Noble&

True

EssaysontheBuddhistPath

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

2

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Acknowledgements

Manypeoplehavereadearlierversionsoftheseessaysandhavekindlyofferedsuggestionsforimprovements.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothankthemonkshereatthemonastery,aswellasMichaelBarber,ClaudeLeNinan,AddieOnsanit,NathanielOsgood,RobertRhyne,DaleSchultz,MaryTalbot,IsabellaTrauttmansdorff,andBarbaraWright.Anymistakesthatremain,ofcourse,aremyownresponsibility.

Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycleandInsightJournal.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsofthesejournalsfortheirhelpinmakingthewritingclearerandmorecoherent.Thefactthattheessayswereoriginallywrittenondifferentoccasionsfordifferentaudiencesexplainsthedifferenceinstyleamongthem,aswelltheoccasionaloverlapincontent.Ihopethatthisisnotaproblem.

TheseandotheressaysonBuddhistpracticeareavailableontheInternetatwww.accesstoinsight.organdwww.dhammatalks.org.

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

MettaForestMonastery

ValleyCenter,CA92082-1409

January,2016

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DangerisNormal

Ashortreflectionthat’softenchantedinTheravadamonasteriesstates,inpart,“Iamsubjecttoaging…subjecttoillness…subjecttodeath.”That’sthestandardEnglishtranslation,butthestandardThaitranslationismorepointed:“Agingisnormalforme…illnessisnormal…deathisnormalforme.”Theextendedversionofthereflectiongoesontosaythatthesethingsarenormalforeveryone,nomatterwhere.Tobebornintoanyworldistobebornintoaplacewherethesedangersarenormal.Theylieinwaitrighthereinthebodythat,atbirth,welaidclaimto,andtheworldaroundusisfulloftriggersthatcanbringthesedangersoutintotheopenatanytime.

Asthereflectionconcludes,thesearegoodthemestoreflectoneveryday—tokeepusheedfulofthefactthatdangersaretobeexpectedandarenotanaberration.Thatwaywecanbepreparedforthem.Otherwise,wetendtoforget—andourillusionsofsafety,whenthey’rechallenged,oftenleadtounrealisticdesiresforabsolutesafetythatcancauseustocreateunnecessarydangersforourselvesandpeoplearoundus.

It’sanoften-overlookedfeatureoftheBuddha’steachingsthatheidentifiedthebasisforallourgoodandskillfulqualitiesasheedfulness—notinnategoodnessorcompassion:heedfulness.Torecognizethattherearedangersbothwithinandwithout,thatyouractionscanmakethedifferencebetweensufferingfromthosedangersandnot,andthatyou’dbettergetyouracttogethernow:Thisistheheedfulnessthatmakesusgenerous,wise,andkind.We’rekindnotbecausewe’reinnatelykind.Infact,ourmindsaresoquicktochangethatthey’renotinnatelyanything,goodorbad,asidefrombeingaware.Ifwe’reheedful,we’rekindnotonlywhenothersarekindtousormakeusfeelsafe.We’rekindbecauseweseethatkindnessisthesafestcourseofaction,eveninthefaceoftheunkindnessofothers.

ThisiswhytheBuddhatoldhismonks,whentheywereready,togooutintothewildernesstofacesomeofthedangersthere,sothattheycouldovercometheircomplacencyandbecomeresourcefulindealingskillfullywiththreatstotheirphysicalandmentalwellbeing.Thatwaytheycouldlearntobringouttheirbestqualitiesevenwhen—especiallywhen—confrontedwiththeworstthatthewildernesshadtooffer.SomeofthemostmovingpassagesinthePaliCanonarethewordsofmonksinthewildswhodiscovered,inthefaceofhunger,illness,anddangersfromfierceanimals,thatthebestwaytokeeptheirmindssafewastotakerefugeinpracticingtheDhamma.

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Now,theBuddhawouldn’tpushthemonksintothewildernessrightoffthebat.Hewaslikeawiseparentwhoprovidessafetyforherchildrenasthey’regettingstartedinlife,andthengraduallyacquaintsthemwiththedangersoftheworld,providingthemwiththeskillsthey’llneedtonegotiatethosedangersontheirown.

Thisiswhysomanyofhisteachingsdealwithissuesofsafetyanddanger:recognizingwhattruedangeris,whattruesafetyis,andknowinghowtobestfindtruesafetyinbothwithinconditionsandbeyondthem.Andhedidn’tlimittheseteachingsonlytomonksandnuns.Hetaughtthemtoallhisstudents,layandordained,becausewildernessisnottheonlyplacewheredangersabound.Andmonasticsarenottheonlyoneswhocanendangerthemselvesandothersbyholdingtounwiseandunrealisticnotionsaboutsafetyanddanger.Complacencyandtheignoranceitfostersareproblemsforusall.

Soit’susefultoreflectonsomeoftheBuddha’steachingsonsafety,togethisperspectiveonthedangersweallmustencounter.Becauseit’shardtokeepcomplexteachingsinmindwhenyou’refacetofacewithdanger,I’llboilthemainprinciplesoftheBuddha’ssafetyinstructionstoafewbulletpoints.Thatwaythey’llbeeasytokeepinmindwhenyouneedthemmost.

Thefirstpointputstheremainingpointsintoperspective:•Totalsafetyispossible,butonlyinnibbāna.Aslongasyou’renot

thereyet,youhavetoacceptthefactthatyou’llbeforcedagainandagaintosacrificesomethingsinordertosaveothersthataremorevaluable.Lifeinsaṁsāraisfulloftrade-offs,andwisdomconsistsoflearningtomakewisetrades.Ifyouforgetthisfact,youtendtofloataroundinacomplacentbubbleofwhatyouassumetobeakarma-freezonewhereyoucanhaveyourcakeandenlightenmenttoo—andthepeoplewholiveincomplacentbubblesaretheonesmostlikelytothrasharoundwildly,endangeringthemselvesandothers,whenthatbubblebursts.

Thenextpointfocusesontheprimarymeansforfindingthetotalsafetyofnibbānaandrelativesafetyintheworld.Itformsthebasisforallthepointsthatfollow.

•Yourmostlastingpossessionsareyouractions.Yourbodyisyoursonlytilldeath;yourlovedones,atbest,areyoursnolongerthanthat.Theresultsofyouractions,though,cancarrywellpastdeath,somakesurethatyoudon’tsacrificethegoodnessofyourthoughts,words,anddeedstosavethingsthatwillslipthroughyourfingerslikewater.Specifically,thismeansthatifyoureallywanttofindsafety,yourstrategycan’tinvolvekilling,stealing,ortellinglies.Atthesametime,youcan’texposeyourselftounnecessarydangersbytakingintoxicantsorengaginginillicitsex.Thesearetheprinciplesofthefiveprecepts,andtheBuddhataughtthembecausethey

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reallyworkinsafeguardingthepeoplewhoobservethem.Ifyoureallywanttoprotectyourlovedonesandotherpeoplearoundyou

fromdanger,rememberthatthesameprincipleappliestothem:Theirmostlastingpossessionsaretheiractions.Sothebestwaytoprotectthemistoteachthemtoobservethesamefiveprecepts.Ifthey’rewillingtolistentoyou,youcanexplainthepreceptstothem.Ifthey’renot,youcanteachthepreceptsbyexample—which,eitherway,istheonlywaytomakethelessonstick.

•Tofindsomesafetyintheworld,youfirsthavetogivesafetytotheentireworld.Ifyou’redeterminedtoobservethepreceptsinallsituations,you’regivingagiftofsafetytoeveryone,inthatallbeings,universally,willbeprotectedfromanyharmyoumightdo.Inreturn,yougetashareintheuniversalsafetycomingfromyourpresentactions.If,however,youfollowthepreceptsonlyinsomecasesandnotinothers—if,forinstance,youcanrationalizekillingandlyingcertainpeopleincertainsituations,forwhatevertheend—it’slikebuildingafencearoundyourpropertybutleavingahugegapintheback.Anyone,withanymotive,canwalkrightinthroughthegap.

•Youcanprotectyourselffromtheresultsofyourpastunskillfulactionsbytrainingthemind.Thefactthatwe’reborninthehumanrealmmeansthatweallhavesomepastbadkarma,sosimplyavoidingunskillfulkarmainthepresentisn’tenoughtoprotectyoufromsuffering.Fortunately,though,whilewecan’tgobacktochangeourpastactions,wecanweakentheeffectofanypastbadactionsbytrainingthemind.

Thetypesofmeditationespeciallyhelpfulinthisareaincludedevelopingunlimitedattitudesofgoodwill,compassion,empatheticjoy,andequanimity;developingyourdiscernmentinknowinghowtostopcausingyourselfunnecessarysufferinginthepresent;andlearningtheabilitynottoletthemindbeovercomebyeitherpleasureorpain.Whenthemindistrainedinthisway,it’slikeavastriverofcleanwater:Youcanthrowalumpofsaltintotheriverandyetstilldrinkthewater,becauseit’ssovastandclear.Otherwise,yourmindwillbelikeasmallcupofwater:Thesamelumpofsaltthrownintothecupwillmakethewaterunfittodrink.

•Theprimarydangerfromotherpeoplelies,notsomuchinwhattheydotoyou,butinwhattheycangetyoutodo.Theirkarmaistheirkarma;yourkarmaisyours.Evenwhenyou’remistreatedbyothers,theirkarmadoesn’tbecomeyourkarma—unlessyoustartmistreatingtheminreturn.

Atthesametime,themostdangerouspeoplearen’tnecessarilythosewhoareobviouslymistreatingyou.Sometimespeopleyouregardasyourfriendscantrytogetyoutobreaktheprecepts,ortofireuppassion,aversion,ordelusioninyourmind.Indoingthis,theycanmakeyoudolastingdangerto

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yourself.Thismeans,ontheonehand,thatyouhavetotrainyourselfnottofallfor

thereasoningsortobetemptedbytherewardsthatsomepeoplewillofferyoutokill,lie,orstealforsome“goodcause.”Ontheother,itmeansthatyouhavetodistinguishspeechthat’sgenuinelyharmfulfromspeechthat’sharmfulonlyonthesurface.Nastywordsmeanttohurtyourfeelingsorgetyouupsetareharmfulonlyonthesurface.Wordsthatinsinuatethemselvesintoyourmind,gettingyoutodevelopunskillfulattitudesordounskillfulthings:Thosearetheonesthatcandodeep,long-lastingharm.

•Youcanprotectyourselffromharmfulwordsby,again,trainingthemind.Thebestprotectionagainstunskillfulspeechistodepersonalizeit,andtwotechniquesareespeciallyeffectiveinthisregard.

Oneistorememberthathumanspeechallovertheworldhasalwaysbeen,andalwayswillbe,eitherkindorunkind,trueorfalse,beneficialorharmful.Thefactthatpeoplemaybesayingunkind,false,orharmfulthingstoyourightnowisnothingoutoftheordinary.Likealldangers,it’snormal,sothere’snoreasontofeelthatyou’rebeingsingledoutforanyspecialmistreatment.Youcantakeitinstride.

Thesecondtechniqueistotellyourself,whensomethingharmfulisbeingsaid,“Anunpleasantsoundismakingcontactattheear.”Andleaveitatthat.Don’tbuildanyinternalnarrativesaroundthatcontactthatwillstabatyourheart.Youhaveears,soyou’reboundtohearbothpleasantandunpleasantsounds.Butyoucanalsodevelopdiscernmentaroundhowyouuseyourearsandrelatetothosesounds.Ifyoucanletthewordsstopatthecontact,theywon’tpresentanydangertoyourheart.

Obviously,theseprinciplesbuildontheworkinghypothesisofkammaandrebirth—ahypothesisthat,we’retold,isnolongerviableinourmodern/postmoderntimes.Butnoneofushavetobeprisonersofourtimes.Afterall,whatvisionoflifedoesthemodern/postmodernviewoffer?Fishfightingoneanotherforthelastgulpofwaterinashrinkingpool,allendingindeath.WhatmadetheBuddhaspecialwasthathelookedforasafetythatlastedbeyonddeath,and—havingfoundit—showedothershowtofindittoo.Alongtheway,heofferedthepossibilityofsafetywithhonor,somethingthatmodern/postmodernviewscan’tprovide.

TheDhammaissaidtobetimeless.Inthisworldwheredeathissonormal,nowisasgoodatimeasanytoputthatclaimtothetest.

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What’sNobleabouttheNobleTruths?

Whenpeopleaskmethisquestion,theyoftenseemalittleembarrassed,forfearthatit’simpoliteortooobvioustoask.Butit’swellworthasking.Afterall,theendofsufferingandthepathtoitsend—thethirdandfourthnobletruths—mightbenoble,butwhat’snobleaboutthefirstandsecondnobletruths:sufferingandthecravingthatcausesit?Ifanything,byattributingallsufferingtocraving,thetruthsseemtodenythepossibilityofnoblesufferingentirely.Andwhatdoesitmeanforatruthtobe“noble”anyway?

AgoodplacetostartforanansweriswiththePalitermfornobletruth:ariya-sacca.Thisisacompoundoftwowords:ariya(noble)andsacca(truth).ThefirstwordinanyPalicompound,becauseit’sstrippedofitscaseending,canfunctioninmanyways.Thisisoneofthereasonsthatpeoplefluentinthelanguagelikedtousecompounds:Compoundscancontainmanylayersofmeaningthatrewardthepersonwhotriestodigthemout.

