accident & fire scenes, criminal activitiesbridges & other infrastructure, transportation facilities (i.e. airports)industrial facilities, Superfund sitespublic utilities, residential & commercial buildingschildren, celebrities, law enforcement officersUFOs, the Loch Ness Monster,Chuck NorrisVII. Although security is often given as the reason somebody doesnt want you to take photos, its rarely valid. Taking a photo of a publicly visible subject does not constitute terrorism, nor does it infringe on a companys trade secrets.VIII. If you are challenged, you do not have to explain why you are taking pictures, nor to you have to disclose your identity (except in some cases when questioned by a law enforcement officer.)IX. Private parties have very limited rights to detain you against your will, and can be subject to legal action if they harass you.X. If someone tries to confiscate your camera and/or film, you dont have to give it to them. If they take it by force or threaten you, they can be liable for things like theft and coercion. Even law enforcement officers need a court order.WHAT TO DO IF YOURE CONFRONTEDBe respectful and polite. Use good judgment and dont escalate the situation.If the person becomes combative or difficult, think about calling the police.Threats, detention, and taking your camera are all grounds for legal or civil actions on your part. Be sure to get the persons name, employer, and what legal grounds they claim for their actions.If you dont want to involve the authorities, go above the persons head to their supervisor or their companys public relations department.Call your local TV and radio stations and see if they want to do a story about your civil liberties.Put the story on the web yourself if need be.

EXPOSURE CombinationsTHE TWO (2) ADJUSTMENTS ON A CAMERA THAT CONTROLS THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT THAT REACHES THE FILM.

Depth of FieldIs the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focus at a particular distance.The term Depth of Field is used to describe how much of what the camera sees in focus.Also known as the ZONE OF FOCUSSmaller Opening-Shallow depth of fieldHigher Opening- Narrower

Types of Camera LensesZOOM LENS

STANDARD NORMAL LENS

WIDE ANGLE LENS

TELEPHOTO LENS

SHIFT LENS

MACRO LENS

What is Over and Under Exposure?UNDEREXPOSURE A condition in which too little light reaches the film, producing a thin negative, S standing for short exposureOVEREXPOSURE Excessive amount of light falling on the sensitized material during exposure resulting in dense negative with opaque highlights or prints with blocked up shadows and veiled highlights.

I. TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY A. Basic equipment for crime scene photography 1. Camera(s) 2. Normal lens 3. Wide angle lens 4. Close-up lenses or accessories 5. Filters 6. Electronic flash(s) 7. Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s) 8. Extra camera and flash batteries 9. Locking cable release 10. Tripod 11. Film 12. Owner's manuals for camera and flash 13. Notebook and pen 14. Ruler 15. Gray card 16. Index cards and felt pen 17. Flashlight B. Lenses 1. Normal lens 2. Wide angle lens 3. Other lenses C. Care and maintenance of crime scene photography equipment 1. Cleaning lens and camera 2. Camera repair 3. Protection from extreme heat and cold 4. Protection from rain D.Film 1. Color vs. black and white 2. Print film vs. slide film 3. Film speed 4. Matching film to the light source

II. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY IS TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. A. Photographs must be correctly exposed, have maximum depth of field, be free from distortion and be in sharp focus 1. Correctly exposed a. Exposure is controlled by the shutter speed and lens aperture b. Automated camera exposure systems and automatic flash units can be fooled and give incorrect exposures c. Front, side and back lighting d. Light meters e. Flair f. Using gray card g. Bracketing exposures 2. Maximum depth of field a. Depth of field is the area in a photograph in which objects are in sharp focus b. How to control depth of field c. Zone focusing (1) Preview depth of field 3. Free from distortion (must have good perspective) a. Use a normal focal length lens when ever possible b. Keep the camera as level as possible c. Photograph with the camera at eye level when ever possible 4. Sharp focus a. Keep the camera steady b. Focus carefully and use maximum depth of field c. Look at the frame of your scene

III. FLASH AND NIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY A. Types of flash illumination 1. Manual flash a. Set f/stop for the flash-to-subject distance 2. Automatic flash a. Uses distance ranges b. A change to a new range requires a change in f/stop c. Never work an automatic flash at its maximum range, especially in less than ideal conditions d. When in automatic flash, make sure the shutter speed dial is set to the flash synchronization speed e. When photographing a high key scene (light or reflective background) bracket opening up one or two f/stops 3. Dedicated flash a. Sets correct flash synchronization speed when the flash is in operation. Still uses automatic sensor and ranges. The photographer must set the appropriate f/stop for the distance range OR b. Sets the correct flash synchronization speed and f/stop for the automatic range selected 4. Dedicated TTL (Through-the-lens) a. Uses a sensor inside the camera b. Use smaller f/stops for short distances and larger f/stops for long distances c. For compensation or bracketing use the exposure compensation dial B. Problems with electronic flash 1. Flash synchronization 2. Coverage a. Distances -- inverse square law of light b. Long distances when outdoors at night or at arson scenes 3. Reflective surfaces a. Automatic flash units can shut off too soon due to reflected light 4. Rain C. Lighting techniques 1. Electronic flash (NOTE:Disregard the light meter in the camera when using electronic flash) a. Flash mounted on camera b. Flash off camera c. Bounce flash (1) Bounce off a white or light colored surface (2) Manual flash: add the distance up and down for the flash-to-subject distance then figure in the absorbance loss (one to three f/stops) (3) Automatic flash with sensor facing the subject: use a range for two times or more times the actual flash-to-subject distance d. Multiple flash (1) Distance the flash units to provide the same f/stop for each flash 2. Available light (no electronic flash) 3. Painting with light a. The shutter is left open while the light source is moved around until all of the scene is properly illuminated b. Procedure (1) Mount the camera on a sturdy tripod (2) Equip the camera with a lens shade (if available) (3) Screw a locking cable release into the camera shutter release (4) Set the shutter speed dial to B (bulb) (5) Determine the f/stop based on the flash to subject distance (not the camera to subject distance) (6) Focus carefully (7) Depress the cable release and lock it to hold the shutter open (8) Fire the electronic flash to light areas of the scene. The number of flashes and angle of the flashes will depend on the size and character of the scene. Do not point the flash directly at the camera and keep yourself out of the view of the camera (9) Unlock the cable release and allow the shutter to close (10) Advance the film

IV. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY A. Purpose of Crime Scene Photography 1. To record the original scene and related areas 2. To record the initial appearance of physical evidence 3. It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual record of the scene for later use 4. Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings B. Admissibility of photographic evidence 1. Three major points of qualification of a photograph in court a. Object pictured must be material or relevant to the point in issue b. The photograph must not appeal to the emotions or tend to prejudice the court or jury c. The photograph must be free from distortion and not misrepresent the scene or the object it purports to reproduce 2. You do not need to be an expert in photography to take crime scene photographs or testify about them

V. GENERAL CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY A. Photographs are one way to record a crime scene 1. Field notes 2. Photographs 3. Sketches B. Photographs 1. What photographs can show 2. What photographs do not show C. Five steps in recording the crime scene 1. Secure the scene 2. Take preliminary notes 3. Take overview photographs 4. Make a basic sketch 5. Record each item of evidence D. Taking overview photographs 1. Purpose a. To show the scene exactly as it was when you first saw it (1) If something was moved before you arrived, don't try to reconstruct the scene as it was. The photographs should show the scene as you found it 2. Major crime photography a. First discuss the crime, evidence and photographs needed with other investigators at the scene b. Be careful not to destroy any evidence while taking the photographs c. Outside the scene (1) Exterior of the building where the crime occurred and in some cases the whole locale (2) Aerial photographs of the scene and the surrounding area can be useful in some types of cases (3) Original series of photographs should also show all doors, windows and other means of entrance or exit d. Inside the scene (1) Begin with a view of the entrance (2) Then photograph the scene as it appears when you first step into the room (3) Next, move around the room to get photographs of all the walls (a) These photographs should also show the positions of any potential items of evidence (4) Include photographs of other rooms connected with the actual crime scene 3. Using video to record the crime scene a. Frequently valuable to show an overview of the scene E. Photographs to record items of evidence 1. Take two photographs of each item of evidence a. One should be an orientation (midrange) shot to show how the item is related to its surroundings b. The second photograph should be a close-up to bring out the details of the object itself 2. Measuring and marking devices a. Take two photographs if a marking or measuring device is used (1) One photograph without the device, the other with the device (2) So the defence can't claim that the scene was altered or that the device was concealing anything important