Ancientcommentatorsspecializedinthegameofdiggingouttheselayers,andariya-saccaisoneofthecompoundsinwhichtheylikedtodig.Amongthemeaningstheyfoundinthewordariyaisthatthetruthsareennoblingbecausetheytakeordinarypeopletoanobleattainment,ahappinessthat,becauseit’sunconditioned,isreliableandblameless.Thetruthsarealsoofthenoblesinthatnoble—i.e.,awakened—peoplehaveproventothemselvesthatthesetruthsaretrue,andthatthey’rethemostimportanttruthstoteachtoothers.Thecommentatorswhodugoutthesemeaningsdidn’tseethissortofanalysisasdenyingthefactthatthetruthsthemselveswerenoble.Theysimplysawitasaddingresonancetotheirnobility.

Forinstance,eventhoughthetruthsaretruefornoblepeople,they’renottrueonlyfornoblepeople.They’reclassedasrightview,partofthepaththatwilltakeyoufromyournot-yet-nobleconditionandleadyoutoanobleattainment.Inotherwords,they’respecificallyforpeoplewhoaren’tyetfullyawakened.They’repartoftheraftthattakesyouacrosstheriver.Onceyou’reontheotherside,younolongerneedtheraft.Fromthatpointon,thepathofthosewhoarefullyawakened,likethatofbirdsthroughspace,can’tbetraced(Dhp92–93).AstheBuddhasaid,whathelearnedinthecourseofhisawakeningwasliketheleavesintheforest;thefournobletruthsarelikejustahandfulofleaves(SN56:31).

Sothesetruthsdon’tencompassalltheviewsandknowledgeoftheawakened.They’retaughtbytheawakenedbecausethey’repartofthepathto

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takeunawakenedpeopletoawakeningaswell.AndtheBuddhadidn’tsavethesetruthsonlyforthosewhoareonthe

vergeofawakening.Once,whenquizzedbyanewcomertotheDhammanamedGandhabhaka,hetaughttheoriginationandcessationofsufferingbyusingexamplesfromGandhabhaka’sdailylife:Whydidhesufferoverthedeathorimprisonmentofsomepeopleandnotofothers?Gandhabhakaimmediatelygraspedthebasicprinciple—thatallsufferingcomesfromdesire—andproceededtoapplythoseexamplestounderstandtheanxietyhefeltoverhisabsentson’ssafety(SN42:11).Thetextdoesn’tsaythatGandhabhakagainedawakening,buthedidsee—atleasttosomeextent—howthenobletruthsaretrue.Ifhehadtakenthesetruthsasaguidetohislife,hewouldhavefoundthatthey’reennoblingaswell.

Butwhatmakesthetruthsthemselvesnoble?Mydictionarysaysthatamongthevariousmeaningsoftheword“noble”incommonusagearethesethree:preeminent,highlyvirtuous,anddeservingrespect.“Noble”canalsobeusedinatechnicalsense—asinthenobleelements—meaningsomethingthatdoesn’tchangewithchangingconditions.Thenobletruthsarenobleinallfourofthesesenses.

Thefirstsense—preeminence—relatestothathandfulofleaves.EventhoughtheBuddhalearnedmany,manythingsinthecourseofhisawakening,herealizedthatallthelessonswiththepotentialtoleadotherstoawakeningwerecontainedinthesefourtruths.Theyaretruthsthatshouldbegiventoppriorityinthemind.AsVen.Sāriputtaoncesaid,allskillfuldhammas(actions,phenomena,events)fallunderthefournobletruthsinthesamewaythatthefootprintsofalllandanimalscanfitintothefootprintoftheelephant(MN28).

Thesetruthsnotonlyprovidetheframeworkforunderstandingeverythingelsethatisskillful,butalsogivedirectionsforhowtodealskillfullywithwhateverarisesinyourexperience.Sufferingistobecomprehended,itscauseistobeabandoned,itscessationistoberealized,andthepathtoitscessationistobedeveloped.Inthisway,thefournobletruthsaretheBuddha’smostoverarchingteaching—theteachingthatputseveryexperienceinitsplaceandtellsyouthemostskillfulwaytoshapeyourexperiencesintoapath.

ThisiswhattheBuddhameantwhenhenotedthatallhetaughtwassufferingandtheendofsuffering.Hedid,ofcourse,inhismanyyearsofteaching,touchonothertopicsaswell,buthealwaysdidsowithintheoverarchingframeworkofhowthosetopicsrelatedtoanunderstandingofsufferinganditsend.Evenwhenhedealtwithsuchfar-rangingsubjectsashowtomakeamarriageworkorhowtoberebornasadevaornāga,hetreatedthemundertheframeworkofkamma,theprincipleunderlyingthefactthatouractionscaneithercausesufferingorendit.Inotherwords,hewas

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illustratingtheprinciplesofrightviewandatthesametimeshowingbothhowfarthoseprinciplescanextendandhowusefultheyaretoknow.Ifhewasquestionedabouttopicsthatwouldgetinthewayofgainingrightview—aswhenhewasaskedtotakeastandonwhetherafullyawakenedbeingdoesordoesn’texistafterdeath(SN22:86)—he’drefusetoansweronthegroundsthatdoingsolayoutsidetherangeofhisteaching.Forhim,anyquestionsthatdidn’tfallunderthesetruthswereawasteoftime.

Thenobletruthsarealsonobleinthesecondsenseoftheword:highlyvirtuous.Thisisbecausetheactofseeingyourselfintermsofthesetruthsisanobleact.Takethefirsttwotruthsasanexample.Thefirsttruthisn’tjust“suffering.”It’sthetruththatsufferingboilsdowntoclingingtothefiveaggregates(form,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness)aroundwhichwedefineoursenseofwhoweare.Toseeyoursenseofselfasinherentlystressfulistogiveyousomedistancefromit.Insteadofsimplyfollowingthedictatesofwhatyouthinkyouare,youcanstepbackfromthemandseehowharmfultheycanbe.Inthisway,youbegintocomprehendthemand,ingainingthisobjectivity,you’reinabetterpositiontoactinlessselfishways.Thewillingnesstoviewyoursenseofselfinlinewiththistruthisavirtuousactinandofitself.

Thesamepointholdsforthesecondnobletruth.It’snotjust“craving.”It’sthetruththatcravingisthecauseofsuffering.Toviewyourcravingsinthiswaygivesyousomedistancefromthemandputsyouinapositionwherethey’reeasiertodropwhenyouseethestressandsufferingtheycause.

Thenobletruthsarealsonobleinthesensethattheydeserverespect.This,infact,isoneofthemeaningsof“noble”thattheBuddhahimselfexplicitlyused.Hedidn’treservethetermonlyforthosewhohavealreadyreachedawakening.Healsousedittodescribethesearchthattakesyouthere.Anysearchforahappinessinthingssubjecttoaging,illness,ordeath,hesaid,isignoble.Thesearchforadeathlesshappinessistheonlynoblesearchthereis(MN26).Aspartofthepathtothedeathless,thenobletruthsarenobleinthattheyprovideaccuratedirectionsforhowtofocusyoursearchforhappinessinadirectionthatgenuinelydeservesrespect:towardahappinessthat’sharmless,lasting,andtrue.

Finally,severalpassagesintheCanondescribethefournobletruthsinwayssuggestingthat“noble”herealsomeansuniversalandunchanging.Onepassage(SN56:20)describesthetruthsasrealandnototherwise:Inotherwords,theydescribetheactualwaythingsareandtheydon’tchangewithchangingconditions.ManyotherpassagescontrastthetruthswithasetofteachingsthatAN10:20describesas“idiosyncratic(pacceka)”truths:statementsthatarepartiallytrue,ortrueonlyforpeoplewhohaveapartialviewofreality.Nobletruthsaretotallytrue,andtrueforeveryone.Truthsnobleinthissensearelikenobleelementsinchemistry.Theydon’tchangeinlinewiththeir

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environment.Thismakesthemevenmoreworthyofrespect,fortheygivereliableguidancewhoeverandwhereveryoumaybe.

Sothenobletruthsarenobleinallfoursensesoftheword:

They’rethepreeminentteachingonskillfulness,thewillingnesstoviewyourselfinlightofthemisavirtuousact,they’repartofapaththatdeservesutmostrespect,andtheydon’tchangewithchangingcircumstances;they’reuniversally

true.

Inmyownexperience,thepeoplewhohavebeenmostwillingtoregardthenobletruthsasnobleinthesewayshavebenefitedthemostfromthem,andarebyfarthehappiest,mostadmirablepeopleIhaveevermet.

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TruthswithConsequences

ThePaliCanoncontainsapuzzleonthetopicoftruth(sacca).Ontheonehand,therearepassagesteachingthefournobletruthsandassertingthatthesetruthsarecategorical—i.e.,universallytrueacrosstheboard(DN9).Therearealsopassagesequatingtheattainmentofawakeningwiththe“attainmentoftruth”(MN95).Ontheotherhand,therearepassageslikethese,fromtheAṭṭhakaVagga(Sn4),implyingthattheBuddhawasbeyondholdingtoanyassertionsas“true”or“false”:

Ofwhatwouldthebrahmansay‘true’or‘false,’

disputingwithwhom:heinwhom‘equal,’‘unequal’arenot.—Sn4:9

Thosewhodispute,takingholdofaview,saying,“This,andthisonly,istrue,”

thoseyoucantalkto.Herethereisnothing—

noconfrontationatthebirthofdisputes.—Sn4:8

TheCanonalsocontainsarelatedpuzzleontheissueofviews(diṭṭhi),theopinionsthatpeopleadoptaboutthetruth.Ontheonehand,itdrawsasharplinebetweenrightandwrongviews,assertingthatseeingthingsintermsofthefournobletruthsisrightview,andthatrightviewisanindispensiblepartofthepathtotheendofsuffering(SN45:8).Ontheother,theCanoncontainspassageslikethese,alsofromtheAṭṭhakaVagga,assertingthatapersonatpeaceisbetteroffnotclingingtoanyvieworassertinganyviewasnecessarilytrue.

Buthow—inconnectionwithwhat—wouldyouarguewithoneuninvolved?

Hehasnothingembracedorrejected,hassloughedoffeveryview

righthere—everyone.—Sn4:3

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Bywhom,withwhat,shouldhebepigeonholedhereintheworld?

—thisbrahmanwhohasn’tadoptedviews.—Sn4:5

Idon’tsay,‘That’showitis,’thewayfoolstelloneanother.Theyeachmakeouttheirviewstobetrueandsoregardtheiropponentsasfools.—Sn4:12

Thebrahman,evaluating,doesn’taccepttheory,doesn’tfollowviews,isn’ttiedeventoknowledge.—Sn4:13

Therearetwoprincipalwaystoapproachthesepuzzles.OneistotakethemassignsthattheBuddha’steachingsontruthandviewsweresubtleandnuanced,andthatthecontradictionsinthepuzzlesarebesttreatedasintentionalparadoxes.Thequestionisthenwhethertheparadoxescanberesolved,say,bycheckingtheCanonmorecarefullytoseeiftheBuddhausedthewords“truth”and“views”indifferentwaysindifferentcontexts,orifherecommendeddifferentwaysofrelatingtotruthsandviewsatdifferentstagesofthepractice.

TheotherapproachistoassumethattheBuddha’sattitudetotruthsandviewswasbasicallysimple,andthathedefinedhistermsconsistentlyacrosstheboard,withnovariationsfordifferentstagesinthepath.Fromthisassumptionitwouldfollowthatonlyonesideofeachcontradiction—eitherthesidewithafirmsenseofrightandwrongandtrueandfalse,orthesiderejectingnotionsofrightandwrongandtrueandfalse—accuratelyreflectstheBuddha’sviewsontruthandviews,andthattheothersideisalaterinterpolationinconsistentwiththeBuddha’strueteachingsonthesetopics.

Now,theabovepassagesassertingtheneedtogobeyondviewsandattachmentstotrueandfalseallcomefromtheAṭṭhakaVagga,asetofpoemsinthefifthnikāya,orcollectionofsuttas,inthePaliCanon.BecausetheAṭṭhakaVaggaismentionedinotherpartsoftheCanon,indicatingthatitisolderthanthepassagesthatmentionit,anumberofscholarshaveproposedthatitisactuallyolderthanalltherestoftheCanon.Takingupthisproposal,thosewhoholdtothesimplerschoolofinterpretationhavesuggestedthatthesepassagesreflecttheBuddha’soriginalviewsontruthsandviews.Asaresult,theyconcludethatthepassagesassertingthecategoricalstatusofthefournobletruthsandrightviewfoundintherestoftheCanon—theVinaya,thefirstfournikāyas,andotherpoetryinthefifthnikāya—arelater

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interpolations.Fromthere,thesescholarshavefurtherinterpretedthesepassagesfromthe

AṭṭhakaVaggainlinewithtraditionalWesternschoolsofthoughtthathavealsoquestionedtheexistenceofobjectivetruths,comingtoavarietyofconclusionssuchasthese:

•Apersononthepathshouldholdtonofixedviewsofrightandwrong,evenviewsaboutthepath.

•TheBuddharefusedtotakeapositiononquestionsof“truth”becausethereisnowayofknowingifassertionsabouttruthscorrespondtothewaythingsactuallyare.AgnosticismisthusthepositionclosesttotheBuddha’sownattitudetotruth.

•TheBuddhabelievedthateachpersonhastofindhisorherowntruth,andthatanyattempttoassertauniversaltruthisnothingmorethananillegitimateattempttoassertpoweroverothers.

Althoughtheseconclusionsdifferintheirdetails,theyallagreeinrejectingtheideaofcategorical,objectivetruths—ofaclearrightandwrong.Thus,iftheywereanaccurateportrayaloftheBuddha’spositionontruthsandviews,theywouldfurtherimply,attheveryleast,thatthetraditionalteachingsonthefournobletruthsandrightviewarenothingmorethansubjectiveopinionsthatcarrynospecialauthorityforapersoninterestedintryingtoputanendtosuffering.Moreseriously,theywouldimplythatthetraditionalteachingsareagrossdistortionoftheBuddha’smessage,thatthefournobletruthsarenotreallytrue,thateventheideaof“rightview”iswrong,andthatapersononthepathshouldholdtonotruthsandnoviewsatall,evenaboutthemeansandendsofthepath.

Itdoesn’ttaketoomuchthoughttoseethateachoftheaboveconclusionsisself-contradictory,inthatnoviewassertingtheinvalidityoftruthsandviewscanavoidcallingitselfintoquestion.Andifwecan’thaveviewsaboutthetruemeansandendsoftheBuddhistpath,whyarewetalkingaboutBuddhismatall?

Butevenifweputasidetheissueofwhethertheseconclusionscanstanduptoclosescrutinyontheirownterms,asurveyofthePaliCanonshowsthattheyarebasedonafalseassumptionabouttheCanon.ThatassumptionisthatthereisasharplineofdistinctionbetweenthecontentsoftheAṭṭhakaVaggaandthatoftherestoftheCanon,andthatthesetwopartsoftheCanonstandconsistentlyonoppositesidesoftheissueoftruthsandviews.

Forinstance,thefirstfournikāyas,liketheAṭṭhakaVagga,alsocontainpassagesassertingthattheawakenedoneshavegonebeyondclingingtoviews(SN12:2),andtoassertionsoftrueandfalse.Here,forinstance,isapassagefromAN4:24:

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“Whateverisseenorheardorsensedandfastenedontoastruebyothers,

OnewhoisSuch—amongtheself-fettered—wouldnotfurtherclaimtobetrueorevenfalse.“Havingseenwellinadvancethatarrow

wheregenerationsarefastened&hung—‘Iknow,Isee,that’sjusthowitis!’—

there’snothingoftheTathāgata[afullyawakenedone]fastened.”

AsfortheAṭṭhakaVagga,itcontainsmanypassagesassertingrightviewsinlinewiththefournobletruths,suchasSn4:1,4:2,and4:7,whichagreewiththesecondnobletruthinidentifyingthreetypesofcraving—forsensuality,becoming,andnon-becoming—ascausesforsuffering;Sn4:15,whichagreeswiththethirdnobletruthinextollingunbinding(nibbāna)asthegoal;andSn4:16,whichagreeswiththefourthnobletruthinrecommendingrightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,andjhānaasrightconcentration.TheAṭṭhakaVaggaalsocontainsthefollowingdialogue,inwhichtheBuddhaassertstheexistenceofaconsistentobjectivetruththathumanbeingscanknow:

Question:“Whatsomesayistrue—‘That’showitis’—otherssayis‘falsehood,alie.’Thusquarreling,theydispute.Whycan’tcontemplativessayonething&thesame?”

TheBuddha:“Thetruthisone.

Thereisnosecondaboutwhichapersonwhoknowsitwouldarguewithonewhoknows.Contemplativespromotetheirvariousidiosyncratictruths.That’swhytheydon’tsayonething&thesame.”

Question:“Butwhydotheysayvarioustruths,thosewhosaytheyareskilled?Havetheylearnedmanyvarioustruths

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ordotheyfollowconjecture?”

TheBuddha:“Apartfromtheirperceptionthereareno

manyvariousconstanttruthsintheworld.”—Sn4:12

Atthesametime,theseriesofpoemsintheAṭṭhakaVaggadiscussingissuesoftruthstartwiththefollowingpassage,indicatingthattheirrejectionof“true”and“false”holds,notforalltruths,butforidiosyncratic(pacceka)ones:i.e.,truthsthatarenotuniversallytrue.

‘Onlyhereistherepurity’—that’swhattheysay—

‘Nootherdoctrinesarepure’—sotheysay.

Insistingthatwhattheydependonisgood,theyaredeeplyentrenchedintheiridiosyncratictruths.—Sn4:8

Takentogether,thesepassagessuggestthattheBuddhaintheAṭṭhakaVaggawasdenying,notthevalidityofallviewsandtruths,butonlythevalidityofuniversalclaimsmadeforviewsandtruthsthatdon’tdeservethem.GiventhatmanyofthepoemsintheAṭṭhakaVaggataketheformofriddles,withfrequentparadoxesandplaysonwords,itshouldn’tbesurprisingthatitsmessageiscomplex.

ThesetwopassagesalsocallintoquestionthethreeconclusionsdrawnfromtakingthepreviousAṭṭhakaVaggapassagesoutofcontext:

•Becausethetruthisone,itcanbearguedthatitdoesn’tchange.Thustherecanbefixedstandardsformeasuringone’sownviewsasrightorwrong.Aslongasoneisstillonthepath,oneshouldregardrightviewasunfixedonlytotheextentthatonehasyettoconfirmthroughexperiencewhetheritisgenuinelyrightinleadingtotheendofsuffering.

•Thefactthatpeoplecanknowthistruthimpliesthattheyareinapositiontojudgehowwellstatementsaboutitactuallycorrespondtoitsreality.Andbecausetheyknow,agnosticismisfarfromtheBuddha’sownrecommendedattitudetowardtruth.

•Thefactthatpeoplewhoactuallyknowgenuinetruthdon’tdispute

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withoneanotheraboutitimpliesthatthetruthisthesameforallwhoexperienceit,andthatitisnotapurelysubjectiveorindividualmatter.

Allofthissuggeststhatthesimpleschoolofinterpretationdoesn’tdojusticetothePaliCanon’spuzzlesontruthsandviews.Thismeansthatwehavetoexplorehowtheymightfunctionasparadoxestoberesolved.Todothis,wehavetolookmorecloselyatwhattheCanonhastosayonthequestionoftruthsandviews,toseeifwecandetectanynuancesordistinctionsthatwouldhelptoresolvetheparadoxesandprovidepracticalinsightsintohowtorelatetotruthsandviewsinawaythatactuallyleadstotheendofsuffering.

Thefirstdistinctionworthnotingisthattheword“truth”intheCanonhasatleasttwomeaningsthatarerelevanttotheparadoxes.

Insomeinstances,“truth”meansatrueeventorexperience—somethingthatactuallyhappensorexists.Inothers,“truth”meansastatementaboutactualeventsorexperiences.ThefailuretonotethisdistinctionhasbedeviledmanyWesternwriterstrainedinschoolsofthoughtthatholdtothebeliefthat“truth”appliesonlytostatements,andnottoeventsdescribedbystatements.ThefactthattheBuddhadidn’tholdtothisbeliefisshowninthefollowingpassage,whichdescribesunbindingitselfasatruth:

“Whateverisdeceptiveisfalse;unbinding—theundeceptive—istrue.Thusamonksoendowedisendowedwiththehighestdeterminationfortruth,forthis—unbinding,theundeceptive—isthehighestnobletruth.”—MN140

Similarly,thefollowingpassagetalksaboutexperiencingatruth“withthebody,”whichobviouslymeans,nottouchingastatement,butdirectlyrealizingtheexperienceofthetruthinandofitself:

“Exertinghimself,hebothrealizestheultimatemeaningofthetruthwithhisbodyandseesbypenetratingitwithdiscernment.”—MN95

TheBuddhaalsouses“truth”inthiswaywhenheteachesthedutiesappropriatetothefournobletruths:thatthetruthofsufferingistobecomprehended,thetruthofitscauseabandoned,thetruthofitscessationrealized,andthetruthofthepathtoitscessationdeveloped(SN56:11).Obviously,thesedutiesdon’tinvolve,forexample,abandoningthestatementaboutthecauseofsuffering,ordevelopingthestatementaboutthepath.Instead,youabandontheactualqualitiesofmindthatactasthecause,anddeveloptheactualqualitiesofmindthatfunctionasthepath.

Understandingthesetwomeaningsof“truth”helpstoresolvetheparadoxconcerningtherelationshipofthefullyawakenedpersontothetruth.Ontheonehand,suchapersonhasreachedthetruthofadeathlessdimensionthatis

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freedfromattachmentstoallthingsandisnotdependentonanyconditions.Thisisthesenseinwhichsuchapersonhasattainedthetruth.Atthesametime,however,becauseviewsandstatementsabouttruthsaredependentonconditions,apersonwhofullyattainsthetruthofawakeninghastobefreeofallattachmentstoviewsandstatementsabouttruths,eventotruestatementsaboutthetruthofawakeningitself.

However,thisattainmentdoesn’tcomejustbytellingyourselftoabandonviewsandtruths.Youhavetocomprehendthereasonsforbeingattachedtoviewsinthefirstplace,andtodevelopgenuinedispassionforthosereasons.Todothis,youhavetodependontrueviewsaboutthereasonsforattachmentandthemeansforinducingdispassion.Thisiswhy,eventhoughawakeninginvolveslettinggoofallviewsandstatementsabouttruth,thepaththererequiresholdingtocertainviewsandstatementsabouttruthasconsistentguidelinesfortherightwaytoletgo.Thismeansthatyourelatetotruthinonewaywhenyou’reonthepath,andanotherwaywhenyou’vereachedthegoal.Thisistheseconddistinctionworthnoting.

OneofthemostfamousparadoxesintheAṭṭhakaVaggapointstopreciselythisdistinction:

Onedoesn’tdescribepurityintermsofview,

learning,knowledge,habitorpractice.

Norisitfoundbyapersonthroughlackofview,

oflearning,ofknowledge,ofhabitorpractice.—Sn4:9

ThesamedistinctionisconveyedbythefamoussimileoftheraftinMN22:

“Thentheman,havinggatheredgrass,twigs,branches,&leaves,havingboundthemtogethertomakearaft,wouldcrossovertosafetyontheothershoreindependenceontheraft,makinganeffortwithhishands&feet.Havingcrossedovertothefurthershore,hemightthink,‘Howusefulthisrafthasbeentome!Foritwasindependenceonthisraftthat,makinganeffortwithmyhands&feet,Ihavecrossedovertosafetyonthefurthershore.Whydon’tI,havinghoisteditonmyheadorcarryingonmyback,gowhereverIlike?’

“Whatdoyouthink,monks?Wouldtheman,indoingthat,bedoingwhatshouldbedonewiththeraft?“

“No,lord.”

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“Andwhatshouldthemandoinordertobedoingwhatshouldbedonewiththeraft?Thereisthecasewheretheman,havingcrossedover,wouldthink,‘Howusefulthisrafthasbeentome!Foritwasindependenceonthisraftthat,makinganeffortwithmyhands&feet,Ihavecrossedovertosafetyonthefurthershore.Whydon’tI,havingdraggeditondrylandorsinkingitinthewater,gowhereverIlike?’Indoingthis,hewouldbedoingwhatshouldbedonewiththeraft.”

Eventhoughyouletgooftheraftonreachingtheshore,youhavetokeepholdingfirmlytotheraftwhilemakinganeffortwithyourhandsandfeettoreachtheshoreinthefirstplace.Tomakeashowofyourlackofattachmenttotheraftbydancingaroundonthetopofitistoriskbeingsweptawaybytherivertothewhirlpoolsdownstream.

Puttingthisprincipleintopracticewhenfollowingthepathmeanstwothings:

(1)adoptingright—i.e.,effective—viewsabouttruth;(2)usingthemproperly.

Injudgingwhetheraviewisrightorwrong,theBuddhaadvisesassessingitintermsoftheconsequenceofholdingontoit.Thismeansjudgingitbytheactionsitleadstoandtheresultsofthoseactions—andspecificallyhowwellthoseactionsleadtotheendofsuffering.MN126illustratesthispointbycomparingtheactofadoptingwrongviewstothatoftryingtogetmilkfromacowbytwistingitshorn,orsesameoilbygrindinggravel.Toadoptrightviews,itsays,isliketryingtogetmilkfromacowbypullingonitsudder,orsesameoilbygrindingsesameseeds.

Inthisway,theBuddharecommendslookingattruthsasinstrumental,i.e.,asmeanstoanend.HispositiononthispointissimilartothatofWesternPragmatism,whichalsorecommendsjudgingtruthsintermsoftheactstheyinspire,andhowwellthoseactsleadtoyourdesiredgoals.However,theBuddha’steachingherediffersfromthatofPragmatismontwoimportantpoints.

•Thefirstisthat,insomeformsofWesternPragmatism,astatementcanbejudgedtobetruesimplyongroundsofutility:Ifadoptingitasaviewisbeneficialasmeanstoaparticularend,suchasmakingmoneyorsoothingyourfeelings,thenit’strue.This,however,leavesroomfordeclaringsomeusefulfictions—viewsoftheworldthatdon’treallyaccordwiththewayitis—astrueaslongastheygivethedesiredbenefitswhenputintoaction.Anexamplewouldbeafalseviewoftheworld—say,oneinwhichyouractionscanhavenonegativeconsequences—thatyoufindusefulbecauseit’scomforting,orthatallowsyoutopursueyouraimswithoutqualmsaboutunintendedconsequences.

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InMN58,however,theBuddhaindicatesthatsometruthsarebeneficialandsomearenot,butthatallbeneficialstatementsmustfirstbetrue.Inotherwords,utilityaloneisnotenoughtoqualifyanideaastrue.Truthandutilityaretwoseparatethings.Somestatementsmaybetrueinthesenseofcorrespondingtoreality,butadoptingthemmaynotbebeneficialfortheendingofsuffering.Atthesametime,nostatementthatdoesn’tcorrespondtorealitycanberegardedaseitherbeneficialortrue.