VI. PHOTOGRAPHING SPECIFIC CRIME SCENES Note:Each crime scene has unique characteristics and the type of photographs needed will be determined at the scene by the investigator familiar with the crime. A. Homicide 1. Use color film 2. Photographs (example: homicide inside a residence) a. Exterior of the building b. Evidence outside the building c. Entrance into the scene d. Room in which the body was found e. Adjoining rooms, hallways, stairwells f. Body from five angles g. Close-up of body wounds h. Weapons i. Trace evidence j. Signs of activity prior to the homicide k. Evidence of a struggle l. View from positions witnesses had at time of the crime (1) Use a normal lens m. Autopsy B. Suicide, other dead body calls 1. If there is any doubt, photograph the scene as a homicide C. Burglaries 1. Photographs (residential or commercial burglaries) a. Exterior of building b. Point of entry c. Entrance into scene d. Interior views e. Area from which valuable articles were removed f. Damage to locks, safe, doors, toolmarks g. Articles or tools left at the scene by the suspect h. Trace evidence i. Other physical evidence D. Assaults, injuries 1. Photographing injuries a. Face of victim in the photographs b. Bruises c. Bite marks (1) Orientation shot (2) Close-up at 90 degree angle to avoid distortion (3) Ruler in same plane as bite mark (4) Focus carefully (5) Bracket exposures 2. Equipment a. Always use color film and no filter b. Use color charts and rulers c. Flash unit with diffused lighting E. Traffic Accidents and Hit and Run Cases 1. Photographs at the accident scene a. Where the vehicles came to rest and in what position (1) Photographs should show the relationship of each vehicle with each other b. Damage to vehicles (1) Technical photographs of damage to a vehicle (a) Do not take any oblique or corner photographs to show damage for reconstruction purposes because they are not aligned with the axis of the vehicle. They tend to conceal the amount and direction of the damage. (b) Take six photographs. Two from each side in line with the axles. Take one of each end of the vehicle, straight on. If possible take one more from overhead (c) Use electronic flash to fill in shadows within the damage c. Debris or marks on the roadway d. View each driver had approaching the key point of the accident. e. View from the point a witness observed the accident, at witness' eye level f. Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles 2. Night photography a. Use multiple flash, paint with light or available light for extra long skidmarks or to show two vehicles some distance apart

VII. USING FLASH FILL A. Steps 1. Set the shutter speed to the camera's flash synchronization speed (usually 1/60 second) 2. Use the camera's light meter to determine the correct f/stop. Set that f/stop on your lens. 3. With the flash on manual, find the flash to subject distance for the above f/stop. 4. Position the flash unit at that distance and take the photograph.