WhatthePaliCanonmeansby“corresponds”herecanbeinferredfromthewayitdealswithoffensesintheVinaya,ordisciplinaryrules.Therewefindthreewaysinwhichcorrespondencetorealityplaysaroleinanalyzingwhatisandisnotanoffense.Allthreetypesofcorrespondencearefairlystraightforwardandcommonsensical,buttheyprovetohavedeeperimplicationsforthepractice.

First,foraperceptiontobetrue,itmustmatchthefacts:toperceiveahumanbeingasahumanbeing,forinstance,isatrueperception.Toperceivethathumanbeingasacommonanimaloramannequinwouldbeafalseperception.Foreaseofreference,thiscanbecalledcorrespondenceofperception.

Second,whenonemakesastatementtoothers—especiallywhenaccusinganothermonkofanoffense—onemustaccuratelyciteone’sevidenceformakingthestatement.Ifthestatementisbasedonwhatoneheardsomeoneelsereport,andonesaysso,thatwouldcountascorrespondingtothetruth.Ifonesaysthatitwasbasedonwhatonesaw,thatwouldnot.Thiscanbecalledcorrespondenceofcitation.

Third,whenoneisaccusedofanoffense,onemustgiveatruthfulaccountofwhatoneactuallydid.Thismeansbeinghonestnotonlyaboutone’sphysicalorverbalactions,butalsoaboutone’smotivationandintentionsassociatedwiththoseactions.Thiscanbecalledcorrespondenceofnarrative.

ThesethreetypesofcorrespondencealsofunctioninthepracticeoftheDhamma.

First,inthepracticeofmindfulness,onemustaccuratelydiscernwhatishappeninginthemind:discerning,forexample,apassionatemindstateasapassionatemindstate,orapleasantfeelingasapleasantfeeling.

Second,whenmakingastatement,one“safeguardsthetruth”byaccuratelyreportingtheevidenceorlineofthoughtonwhichthestatementisbased(MN95).Forexample,ifone’sstatementisbasedonreasoningratherthandirectexperience,onesafeguardsthetruthbysayingso.Eventhoughthissecondtypeofcorrespondencefocusesprimarilyonstatementstoothers,itcarriesoverintomatterswithinthemind.Ifyouarecarefulaboutcitingthesourcesoftheopinionsyouexpresstoothers,youwillalsobecomemoresensitivetothesourcesofyourowninternalassumptions

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abouttheworldandtheself.Thishelpsyoutoseehowarbitrarymanyofthoseassumptionsare,whichmakesiteasiertoabandonthemiftheygetinthewayofthepractice.

Finally,astheBuddhataughthisson,Rāhula(MN61),anyonewhohopestomakeprogressinthepathmustbetruthfulinassessinghisorhermotiveswhencontemplatinganactioninthought,word,ordeed,andinassessingtheactualresultsofone’sactions,bothwhiledoingthemandafterthey’redone.Youcan’tlearntoadvanceyouraims—i.e.,youcan’tbeatrulyeffectivepragmatist—ifyoudon’taccuratelyknowwhatyou’redoingandtheresultsofwhatyou’vedone.

Thesecondandthirdtypesoftruth-as-correspondence—accuratelycitingthesourceofyouropinionsandgivinganhonestaccountofyouractions—aredirectlyrelatedtoeachother,inthattheyfocusyourattentiononyouractions:whatyoudidtoshapetheopinionsthatyoubringtoexperience,andhowyoushapeyourexperienceingeneralthroughyourintentions.Theabilitytobesensitivetotheseprocessesastheyhappeniscentraltothedevelopmentofliberatingdiscernment.

Theimportanceofallthreetypesoftruth-as-correspondenceinthepracticeisreflectedintheBuddha’sadmonitiontohissonRāhula:HisveryfirstlessontoRāhulawasthatanyonewhofeelsnoshameattellingadeliberatelieisdevoidofthegoodnessofacontemplative(MN61).Elsewhere,theBuddhastatedthatifyoufeelnoshameattellingadeliberatelie,thereisnoevilthatyouwillnotdo(Iti25).

Inthisway,theBuddha’sstandardoftruthwasnotpurelypragmatic.Rightview,tobegenuinelyright,hastobepragmaticandcorrespondtothewaythingsare.

•ThesecondpointofdifferencebetweentheBuddha’sattitudetowardtruthandthatofWesternPragmatismisthatmanyformsofPragmatismlackanyobjectivestandardsforjudging“whatworks,”whenputintopractice,inattainingadesiredgoal.Alltoooftenapragmaticargumentforaparticulartruthis,“It’sgoodenoughforme,”andthatendsthediscussion.Therearenoobjectivestandardsforjudgingwhat’saworthwhilegoal,orhowwellatruthhastoworkinordertobe“goodenough.”

TheBuddha,however,offeredanobjectivestandardforjudgingappropriategoalsandtheextenttowhichviewsworkasmeanstowardthosegoals.Hebeganbynotingthatallactionaimsathappinessandwellbeing.Thebestgoalwouldthusbeahappinessthatcannotchangeintosuffering.Thefactthatsuchahappinessexistsistheteachingofthethirdnobletruth:thecessationofsuffering.ThisistheBuddha’sabsolutestandardforjudginggoals.Anylesserhappinessinaccordancewiththeattainmentofthisfact—i.e.,ahappinessthatdoesn’trequireactionsthatwouldgetinthewayofrealizing

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thisgoal—mightqualifyasaworthwhileproximategoal,butitshouldberecognizedasjustthat—proximate,andnotultimate.Anyhappinesswhoseattainmentwouldstandinthewayofattainingthefactofthethirdnobletruthwouldnotbeaworthwhilegoalatall.

ThismaybeoneofthereasonswhytheBuddhadeclaredunbinding,thecessationofsuffering,asthehighestnobletruth,notonlybecauseitisundeceptive,butalsobecauseitprovidestheobjectivestandardforjudgingtheefficacyofallothertruths.

Withregardtotherightuseoftruths,theBuddhafirstpointsoutthreemisusesofrightview.Thefirstistodrawimproperinferences,ortofailtodrawtheproperinferences,fromit(AN2:24).Unfortunately,theBuddhadoesn’tgivedetailedcriteriaforwhathemeanshere,andwehavetoreadwidelyintheCanontoobservewhichsortsofinferencesheandhisnobledisciplesactuallydrawfromthebasicteachings,andwhichsortstheyreject.

Thesecondmisuseofrightviewistodeveloppridearoundthefactofadoptingit,asifthatinandofitselfmadeyouabetterpersonthanothers(Sn4:5).

Thethirdmisuseofrightviewistoemployitsimplyforthepurposeofwinningdebates.Thisisapoint,however,thatcarriesseveralnuances.TheCanonisfilledwithwarningsagainstdebatingforthesakeofdebate—thisisthecontextfortheAṭṭhakaVagga’scriticismofthosewhoarguefortheiridiosyncratictruths(Sn4:5,4:8)—buttheCanonalsolistslegitimatepurposesfordebate,suchasestablishingwhatisactuallyDhammaandwhatisnot(AN1:140–141),defendingtheDhammaagainstfalseaccusationsandmisrepresentations(AN10:93–94),andhelpingwell-meaningbutconfusedpeopletoclarifytheirviews(MN56).Thismeansthatdebatesarenotnecessarilyabadthing,andthatthepurposeofengagingindebateiswhatdetermineswhetherdoingsoisavaliduseofrightview.

Theprimaryintendedpurposeofrightviewistobeusedasaguideindevelopingalltherightfactorsofthepath,fromrightviewitselfthroughrightconcentration(MN117).AsSN22:39shows,doingthisinaccordancewiththeDhammaleadstodispassionforallthings.Inpractice,thismeansthatthefactorsofthepathareusedtodevelopdispassionfirstforanythingthatdeviatesfromthepath,andthenforthemselves,sothatthemindcanattaintotalrelease.

Thewaytheydothiscanbeseeninanumberofpassagestreatingtheissueofhowrightviewisusedindevelopingdispassionspecificallyforviews.

InAN10:93,AnāthapiṇḍikavisitsagatheringofsectarianswhoaskhimtheviewsoftheBuddhaandhisarahantdisciples.Anāthapiṇḍika,whohadalreadyreachedthefirstlevelofawakening,makesaninterestingreply:Hedoesn’tknowthefullextentoftheBuddha’sviews.This,ofcourse,relatesto

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thefactthatafullyawakenedpersonhasgonebeyondviews.ThesectariansthenaskAnāthapiṇḍikaabouthisownviews,andin

responsehefirstaskstoheartheirs.Itturnsoutthattheyallholdpositionsonthehotdebatetopicsoftheday,suchastheextentofthecosmosortheexistenceornon-existenceofthesoul.Anāthapiṇḍikacriticizestheirviews,butinsteadofchallengingthecontentoftheirpositions,hefocusesontheactofcreatingandholdingtoaposition.Ineachcase,hesays,regardlessofthecontentoftheposition,itcomesfromconditionsthatareinconstantandstressful.Byholdingtosuchviews,thesectariansareallholdingontostress.

ThesectariansthenaskAnāthapiṇḍikahisview,andhereplies:

“‘Whateverhasbeenbroughtintobeing,isfabricated,willed,dependentlyco-arisen:Thatisinconstant.Whateverisinconstantisstress.Whateverisstressisnotme,isnotwhatIam,isnotmyself.’ThisisthesortofviewIhave.”

Onhearingthis,thesectarianstrytoturnAnāthapiṇḍika’sargumentagainsthim,sayingthatinholdingtohisview,hetooisholdingontostress.Hecounters,however,bysayingthatinlookingatviewsinthisway,heisalsoabletodiscerntheescapefromthatstress.Hisargumentleavesthesectariansatalossforwords,andsohereturnstotheBuddha,whocommendshimforrefutingthesectariansinthisway.

Thispassageshowsthatrightviewcontainstheseedsforitsowntranscendencebecauseitfocuses,notsomuchontheworldoutside,butontheprocesseswithwhichthemindcreatesitssenseoftheworld.Indoingso,italsodrawsattentiontotheprocessesofclinginginthemind,andjudgesthemtobenot-self:i.e.,notworthholdingonto.Thisishowrightviewdevelopsdispassionforallprocesses—including,ultimately,anyclingingtoitselfortoanyoftheotherfactorsofthepath.

Thispointisfurtherexplainedinmanyotherdiscourses,butthreeinparticularstandout.InDN1,theBuddhatracesavarietyofviews—includingfourtypesofagnosticism—tosensorycontact,andfromtherehefollowstheprocessofholdingtoviewsontoitsconsequences:throughfeeling,craving,clinging,becoming,andultimatelystress.InSN22:81,heanalyzestheprocessesbywhichthemindcreatesandholdstoanothervarietyofviews—againincludingagnosticism—tracingthemintheotherdirection,backtotheircauses,fromfabricationthroughcraving,feeling,andultimatelytocontactwithignorance.InasuttaintheAṭṭhakaVagga—Sn4:11—hetreatsquarrelsoverviewsaspartofaclusterofsuchqualitiesasselfishness,conceit,andpride,andagaintracestheentireclusterbacktoitscauses:throughthingsthatareloved,desire,thedistinctionbetween“appealing”and“unappealing,”contact,andultimatelytoperceptions.

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Despitethedifferentdetailsinhowthesesuttastracetheprocessessurroundingtheactofholdingtoviews,inallofthemthestrategyisthesame:toseethatviewscomefromprocessesthatincludeintentionalactions,orkamma,suchasfabrication,craving,anddesire.Thisiswhytheteachingonkammaissuchanimportanttoolinthestrategyofrightviews,forwithoutseeingthechoicesinvolvedinintentionalacts,onemightassumethattherewasnochoicebuttofollowinone’soldways.Theseintentionalacts,inturn,areshowntoexistinawebofdependenciesthatarefragile,unreliable,andunsafe,inthatholdingtothemoneopensoneselftosuffering.

Thisstrategyoflookingattheprocessessurroundingtheactofcreatingandholdingtoviewsiswhereadherencetothesecondandthirdtypesoftruth-as-correspondence—sensitivitytothesourceofone’sviews,andsensitivitytoone’sactionsandtheirresults—bearsfullfruit.Withouthavingdevelopedsensitivitytothesetypesoftruthontheblatantlevel,itwouldbeimpossibletoundertakethissubtlerstageindismantlingattachmenttoviews.

Theultimateresult,asSn4:11concludes,istoseethatgenuinesafetycanbefoundonlyingoingbeyonddependenciesofeverysort.Andonlywhenthemindrealizesthiscanitbeinapositiontoabandonallpassionforfabricatingthoseactionsanddependenciesanyfurther.Whenthemindstopsfabricatingthem,theycease.AsMN118andDN1add,whenthiscessationisfollowedbyfullrelinquishment—ofeventhediscernmentthatledtocessation—themindisfullyreleased.InthewordsofDN1:

“This,monks,theTathāgatadiscerns.Andhediscernsthatthesestandpoints,thusseized,thusgraspedat,leadtosuch&suchadestination,tosuch&suchastateintheworldbeyond.Andhediscernswhatishigherthanthis.Andyetdiscerningthat,hedoesnotgraspatthatactofdiscerning.Andasheisnotgraspingatit,unbinding[nibbuti]isexperiencedrightwithin.Knowing,astheyhavecometobe,theorigination,ending,allure,&drawbacksoffeelings,alongwiththeemancipationfromfeelings,theTathāgata,monks—throughlackofclinging/sustenance—isreleased.”

However,withoutthatdiscernmentandthestrategiesneededtogiverisetoit,eventheBuddha’sreleasewouldn’thavehappened.Thisiswhy,eventhoughafullyawakenedpersonhasgonebeyondattachmenttoviews,heorsherecognizesthatthetruthsofrightviewareessentialguidestothosestrategies.Asaresult,whenteachingothers,suchpeoplecontinuetoteachthetruthsofrightviewsothattheirlisteners,inholdingtothem,canmasterthosestrategies,too.Andit’simportantthattheyholdtothesetruthsconsistently,foronlythenwillthosestrategiesbeabletodotheirworkinanall-aroundway.

Butbecausethosestrategiesaremeanstoanend,theBuddhawascarefulto

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leavebehindanumberofparadoxicalteachingsabouttruthsandviewsasawarningnottofallintothesimple-mindedtrapoftakingviewsasendsinthemselves—thinking,forinstance,thatthepurposeofthepathistoarriveatrightview—andtorealizeinsteadthattherewillcomeapointinthepracticewhereevenideasof“true”and“false”mustbeputaside.

SothemorefullyweappreciatetheBuddha’sparadoxesontruthsandviews,themorefullywe’llbeabletobenefitfromtheconsequencesofadoptingrightviewandputtingintopracticethetruthsthathetaught.

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WeAreNotOne

Twenty-fiveyearsago,oneofmyteachers,AjaanSuwat,ledameditationretreatinMassachusettsforwhichIservedastranslator.Duringagroupinterviewsessiononeafternoon,aretreatantnewtoBuddhismquipped,“YouguyswouldhaveagoodreligionhereifonlyyouhadaGod.Thatwaypeoplewouldhavesomesenseofsupportintheirpracticewhenthingsaren’tgoingwell.”

AjaanSuwat’sgentlereplyhasstayedwithmeeversince:“Iftherewereagodwhocouldarrangethat,bymytakingamouthfuloffood,allthebeingsintheworldwouldbecomefull,I’dbowdowntothatgod.ButIhaven’tfoundanyonelikethatyet.”

Therearetwomainreasonswhythesewordshavecontinuedtoresonatewithme.Oneisthatthey’resuchanelegantargumentagainsttheexistenceofanall-powerful,all-mercifulCreator.Lookatthewaylifesurvives:byfeedingonotherlife.Theneedtoeatentailsunavoidablesufferingnotonlyforthosewhoareeaten,butalsoforthosewhofeed,becauseweareneverfreeoftheneedtofeed.Wouldn’tanall-powerful,all-mercifulCreatorhavecomeupwithabetterdesignforlifethanthis?

TheotherreasonisthatAjaanSuwatindirectlyaddressedanideaoften,butwrongly,attributedtotheBuddha:thatweareallOne,andthatourorganicOnenessissomethingtocelebrate.IfwereallywereOne,wouldn’tourstomachsinterconnectsothatthenourishmentofonepersonnourishedeveryoneelse?Asitis,myactoffeedingcanoftendeprivesomeoneelseoffood.Myneedtokeepfeedingrequiresthatotherlivingbeingskeepworkinghardtoproducefood.Inmanycases,whenonebeingfeeds,othersdieintheprocess.Oneness,formostbeings,meansnotsharingastomachbutwindingupinsomeoneelse’sstomachandbeingabsorbedintothatsomeoneelse’sbloodstream.Hardlycauseforcelebration.

TheBuddhahimselfnevertaughtthatweareallOne.Abrahmanonceaskedhim,“IseverythingaOneness?IseverythingaPlurality?”TheBuddharepliedthatbothviewsareextremestobeavoided(SN12:48).Hedidn’texplaintothebrahmanwhyweshouldavoidtheextremeviewthatallisOneness.ButthreeotherpassagesinthePaliCanonsuggestthereasonsforhisposition.

InAN10:29,hesaysthatthehighestnon-dualstateameditatorcanmaster

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istoexperienceconsciousnessasanunlimited,non-dualtotality.EverythingseemsOnewithyourawarenessinthatexperience,yeteveninthatstatethereisstillchangeandinconstancy.Inotherwords,itdoesn’tendsuffering.Likeeverythingelseconditionedandfabricated,ithastobeviewedwithdispassionand,ultimately,abandoned.

InSN35:80,theBuddhastatesthatinordertorelinquishignoranceandgiverisetoclearknowing,onehastoseeallthings—allthesensesandtheirobjects--assomethingotherorseparate;asnot-self.ToseeallthingsasOnewouldthusblocktheknowledgeleadingtoawakening.

AndinMN22,hesinglesouttheviewthattheselfisidenticalwiththecosmosasparticularlyfoolish.Ifthecosmosisyourtrueself,hereasoned,thentheworkingsofthecosmoswouldbeyourstocontrol.Buthowmuchcontroldoyouhaveoveryourimmediatesurroundings,letalonethewholecosmos?AsAjaanLeeoncesaid,“Trycuttingdownyourneighbor’streeandseewhetherthere’sgoingtobetrouble.”

Takentogether,thesethreepassagessuggestthattheBuddhawantedtoavoidtheviewthateverythingisaOnenessbecauseitdoesn’tputanendtosuffering,becauseseeingallthingsasOnegetsinthewayofawakening,andbecausetheideaofOnenesssimplydoesn’tsquarewiththewaythingsactuallyare.

ButeventhoughtheBuddhadidn’ttellthebrahmanwhyheavoidedtheextremeofOneness,hedidtellhimhowtoavoidit:byadoptingtheteachingondependentco-arising,hisexplanationofthecausalinteractionsthatleadtosuffering.

Ironically,dependentco-arisingisofteninterpretedinmodernBuddhistcirclesastheBuddha’saffirmationofOnenessandtheinterconnectednessofallbeings.Butthisinterpretationdoesn’ttakeintoaccounttheBuddha’sowndismissalofOnenessanditblurstwoimportantdistinctions.

ThefirstdistinctionisbetweenthenotionsofOnenessandinterconnectedness.Justbecauseweliveinaninterconnectedsystem,dependentononeanother,doesn’tmeanthatwe’reOne.TobeOne,atleastinawayworthcelebrating,thewholesystemshouldbeworkingtowardthegoodofeverymemberinthesystem.Butinnature’sgrandecosystem,onemembersurvivesonlybyfeeding—physicallyandmentally—onothermembers.It’shard,evenheartless,tosaythatnatureworksforthecommongoodofall.

TheBuddhapointedtothisfactinashortseriesofquestionsaimedatintroducingDhammatonewcomers(Khp4).Thequestionsfollowthepattern,“WhatisOne?WhatisTwo?”allthewayto“WhatisTen?”Mostoftheanswersareunsurprising:Four,forexample,isthefournobletruths;Eight,thenobleeightfoldpath.Thesurpriseliesintheanswerto“Whatis

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One?”—“Allbeingssubsistonfood.”InsteadofsayingthatallbeingsareOne,thisanswerfocusesonsomethingweallhaveincommonyetwhichunderscoresourlackofOneness:Weallneedtofeed—andwefeedononeanother.Infact,thisistheBuddha’sbasicimageforintroducingthetopicofinterdependentcausality.Causalrelationshipsarefeedingrelationships.Tobeinterdependentisto“inter-eat.”

LatergenerationsofBuddhistsreplacedthisimagewithothersmorebenign,suggestingthatinterdependenceinvolvesnothingmoreweightythanreflectedlight:anetwithjewelsateveryintersticeofthenet,eachjewelreflectingalltheotherjewels;oralampsurroundedbymirrors,eachmirrorreflectingnotonlythelightofthelampbutalsothelightreflectedfromeveryothermirror.Thedazzlingbeautyoftheinteractinglightbeamssoundslikesomethingtocelebrate.

Buttheseimagesdon’taccuratelyportraytheactualfactsofinterdependence.Ourlivesarenotspentinacontinualinterplayofemittingandreflectinglight.We’reindividualbeingswithindividualstomachs.Perpetuallyhungry,weneverhaveenoughoffeedingoffofoneanother.Thisisnothingtocelebrate.Instead,astheBuddhastatesinAN10:27,theproperresponsetoallthisinter-eatingisoneofdisenchantmentanddispassion,leadingthemindtogainreleasefromtheneedtofeed.

Theseconddistinctionthatgetsblurredwhendependentco-arisingisportrayedastheBuddha’saffirmationofOnenessisthedistinctionbetweenwhatmightbecalledouterconnectionsandinnerones:theconnectionsamonglivingbeingsontheonehand,andthoseamongtheeventswithineachbeing’sawarenessontheother.Whenyoulookattheseriesofeventsactuallylistedindependentco-arising,youseethatitdealswiththesecondtypeofinterconnectionandnotthefirst.Noneofthecausalconnectionsareconcernedwithhowbeingsaredependentononeanother.Instead,everyconnectiondescribestheinterrelationshipamongeventsimmediatelypresenttoyourinnerawareness—yoursenseofyourbodyandmind“fromtheinside,”theintimatepartofyourawarenessyoucan’tsharewithanyoneelse.Theseconnectionsincludesuchthingsasthedependenceofconsciousnessonmentalfabrication,offeelingsonsensorycontact,andofclingingoncraving.

Sotheinterdependencehereisnotbetweenyouandotherbeings.It’sbetweenalltheexperiencesexclusivelyinsideyou.JustasIcan’tenteryourvisualawarenesstoseeifyoursenseof“blue”lookslikemysenseof“blue,”Ican’tdirectlyexperienceyourexperienceofanyofthefactorsofdependentco-arising.Likewise,youcan’tdirectlyexperiencemine.EvenwhenI’mfeelingasenseofOnenesswithallbeings,you—despitethefactthatyou’reoneofthosebeings—can’tdirectlyfeelhowthatfeelingfeelstome.

Inotherwords,insteadofdescribingasharedareaofexperience,

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dependentco-arisingdealspreciselywithwhatnoneofusholdsincommon.EvenwhentheBuddhadescribesdependentco-arisingasanexplanationofthe“originationoftheworld”(SN12:44),wehavetorememberthat“world”forhimmeanstheworldofyourexperienceatthesixsenses(SN35:82).Sohere,too,thefactorsofdependentco-arisingareallanaffairofyourexperienceassensedfromwithin.

Themainmessagehereisthatsuffering,whichissomethingyoudirectlyexperiencefromwithin,iscausedbyotherfactorsthatyouexperiencefromwithin—aslongasyouapproachthemunskillfully—butitcanalsobecuredfromwithinifyoulearnhowtoapproachthemwithskill.Infact,sufferingcanonlybecuredfromwithin.MylackofskillissomethingthatonlyIcanovercomethroughpractice.Thisiswhyeachofushastofindawakeningforourselvesandexperienceitforourselves—theBuddha’stermforthisispaccattam.Thisisalsowhynoone,evenwiththemostcompassionateintentions,cangainawakeningforanyoneelse.ThebestanyBuddhacandoistopointtheway,inhopesthatwe’llbewillingtolistentohisadviceandactonit.

Now,thisisnottosaythattheBuddhadidn’trecognizeourconnectionswithoneanother,simplythathedescribedtheminanothercontext:histeachingonkamma.

Kammaisn’tradicallyseparatefromdependentco-arising—theBuddhadefinedkammaasintention,andintentionisoneofthesub-factorsinthecausalchain—butitdoeshavetwosides.Whenyougiverisetoanintention,nooneelsecanfeelhowthatintentionfeelstoyou:That’stheinnersideoftheintention,thesideinthecontextofdependentco-arising.Butwhenyourintentionleadsyoutoactinwordanddeed,that’sitsouterside,thesidethatripplesoutintotheworld.ThisoutersideofintentioniswhattheBuddhawasreferringtowhenhesaidthatwearekamma-bandhu:relatedthroughouractions(AN5:57).MyrelationtoyouisdeterminedbythethingsIhavedonetoyouandthatyouhavedonetome.We’rerelated,notbywhatweinherentlyare,butbywhatwechoosetodo.

Ofcourse,giventhewiderangeofthingsthatpeoplechoosetodotoandforoneanother,fromverylovingtoverycruel,thispictureofinterconnectednessisnotveryreassuring.Becausewe’realwayshungry,theneedtofeedcanoftentrumpthedesiretorelatetooneanotherwell.Atthesametime,interconnectednessthroughactionplacesmoredemandsonindividualpeople.Itrequiresustobeverycareful,attheveryleast,nottocreatebadinterconnectionsthroughbreakingthepreceptsunderanyconditions.ThevisionofinterconnectednessthroughOneness,incontrast,ismuchlessspecificinthedutiesitplacesonpeople,andoftenimpliesthataslongasyoubelieveinOneness,yourfeelingscanbetrustedastowhatisright

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orwrong,andthat,ultimately,thevastnessofOnenesswillsetarightanymistakeswemake.

Becauseinterconnectednessthroughkammaisnotveryreassuringontheonehand,andverydemandingontheother,it’seasytoseetheappealofanotionofOnenessbenevolentlydesignedtotakecareofusallinspiteofouractions.Andwhythatnotioncanappeartobeamorecompassionateteachingthaninterconnectednessthroughaction,inthatitprovidesamorecomfortingvisionoftheworldandismoreforgivingaroundtheprecepts.

Butactually,theprincipleofinterconnectednessthroughouractionsisthemorecompassionateteachingofthetwo—bothinshowingmorecompassiontothepeopletowhomit’staughtandingivingthembetterreasonstoacttowardothersincompassionateways.