VIII. PHOTOGRAPHING EVIDENCE A. Fingerprints 1. When to photograph fingerprints a. Before lifting on major cases or if the latent may be destroyed when lifting b. To bring out detail in a latent 2. Equipment a. 1:1 cameras and copy cameras b. 35mm cameras with macro or close-up lens attachments c. Gray card for available light exposures 3. Films a. Well defined fingerprints can be photographed with color film but black and white film provides more contrast and is preferred for latent print photography (1) Kodak T-MAX film. Develop in T-MAX developer while increasing the development time by 25% for increased contrast. (2) Kodak TECHNICAL PAN 2415 film has a variable contrast range between high and low and a variable speed of ISO 25 to 320. (a) For high contrast expose at ISO 100 and develop in HC-110 (3) Kodak KODALITH film for highest contrast (a) Packaged as Kodak Ektagraphic HC Slide Film (HCS 135-36) and has an approximate ISO of 8. (b) If developed in D-76 or HC-110 there will be a limited gray scale. (4) Ilford XP-2 black and white film can be processed in color processors (a) ISO 400, fine grain with good sharpness & resolution can be processed in C-41 color chemistry 4. Filters a. Color filters, when used in black and white photography, can be used to build contrast by either lightening or darkening the subject (latent print) or by lightening or darkening the background (background drop-out) (1) To lighten a color, the color filter closest to the color is used (2) To darken a color, the opposite color filter is used (3) See Filter Chart for examples 5. Procedures a. Establish the location of the latent b. Close-up to show detail (1) A 1:1 camera or device must be used, or (2) A scale must be included in the photograph on the same plane as the latent (3) Photograph with the film plane parallel to the latent surface (4) Get as much depth of field as possible, especially for curved surfaces c. Exposure (1) Available light exposures of latents with normal contrast can be metered using a gray card (2) Bracketing may reveal more detail in "low contrast" latents. (a) Underexposing the film will separate the steps on the white end of the gray scale. Overexposure will separate the steps on the black end of the gray scale. (b) The latitude for black and white film is generally two stops underexposure and six stops overexposure. d. Specific types of fingerprint subjects (1) Normal, dusted prints (a) Usually can be photographed with no problem (2) Impressions in soft substances (wax, putty, clay, adhesive tape, grease, etc.) or in dust (a) Use cross lighting at an oblique angle (b) Preview with flashlight lighting (3) Porous surfaces (a) May need to use close to a 90 degree lighting angle (b) Preview with flashlight lighting (4) Glass and mirrors (a) Glass -- place white card or cloth behind glass, use low oblique angle of light (5) Perspiration prints on glass (a) Use back (transmitted) lighting and diffusion screen (6) Ninhydrin fingerprint (a) Use normal black and white film (T-MAX or PLUS-X) with a green filter and increase development time 25% B. Impressions 1. Footprints and tire tracks a. Procedure (1) Take an orientation photograph to show where in the scene the impression is located (2) Take a close-up for detail (a) Use a scale on the same plane as the impression (b) Keep the film plane parallel to the plane of the impression (c) Block out ambient light and use a strong light source at different angles to find the light angle(s) that shows the best detail in the impression -- then put the electronic flash or light source at that angle for the photograph (3) Photograph tire impressions in sections showing one circumference of the tire (a) Use a tape measure for overlapping photographs C. Bloodstain photography 1. Use color film 2. Orientation photographs to show locations of bloodstain evidence at the scene 3. Close-up photographs to show detail a. Use a scale on the same plane as the bloodstain b. Keep the film parallel to the plane of the bloodstain c. Use a low oblique light angle D. Toolmarks E. Serial numbers F. Small items, copying, etc. 1. Close-up lenses and devices 2. Lighting

Photographs as EvidenceThe principal requirements to admit a photograph (digital or film-based) into evidence are relevance and authentication. Unless the photograph is admitted by the stipulation of both parties, the party attempting to admit the photograph into evidence must be prepared to offer testimony that the photograph is an accurate representation of the scene. This usually means someone must testify that the photograph accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that witness.Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs Are AdmissibleDevelop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Department Policy, or General Order on the use of digital imaging. The SOP should include when digital imaging is used, chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and availability of digital images. The SOP should not apply just to digital, but should also include film-based and video applications as well.Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a variety of ways including saving the image file to a hard drive or recording the image file to a CD. Some agencies elect to use image security software.Digital images should be preserved in their original file formats. The saving of a file in some file formats subject the image to lossy compression. If lossy compression is used critical image information may be lost and artifacts introduced as a result of the compression process.If images are stored on a computer workstation or server, and several individuals would have access to the image files, make the files read-only for all but your evidence or photo lab staff. As an example, detectives could view any image files but they would not have rights to delete or overwrite those files.If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced the new image files created should be saved as new file names. The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a new file.

The Mug ShotAlphonse Bertillon didn't just establish the ground rules for crime scene photography -- he also invented the mug shot. Bertillon was influenced byeugenics, a then-common form of scientific racism. He believed that a person's character could be read through his or her genetic features and he used the standardized mug shot as an attempt to validate this theory.Photograph the subject in front of the height scale without footwear to determine his/her exact height. Let the subject hold the case very\fier. Mug Shots shall be done in Six (6) different angles with the case number each shot. 1. Front view, whole body. 2. Front view (half body-head to elbow) 3. Left Side view (half body-head to elbow) 4. Right side view (half body head to elbow)5. Left Quarter view (half body-head to elbow)6. Right Quarter view (half body-head to elbow)

PHOTOGRAPHING LIVE VICTIMS AND SUSPECTSPhotographs that show area of the body which usually are not visible when the person is clothed should be taken ONLY under the direct supervision of the examining physician or nurse, whose testimony the photographs are intended to illustrate. Thus, it is unusual that this type of photograph will be taken on a crime scene.Before photographing any part of the female body normally covered by clothing, written consent of the subject must be obtained. If the subject is a minor, the written consent of the parent is needed and the photography must be done with witnesses present.REMEMBER:Only take photographs of the area that needs to bedocumented.