Tobeginwith,interconnectednessthroughkammaallowsforfreedomofchoice,whereasOnenessdoesn’t.IfwewerereallyallpartsofalargerorganicOneness,howcouldanyofusdeterminewhatrolewewouldplaywithinthatOneness?Itwouldbelikeastomachsuddenlydecidingtoswitchjobswiththeliverortogoonstrike:Theorganismwoulddie.Atmost,thestomachisfreesimplytoactinlinewithitsinnerdrivesasastomach.Buteventhen,giventheconstantbackandforthamongallpartsofanorganicOneness,nopartofalargerwholecanlayindependentclaimeventoitsdrives.Whenastomachstartssecretingdigestivejuices,thesignalcomesfromsomewhereelse.Soit’snotreallyfree.

FortheBuddha,anyteachingthatdeniesthepossibilityoffreedomofchoicecontradictsitselfandnegatesthepossibilityofanendtosuffering.Ifpeoplearen’tfreetochoosetheiractions,todevelopskillfulactionsandabandonunskillfulones,thenwhyteachthem?(AN2:19)Howcouldtheychoosetofollowapathtotheendofsuffering?Atthesametime,ifyoutellpeoplethatwhattheyexperienceinthepresentisindependentofwhattheychoosetodointhepresent,youleavethemdefenselessinthefaceoftheirowndesiresandthedesiresofothers(AN3:62).Kamma,however—despitethecommonmisperceptionthatitteachesfatalism—actuallyteachesfreedomofchoice,andinparticular,ourfreedomtochooseouractionsrighthereandnow.It’sbecauseofthisfreedomthattheBuddhafoundthepathtoawakeningandsawbenefitsinteachingthatpathtoothers.

ThenotionofOnenessprecludesnotonlyeverydayfreedomofchoice,butalsothelargerfreedomtogaintotalreleasefromthesystemofinter-eating.ThisiswhysometeachingsonOnenessaimatmakingyoufeelmorecomfortableaboutstayingwithinthesystemandbanishinganythoughtofleavingit.Ifwhatyouareisdefinedintermsofyourroleinthesystem,youcan’tleaveit—andyou’llmakesurethatnooneelsetriestoleavethesystem,either.Itmayrequirethatyousleepinthemiddleofaroadheavywiththe

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trafficofaging,illness,anddeath,butwithafewpillowsandblanketsandfriendlycompanions,youwon’tfeelsolonely.

ButtheBuddhadidn’tstartwithadefinitionofwhatpeopleare.Hebeganbyexploringwhatwecando.Andhefound,throughhisownefforts,thathumaneffortcanleadtotruehappinessoutsideofthesystembyfollowingacourseofaction,thenobleeightfoldpath,thatleadstotheendofaction—i.e.,toreleasefromtheneedtofeedandbefedon.

Becauseeachofusistrappedinthesystemofinterconnectednessbyourownactions,onlywe,asindividuals,canbreakoutbyactinginincreasinglyskillfulways.TheBuddhaandmembersofthenobleSaṅghacanshowustheway,butactualskillfulnessissomethingwehavetodeveloponourown.Iftheyfindustryingtosleepinthemiddleoftheroad,theywon’tpersuadeustostaythere.Andtheywon’ttrytomakeusfeelashamedforwantingtogetoutoftheroadtofindahappinessthat’sharmlessandsafe.They’llkindlypointthewayout.

SototeachpeopleinterconnectednessthroughkammaisanactofgreatercompassionthanteachingtheminterconnectednessthroughOneness.

Anditgivesthembetterreasonstobecompassionatethemselves.Onthesurface,Onenesswouldseemtooffergoodincentivesforcompassion:Youshouldbekindtoothersbecausethey’renolessyouthanyourlungsoryourlegs.ButwhenyourealizetheimplicationsofOneness—thatitmisrepresentsthefactsofhowinterconnectednessworksandoffersnoroomforfreedomofchoice—youseethatitgivesyoupoorguidanceastowhichactswouldhaveacompassionateeffectonthesystem,anddeniesyourabilitytochoosewhethertoactcompassionatelyinthefirstplace.

Evenworse:IfallthingsarepartsofalargerorganicOneness,thentheevilwewitnessintheworldmusthaveitsorganicroleinthatOneness,too—sohowcanwesaythatit’swrong?Itmayactuallybeservingtheinscrutablepurposesofthelargerwhole.Andinatheorylikethis—whichultimatelyunderminesconceptsofrightandwrong,goodandevil—whatbasisisthereforsayingthataparticularactiscompassionateornot?

Theteachingonkamma,though,makescompassionveryspecific.Itgivesarealisticpictureofhowinterconnectednessworks;itaffirmsbothyourfreedomtochooseyouractionsandyourabilitytoinfluencetheworldthroughyourintentions;anditgivesclearguidelinesastowhichactionsarecompassionateandwhicharenot.

Itsprimarymessageisthatthemostcompassionatecourseofactionistopracticeforyourownawakening.Somewritersworrythatthismessagedevaluestheworld,makingpeoplemorelikelytomistreattheenvironment,butnoonehaseverfrackedhiswaytonibbāna.Thepathtoawakening

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involvesgenerosity,virtue,andtheskillsofmeditation,whichincludedevelopingattitudesofunlimitedgoodwillandcompassion.Youcan’tleavethesystemofinter-eatingbyabusingit.Infact,themoreyouabuseit,themoreitsucksyouin.Tofreeyourself,youhavetotreatitwell,andpartoftreatingitwellmeanslearninghowtodevelopyourowninnerfoodsourcesofconcentrationanddiscernment.Whentheseinnerfoodshavebeendevelopedtothefull,themindwillgainaccesstoafurtherdimension,outsideofthefoodchain.Inthatway,youremoveyourmouthfromthefeedingfrenzy,andshowothersthattheycan,too.What’suncompassionateaboutthat?

Nowformostofus,thepathtoawakeningwillinvolvemanylifetimes—whichisanotherreasontotreattheworldwell.Ifwe’reinthisforthelongterm,wehavetoeatwithgoodmanners,sothatwe’llbeabletoeatwellforhoweverlongittakes.Ifwemistreatothers,we’llberebornintoaworldwherewe’remistreated.Ifwe’rewastefuloftheworld’sresources,we’llberebornintoawastedworld.Becausewe’llbereturningtotheworldweleavebehind,weshouldleaveitingoodshape.

Inthemeantime,though,byfollowingthepathwe’retakingcareofbusinessinside—andthis,too,isanactofcompassiontoothers.Oneofthemostheartrendingthingsintheworldtowitnessisapersondeeplyinpainwhocan’tbereached:ayoungbaby,cryinginconsolably;anillpersononherdeathbed,deliriousanddistraught.Youwanttoreachintotheirheartsandtakeoutashareofthepainsoastolessenit,butyoucan’t.Theirpainispreciselyattheleveloftheirexperiencedefinedbydependentco-arising—theareaofawarenessthattheycan’tsharewithanyoneelse,andthatnooneelsecanentertochange.Thisiswhyseeingtheirpainhurtsusso:We’rehelplessinthefaceofthechasmbetweenus.GlaringproofthatwearenotOne.

Someday,ofcourse,we’llbeintheirposition.Ifwecantakeresponsibilitynowforourselvesontheinnerlevel—learninghownottobeovercomebypleasureorpain,andnotdeceivedbyourcravingsandperceptions—wewon’tsufferthen,evenduringthepainleadinguptodeath.Asaresult,wewon’ttearunnecessarilyatthefeelingsofthepeoplearoundus.Thismeansthat,eventhoughwecan’ttransferthefoodinourmouthstofilltheirstomachs,we’llatleastnotburdentheirhearts.

Andinmasteringthatskill,wegiveagiftbothtoothersandtoourselves.

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UnderYourSkinTheBuddha’sTeachingonBodyContemplation

Duringmyfirstyearasamonk,whenIwasstayingatamonasterynearBangkok,wereceivedaninvitationfromthechildrenofamaninthelaststagesoflivercanceraskingforsomemonkstovisithiminthehospital,ashewantedtomakemeritandheartheDhammaonelasttimebeforehedied.Fiveofuswentthenextmorning,andtheseniormonkinthegroupchattedwiththemanforquiteawhiletoputhismindateaseandhelphimprepareforhiscomingdeath.Nowwasthetime,themonksaid,forhimtoputasideallconcernforhisbodyandtofocusinsteadonthestateofhismindsothatitwouldn’tbeovercomebypainashisbodyfellapart.

Suddenlythemanblurtedoutthattheworstpartofthecancerwasn’tthepain.Itwastheembarrassment.Allhislifehehadpridedhimselfonstayingfitandtrimwhilehisfriendshadgottenfatandpaunchy,butnowhisbellywassohorriblybloatedfromthecancerthathecouldn’tbeartolookatitortoimaginewhatotherpeoplemightthink,seeinghimlikethis.Nomatterhowmuchtheseniormonktriedtoreassurehimthatitwasnothingtobeashamedof—thatthiswaspartofthebody’snormalnaturebeyondanyone’scontrol—themanwouldn’tletgooftheconvictionthathisbodyhadbetrayedhimandwasnowanembarrassmentintheeyesoftheworld.

AllthroughtheconversationIcouldn’thelpthinkingthatthemanwouldhavesufferedalotlessifhehadtakensomeofthetimehehaddevotedtolookingfitandspentitoncontemplatingtheunattractivenessofthebodyinstead.Imyselfhadneverfeltmuchenthusiasmforthisparticularmeditationtheme—Ipreferredfocusingonthebreath,andwouldcontemplatethepartsofthebodymoreoutofasenseofdutythananythingelse.ButnowIsawthattheBuddha’steachingonbodycontemplationwasreallyanactofkindness,oneofthemanyeffectiveandessentialtoolsheleftbehindtohelpalleviatethesufferingsoftheworld.

Onthewaybacktothemonastery,Ialsorealized,tomychagrin,thatIhadbeencomplacentaboutmyownattitudetowardmybody.Despitemycontemplationofmyliver,intestines,andeverythingelseundermyskin,IstilltookprideinthefactthatIhadkeptfitwhenotherpeoplemyageweregettingalittleflabby.AlthoughIhadconsciouslyresistedtheunrealisticstandardsforlookinggoodfosteredbythemedia,Ihadfeltalittlemoralsuperiorityaboutstayingingoodshape.ButnowIhadtoadmitthatevenmy“reasonable”

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amountofpridewasdangerous:I,too,wassettingmyselfupforafall.Eatingandexercisingtobehealthymaygenerallybeagoodpolicy,butaconcernforlookinghealthycanbeunhealthyforthemind.

MostofusintheWest,ofcourse,don’tseeitthatway.Becausethemodernobsessionwithimpossiblyperfectbodyimageshastaughtsomanypeopletohatetheirbodiestoapathologicaldegree,we’vecometoidentifyallpositivebodyimagesaspsychologicallyhealthy,andallnegativebodyimagesaspsychologicallysick.WhenwelearnoftheBuddha’srecommendationsforcontemplatingthebody,weseethemasaggravatingratherthansolvingtheproblem.Whatweneed,wethink,isawayofmeditatingthatdevelopspositiveimagesofthebodyasabeautifulandsacredvehicleforexpressingcompassionandlove.

FromtheBuddha’sperspective,though,thisattitudeisradicallydeluded.Asaprincehehadbeennostrangertotheobsessionoftryingtomeasureuptoextravagantstandardsofbeauty.Ifyoureadthemonasticrulesdescribingthemeansofbeautificationdeniedtomonksandnuns—creams,cosmetics,jewelry,handsandfeetdyedred—yourealizethatIndiawasjustasobsessedwithsuper-humanidealsofbeautyasarewe.Throughhisunderstandingofhowperceptionsofthebodycanfunctionbothasaidsandhindrancesinthequestforliberation,hecametorealizethattherearefourkindsofbodyimages,notjusttwo:healthypositive,unhealthypositive,healthynegative,andunhealthynegative—“healthy”meaningleadingtolong-termhappiness;“unhealthy,”leadingtolong-termsufferingandpain.

Whenyouunderstandthispoint,you’llseethathisteachingsonthebodyareaimedatliberatingusfromunhealthybodyimagesofbothsorts,andreplacingthemwithbothsortsofhealthyimages.Andwhenyouunderstandthedangersofunhealthybodyimages—whetherpositiveornegative—alongwiththefreedomthatcomesfromcultivatingbothsortsofhealthybodyimages,you’llrealizethattheBuddha’straininginresettingyourbodyimageisbothausefuldefenseagainsttheskewedmessagesofourcultureandanecessarypartoftheBuddhistpath.

Unhealthybodyimages,whetherpositiveornegative,startwiththeassumptionthatthebody’sworthismeasuredbythebeautyofitsappearance.Thedamagedonebythisassumptionwhenitleadstonegativebodyimagesiscommonknowledge,butthedamagedonewhenitleadstopositiveonesisjustasbadifnotworse.

Thisisbecausetheperceptionofbeautycarriesapower.Wesensethepowerwieldedbythepeopleweperceiveasattractive,andwewanttoexertthesamepowerourselves.Thisisoneofthereasonswhyweresisttheideaofseeingthebodyasunattractive,forthatwouldbetodenyusamajorsourceofthepowerweconsciouslyandunconsciouslytrytowield.Weforget,orchoose

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toignore,thedangersthatthiskindofpowerentails.

1)Itleadstounskillfulkamma.Becausebeautyiscomparative,itoftencarrieswithitasenseofprideandconceitwithregardtothoseyouperceiveaslessattractivethanyou,alongwiththekindsofunskillfulactionsthatprideandconceitcansoeasilyengender.

2)It’sfragile.Nomatterhowhardyoutrytostaveoffthesignsofaging,theyalwaysarrivetoosoon.Thepridethatoncesustainedyounowturnsaroundtostabyou.Evenwhenthebodyisatthepinnacleofitshealthandyouth,toperceiveitasbeautifulrequireshugeblindspots:thatyouignoreanyexternalfeaturesthatarelessthanbeautiful,thatyouviewitonlyfromcertainanglesandwhenthelightingisjustso—anddon’teventhinkofwhatliesinside,justundertheskin,readytooozeoutofyourorificesandpores.Becausetheseunattractivefeaturescanshowthemselvesatanytime,youneedconstantreassurancethatnooneelsenoticesthem,andeventhenyouwonderifthepeoplereassuringyouaretellingyouthetruth.

Whenyou’reattachedtosomethingsofragile,you’resettingyourselfuptosuffer.Theappearanceofeachnewwrinklebecomesasourceoffearandanxiety,andwhenthisisthecase,howwillyounotbeafraidofaging,illness,anddeath?Andifyoucan’tovercomethisfear,howwillyoueverbefree?

3)Thefragilityofthispoweralsoenslavesyoutoothers.Whenyouwanttolookgoodtoothers,you’replacingyourworthintheirhands.Thisiswhypeopleself-consciousoftheirlooksresenttheobjectifyinggaze.Theywouldpreferthatitbeanexpressionofpureadmiration,buttheyknowdeepdownthatitoftenisn’t.Dothosewhoaregazingatyoureallyadmireyou?Whatstandardsaretheymeasuringyouagainst?Eveniftheydoadmireyou,howpureisthedrivingforcebehindtheiradmiration?Istheirattentionsomethingyoureallywant?Eventhoughyoumayhavecultivatedyourbeautyasameansofpower,youcan’tcontrolwhothatpowerwilldrawtoyou,orwhy.

Whenyouinternalizethegazeofothers,you’reaprisonerofwhat,inreality,you’rereadingintotheirgaze—anuncertainprocessatbest.Themoreyouwanttobelieveinyourownbeauty,themoreyoubecomeattractedtopeoplewhoshowsignsofbeingattractedtoyou,butthenyoufindyourselfservingtheirinterestsratherthanyourown.

Inyourquesttodevelopandmaintainyourbeauty,youalsobecomeaslavetothebeautyindustryinitsvariousforms—anindustrythatholdsoutthepromisethatperpetualbeautyispossible,butkeepspushingtheidealofbeautytomoreandmoreimpossibleextremes,requiringmoreandmoreofyourmoneyandtime.Theseextremescan

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evencompromiseyourhealth,asinthecultoffreakishlythinfemalemodelsandmorbidlymuscularmen.

Thisisprobablythemostironicaspectofthepowerofbeauty:thatthedesiretouseyourbeautytoexertcontroloverothersendsupenslavingyoutothosewhopromisetohelpyoumaintainyourbeautyaswellastothoseyouhopetocontrol.

Incontrasttoanunhealthypositivebodyimage,ahealthyonefocusesnotonhowgoodthebodycanlookbutonthegooditcando.Asanobjectofconcentration,thebodycanbeasourceofraptureandwell-beingtosustainyouonthepath.Youlearntoappreciatethebodyasatoolforexpressingkindnessanddevelopingtheinnerbeautyofgenerosityandvirtue—which,astheBuddhanoted,arebeautifuleventhrougholdage(seeSN1:51).Withthissortofbodyimage,theappearanceofwrinklesisnotathreattotheworthofyourbody,butsimplyaremindertoaccelerateyoureffortstodogoodastimeisrunningout.

Mostpeoplebelievethatit’spossibletoappreciatethebodybothforitspotentialforbeautyandforitspotentialforgoodness,butanunhealthypositivebodyimageunderminesahealthypositivebodyimagebecausethetimeandenergyspentonshoringupyourperceptionofyourownbeautylessensthetimeandenergyyoucouldspendondoinggood.

Atthesametime,thehiddenagendasofbeautyoftenconfuseandpervertyourperceptionofwhat“good”reallyis.Thisconfusion,forinstance,iswhatallowsspiritualteacherstoclaimthatsexwiththeirstudentscanbeasacredandhealingactivity.Noonewhoisfreeofanunhealthypositiveornegativebodyimagewouldseriouslyentertainsuchanidea.

It’sbecauseanunhealthypositivebodyimageworksatcrosspurposeswithahealthypositiveimagethatitneedstobecounteractedwithahealthynegativeimageofthebody’sbeauty.Thisdiffersfromanunhealthynegativebodyimageinthreeimportantrespects:

1)Anunhealthynegativebodyimageseesanunattractivebodyasbad.Ahealthynegativebodyimageseesthatphysicalunattractivenessissimplyaperception,asemptyasallotherperceptions,andirrelevanttothebody’sworthortoyourownworthasaperson.

2)Anunhealthynegativebodyimagecomesfromseeingyourbodyasunattractiveandotherpeople’sasattractive.Ahealthynegativebodyimagecomesfromregardingeveryoneasbasicallyunattractive—likehousesinthetropicsmadeoffrozenmeat.Evenifsomeofthemaremorenicelyshapedthanothers,whenyousmelltheirslowdecayinthepresentandthinkofwhatthey’llbelikewhencompletelythawed,you’renotattractedtoanyofthematall.

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3)Anunhealthynegativebodyimageistheresultofattachment.Hatingourappearancedoesn’tmeanwe’reunattachedtoourbodies.We’reactuallyfiercelyattachedbothtoourbodiesandtoanidealofbeautythatourbodieshaveyettoattain.Theconflictbetweenthesetwoformsofattachmentiswhatmakesussuffer.

Whatmakesahealthynegativebodyimagehealthyisthatitallowsyoutoseethebody’sbeautyasamatterofindifferenceandtoregardthebodypurelyasatoolfordevelopingtheskillfulqualitiesofthemind.

TheBuddha’sstrategyfordevelopingahealthynegativebodyimagestartswiththemindfulnesspracticeoffocusingonthebody“inandofitself,puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.”Inotherwords,insteadofregardingthebodythroughtheinternalizedgazeofothers,youregarditsimplyasyouexperienceithereandnow,onitsownterms.Agoodplacetobeginiswiththeexperienceofthebreath,learninghowtomanipulatethatexperiencesoastoinduceafeelingofeaseandrefreshmentinyourimmediatesenseofthebody.Thissenseofwell-beingreaffirmstheworthofthebodyasasourceforharmlesshappiness—whenapproachedskillfully—evenasyoudismantleyournotionsofitsattractiveness.

Therearetwotraditionalwaystostartthedismantling:eithervisualizingwhatthebodywouldbelikeifyoudissecteditintoitsvariousparts,orvisualizinghowitwoulddecomposeafterdeath.

Forthedissectioncontemplation,youcanstartwiththecanonicallistof31parts:headhair,bodyhair,nails,teeth,skin,muscles,tendons,bones,bonemarrow,kidneys,heart,liver,pleura,spleen,lungs,largeintestines,smallintestines,contentsofthestomach,feces,bile,phlegm,lymph,blood,sweat,fat,tears,skin-oil,saliva,mucus,fluidinthejoints,urine.Visualizeeachofthesepartsuntilyoufindonethat’sespeciallydisenchanting,andfocusonthat.Oryoucanfocusonanypartnotonthelist.I,forinstance,havefounditeffectivetothinkofwhateyeslooklikewithouteyelids.

Togetstartedwiththerightattitudetothiscontemplation—seriousenoughtoshowyoumeanbusiness,butlight-heartedenoughtokeepfromgettingdepressed—youcanaskyourselfwitheachpart:Whatwouldyoudoifyouopenedaroomandfounditunexpectedlyonthefloor?Orifyousatdownatatableandfounditonyourplate?Ifit’sliquid,wouldyouwanttobatheinavatofit?Thinkinthesewaysuntilyourealizehowridiculousitistowanttolookforbeautyinabodymadeofthesethings.

Forthedecompositioncontemplations,youcanfirstvisualizethebodyaginginten-yearstages,thendying,gettingbloated,dryingoutinstagesuntilit’sjustdust.Thenyoucanreversethecontemplation,bringingthebodybacktoitspresentstatetoemphasizethefactthatthepotentialforallthosestagesis

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righthere,rightnow.Thiscontemplationhelpstoremindyouthatnomatterhowwiselyyoucareforthebodyorhowartfullyyouimproveitsappearance,it’llsomedayreachthepointwhereyouwouldn’twanttobenearitatall.Ifyoudon’tlearnhowtoletgoofitnow,you’llhaveahardtimelettinggowhendeathforcestheissue.

Fortheseperceptionstobehealthy,youhavetolearnhowtoapplythemequallytoeveryone.Infact,that’swhattheseperceptionsaremeanttobe:equalizers.You’relookingatthetruthsofallbodies,equally,allovertheworld.

Mostmeditatorsareencouragedtoapplytheseperceptionstotheirownbodiesbeforeapplyingthemtoothers—onthegroundsthatourattractiontoothersoftenstartswithourattractiontoourselves—butifyousufferfromanunhealthynegativebodyimage,startbyapplyingthemtoabodyyouenvy.Imagine,forinstance,thatsupermodelswererequiredtoweartheirskininsideout,andthatallathletesandentertainersflauntingtheirabswererequiredtodisplayeverythingelsetheirabdomenscontain.Onlywhenyoursenseofhumorcanshakeoffyourenvyshouldyouapplytheperceptionsofunattractivenesstoyourself.

Regardlessofwhatkindofunhealthybodyimageyoustartwith,thiscontemplationissuretogetunderyourskinnotonlyinaliteralsensebutalsoinanidiomaticone.Ithasto,becauseapartofthemind,well-entrenchedforlifetimes,issuretoresist.Ifyouobeytheinnervoicesthatputupresistance,you’llneverbeabletodiguptheunhealthyattitudeshidingbehindthem.Onlywhenyouchallengethatresistancewillyouclearlyseetheunderlyingunskillfulagendasbehindyourattachmenttobodilybeauty.Andonlywhenyouseethemclearlycanyouworkyourwayfreefromthem.

Afterall,theultimatepurposeofthiscontemplationistoseethattheproblemdoesn’tliewiththebody;itlieswithyourchoiceofperceptions.Anditsensitizesyoutohowthosechoicesaremade:Whenyou’vebeendevelopingtheperceptionthatthebodyisunattractive,whydoesthemindsuddenlyswitchbacktotheperceptionthatit’sattractive?Whatarethestepsinthatshift?Whenyoutrytoanswerthesequestionsthroughobservingthemindinaction,youlearnalotabouthowthemindcanfoolitself—andisverywillingtobefooled.

Aboveall,trytobringanattitudeofhumortothiscontemplation,sothatyoucanlaughgood-naturedlyatyourfoolishnessinlookingforbeautyinthebody.If,atanytime,theseexercisesleadtofeelingsofdisgustordepression,dropthemandreturnyourattentiontothebreathuntilyou’veinducedasenseofinnereaseandrefreshment.Resumetheperceptionsofunattractivenessonlywhenyou’reinamorebalancedstateofmind.AsonefamousThaimeditationteachersaid,you’renotaimingatrevulsion;you’re

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simplytryingtosoberup.Ifyou’reinarelationship,don’tworrythatyou’llruinitwiththis

meditation.Onlyafteragreatdealoftimeanddedicationcantheseperceptions—andtheunderstandingyougainfromthem—eradicatesexualdesireentirely.Inthemeantime,youcanactuallyusetheseperceptionstostrengthenyourrelationshipasyouapplythemtoanyoneoutsideoftherelationshipwhomighttemptyoutobeunfaithfultoyourpartner.Theyalsohelpyoutofocusmoreattentionontheaspectsoftherelationshipthatwillgiveitamoresubstantialbasistolastovertime.

Anddon’tbeafraidthatthismeditationwillleaveyoulistlessandmorose.Themoreyoucanfreeyourselffrominternalizingthegazeofothers,themoreliberatedyoufeel.Asyoubringmorehumortoissuesofthebody’sappearance,themoreyouunleashthehealthyenergiesofthemind.

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SilenceIsn’tMandatorySensoryPerceptionintheJhānas

Ontheafternoonofhislastday,ashewaswalkingtotheparkwherehewouldbetotallyunbound,theBuddhastoppedtorestatthefootofatreebythesideoftheroad.TherehewasapproachedbyPukkusaMallaputta—astudentoftheBuddha’sfirstteacher,ĀḷāraKālāma—whoproceededtopraiseĀḷāraforthestrengthofhisconcentration:Āḷārahadsatinconcentration,percipientandalert,as500cartspassedbyonanearbyroad,butheneithersawthemnorheardasound.Onlylaterdidhelearnaboutthem,whenanothermantravelingalongtheroadaskedhimwhetherhehadseenorheardthecartspassby.

TheBuddharespondedbytellingPukkusaofatimewhenhehadbeensittinginconcentrationinathreshingbarn,percipientandalert,whentherainwaspouring,lightningwasflashing,andathunderboltkilledtwomenandfouroxennearby,andyethehadn’tseenanythingnorheardasound.He,too,didn’tknowwhathadhappeneduntilheleftthebarnandaskedsomeonewhysomanypeoplehadgatherednearby.

Pukkusawassoimpressedbythisstorythat,inhiswords,hetookhisconvictioninĀḷāraand“winnoweditbeforeahighwind”and“washeditawayintheswiftcurrentofariver.”HethentookrefugeintheTripleGem,presentedtheBuddhawithapairofgold-coloredrobes,andleft.

Thisincidentprovidesacuriousfootnotetoanincidentinanearliersetofstories:theBuddha’sownaccountoftheeventsleadinguptohisawakening.Afterleavinghome,hehadstudiedwithĀḷāra,whohadtaughthimhowtoreachaformlessconcentrationattainmentcalledthedimensionofnothingness,inwhichthemindisfocusedonasingleperception:“Thereisnothing.”YetwhentheBuddha-to-behadmasteredthatattainment,herealizedthatitdidn’tconstitutetheendofsuffering.SoheleftĀḷārainsearchofabetterteacher,andeventuallypursuedawakeningonhisown.Thepointofthisaccountwasthat,togainawakening,theBuddhaneededmorethanjustaconcentrationattainment.Healsoneededtomastertheskillsofthefournobletruthssoastodevelopdispassionforallfabricatedstatesofmind,includingthemostprofoundstatesofconcentration.Onlythencouldhereachthedeathless.

ThestoryoftheBuddha’sconversationwithPukkusa,incontrast,readslikeananti-climax.Pukkusa’sinterestgoesnofurtherthanconcentration,andhe

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baseshisconvictionintheBuddhasimplyonthefactthatthelatter’sconcentrationwasverystrong.AsforwhethertheBuddha’sconcentrationwasactuallystrongerthanĀḷāra’s,there’snowayofknowing,becauseĀḷārawasn’tpresentedwiththesametest.

Thestorydoes,however,raiseanimportantquestion.ItshowsthattheCanonrecognizesstagesofconcentrationinwhichthephysicalsensesfallsilent—andthattheBuddha,asanawakenedone,hadmasteredthosestages—butitsaysnothingaboutwhetherthosestagesarenecessaryforawakening.Buddhaghosa—inhisVisuddhimaggaandinthecommentarieshecompiledfromtheancientSinhalesecommentariesonthePalisuttas,ordiscourses—saysthatitisamandatoryfeatureofjhānathattheexternalsensesfallsilent,butthatjhānaisnotnecessaryforawakening.SomemodernpracticetraditionsagreewithBuddhaghosaonbothcounts,butothers—whodisagreewithBuddhaghosaonthesecondcount,sayingthatjhānaisnecessaryforawakening—differfromoneanotheronthefirst:somegroupsmaintainingthat,Yes,theexternalsensesmustfallsilentinjhāna,othersmaintainingthat,No,theydon’t.

Ihavealreadyexploredelsewheretheissueofwhetherjhānaisnecessaryforawakening—concludingthat,accordingtothePalisuttas,itis(seeRightMindfulness,AppendixThree).HereIwouldliketoexaminewhatthesuttashavetosayabouttheotherissue:whetherjhānacountsasjhānaonlyiftheexternalsensesfallsilent.IftheanswerisYes,thatmeansthatapersoncanattainawakeningonlyafterdevelopingconcentrationtothepointwhereallinputfromtheexternalsensesisblocked.Thisisclearlyanissueofgreatpracticalimportanceforanyoneaimingattruerelease.

Background:theNineAttainments

Anyattempttodeterminethesuttas’stanceonthisissuehastobeginbyanalyzinghowtheydescribethestagesofconcentrationthatcanactasthebasesforawakening.Thesuttas’mostextensivestandardlistdescribesninestagesinall.Thefirstfourstages,calledthefourjhānas,aretheonlymembersofthelistincludedinthestandarddefinitionofrightconcentrationindiscussionsofthenobleeightfoldpath(seeSN45:8).However,accordingtoMN140,theremainingstages—whichthesuttascallthe“formlessnessesbeyondforms,”andwhichmoderndiscussionscallthe“formlessjhānas”—aresimplyapplicationsoftheequanimityfoundinthefourthjhāna.(Here,forthepurposeofkeepingtheseformlessstagesdistinctfromthefourjhānaswhileatthesametimesavingspace,Iwillrefertothemasthe“formlessattainments.”Anyreferenceto“thejhānas”willmeanthefourjhānas,andnottheformlessattainments.)

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Becausemanypassagesinthesuttasdescribehowawakeningcanbebasedonanyofthefourjhānasorthefiveformlessattainments,allninestagesseemtoberightlyclassedasrightconcentration.

Thestandarddescriptionoftheninestagesisthis:

[1]“Thereisthecasewhereamonk,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulmentalqualities,entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna:raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.

[2]“Withthestillingofdirectedthoughtsandevaluations,heentersandremainsinthesecondjhāna:raptureandpleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthoughtandevaluation—internalassurance.

[3]“Withthefadingofrapture,heremainsequanimous,mindful,andalert,andsensespleasurewiththebody.Heentersandremainsinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichthenobleonesdeclare,‘Equanimousandmindful,hehasapleasantabiding.’

[4]“Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofjoyanddistress—heentersandremainsinthefourthjhāna:purityofequanimityandmindfulness,neitherpleasurenorpain.

[5]“Withthecompletetranscendingofperceptions[mentalnotes]of(physical)form,withthedisappearanceofperceptionsofresistance,andnotattendingtoperceptionsofmultiplicity,(perceiving,)‘Infinitespace,’heentersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace.

[6]“Withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,(perceiving,)‘Infiniteconsciousness,’heentersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.

[7]“Withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness,(perceiving,)‘Thereisnothing,’heentersandremainsinthedimensionofnothingness.[ThiswasthestagemasteredbyĀḷāra.]

[8]“Withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionofnothingness,heentersandremainsinthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception.

[9]“Withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,heentersandremainsinthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.”—AN9:32

Somesuttas—suchasMN121andSN40:9—mentionanotherstageofconcentration,calledthethemelessconcentrationofawareness(animitta-ceto-samādhi),thatcanalsobeusedasabasisforawakening:

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Themonk—notattendingtotheperceptionofthedimensionofnothingness,notattendingtotheperceptionofthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception—attendstothesinglenessbasedonthethemelessconcentrationofawareness.”—MN121

Becausethisthemelessconcentrationofawareness,likethecessationofperceptionandfeeling,followsonthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,thereisthequestionastowhetherthetwostagesareidentical.MN44suggeststhatthey’renot,sayingthat“themelesscontact”isoneofthefirstcontactsthatameditatorexperiencesonemergingfromthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.Thissuggeststhatthethemelessconcentrationliesonthethresholdofthecessationofperceptionandfeeling,butisnotidenticalwithit.

It’simportanttonotethatthemereattainmentofanyofthesestagesofconcentrationdoesnotguaranteeawakening.AsAN4:178notes,itispossibletoattaina“peacefulawareness-release”withoutone’sheartleapingattheideaofthecessationofself-identificationorthebreachingofignorance.MN113notesthatapersoncangoasfarasthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionand,lackingintegrity,exalthimselfanddisparageothersoverthefactthathehasgainedthatattainmentwhereasotherpeoplehaven’t.MN106notesthatit’spossible,onreachingthesamelevel,torelishandclingtothesubtleequanimityexperiencedthere.Inallofthesecases,ifthesedefectsofinsightandcharacterarenotremedied,themeditatorwillmakenofurtherprogresstowardawakening.

Theonepossibleexceptiontotheprinciplethatrightconcentration,onitsown,cannotachieveawakeningistheninthstageinthestandardlist:thecessationofperceptionandfeeling.Perception,here,meansthementalnotethatidentifiesandrecognizesthingsandevents.Feelingmeansfeeling-tonesofpleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain.TheVisuddhimagga(XXIII.18)statesthatanyonewhohasreachedthisattainmentmustalsoattain,attheveryleast,thepenultimatestageofawakening:non-return.Thesuttas,however,aremoreequivocalontheissue.Ontheonehand,MN113doesnotlistthisattainmentasastageofconcentrationthatapersonwithoutintegritycouldattain.Atthesametime,manyofthesuttas’descriptionsofthisattainmentincludethephrase,“and,ashesees(that)withdiscernment,hiseffluentsarecompletelyended.”Thesetwopointssuggestthat,asoneleavesthisattainment,thedepthofconcentrationhasautomaticallyprimedthemindforliberatinginsight.However,notallofthesuttas’descriptionsofthisattainmentincludethatconcludingphrase(see,forexample,DN15andAN9:32),whichmayimplythattheinsightisnotautomatic.

Atthesametime,eveniftheattainmentofthecessationofperceptionandfeelingdoesautomaticallyleadtoawakening,weshouldnotethatit’snotthe

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onlytotallynon-percipientstageofconcentrationrecognizedbythesuttas.Theotheristhemeditationthatleadsaperson,afterdeath,tobereborninthedimensionofnon-percipientbeings.ThisdimensionismentionedinDN1andDN15,butthemeditationleadingthereisnotpartofthestandardlistofconcentrationattainments,norisitdescribedbythesuttasinanydetail.Whatthesuttasdoindicateclearlyisthatthedimensionofnon-percipientbeingsisnotanobleattainment,forasDN1notes,ifaperceptionarisesinthemindofabeingthere,thatbeingfallsfromthedimension.Ifthebeingisthenreborninthehumanworldandpracticesmeditation,he/shewillbeunabletorememberpreviouslifetimesandsomaycometoaconclusionthatfosterswrongview:thatbeingsariseoutofnothing,spontaneouslyandwithoutcause.Thisviewwouldnotoccurtoapersonwhohasreachedeventhefirststageofawakening,sothedimensionofnon-percipientbeingsisobviouslynotanoblestate.

Sothemereattainmentofconcentration—eventotheextentofbeingtotallyfreefromperception—doesnotguaranteeawakening.

Thisfactisreflectedinthetwomainwaysinwhichthesuttasdescribeapersonpracticingconcentration.Insomecases,theysaysimplythatthemeditatorentersandremainsinaparticularstageofconcentration.Inothers,theysaythatthemeditator,whileremaininginthatstage,analyzesitintermsofthefabricationsofwhichitiscomposed,gainsasenseofdispassionforthosefabrications,andasaresultgainsrelease.ThefirstsortofdescriptionfallsunderwhatAN4:41callsthe“developmentofconcentrationthatleadstoapleasantabidinginthehereandnow”;thesecondfallsunderwhatthesamesuttacallsthe“developmentofconcentrationthatleadstotheendingoftheeffluents.”Thiselementofanalysisaddedtothepracticeofconcentrationiswhatcanleadtoawakening.

MN52andAN9:36describehowthishappens,withthelattergivingthemoreextensivedescriptionofthetwo.Aftermasteringaparticularstageofconcentration,themeditatoranalyzesitintermsofthefiveaggregatesofwhichitiscomposedandthendevelopsaseriesofperceptionsaroundthoseaggregatesaimedatdevelopingasenseofdisenchantmentanddispassionforthem.Thedispassioniswhatthenleadstorelease.Forinstance,withthefirstjhāna:

“Thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna:raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfromthosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,

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inclineshismindtothepropertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—theresolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishmentofallacquisitions;theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;unbinding.’

“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,ifnot,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,andfromthetotalendingofthefivelowerfetters—heisduetoarisespontaneously(inthePureAbodes),theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld.”—AN9:36

Thesuttathendescribesasimilarprocessforeachoftheconcentrationattainmentsupthroughthedimensionofnothingness,afterwhichitconcludes:

“Thus,asfarastheperception-attainmentsgo,thatisasfarasgnosis-penetrationgoes.Asforthesetwodimensions—theattainmentofthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionandtheattainmentofthecessationofperceptionandfeeling—Itellyouthattheyaretoberightlyexplainedbythosemonkswhoaremeditators,skilledatattainment,skilledatattainment-emergence,whohaveattainedandemergedindependenceonthem.”—AN9:36

Inotherwords,unlikeitstreatmentofthefirstsevenstagesofconcentration,thesuttadoesnotdescribehowonemightanalyzethelasttwoattainmentssoastogainrelease.WhythesetwoattainmentsaretreateddifferentlyfromtheothersissuggestedbyasimilardiscussioninMN111.TheretheBuddhapraisesVen.Sāriputtaforhispenetratingdiscernmentinbeingabletoferretoutmentalqualitiesasheexperiencestheminthepracticeofconcentration.Thediscussionappliesastandardformulatoeachattainmentfromthefirstjhānaupthroughthedimensionofnothingness,andthenswitchesgeartoasecondformulathatdiffersfromthefirstformulaintwoimportantrespects.Thedifferencecanbeillustratedbycomparingthediscussionforthedimensionofnothingness,whichfollowsthefirstformula,andthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,whichfollowsthesecond:

“Andfurther,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness,(perceiving,)‘Thereisnothing,’Sāriputtaenteredandremainedinthedimensionofnothingness.Whateverqualitiesthereareinthedimensionofnothingness—theperceptionofthedimensionofnothingness,singlenessofmind,contact,feeling,perception,intention,consciousness,desire,decision,persistence,mindfulness,equanimity,andattention—heferretedthemoutoneafteranother.Knowntohimtheyarose,knowntohimtheybecameestablished,knowntohimtheysubsided.Hediscerned,‘Sothis

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ishowthesequalities,nothavingbeen,comeintoplay.Havingbeen,theyvanish.’Heremainedunattractedandunrepelledwithregardtothosequalities,independent,detached,released,dissociated,withanawarenessridofbarriers.Hediscernedthat‘Thereisafurtherescape,’andpursuingit,heconfirmedthat‘Thereis.’

“Andfurther,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionofnothingness,Sāriputtaenteredandremainedinthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception.Heemergedmindfullyfromthatattainment.Onemergingmindfullyfromthatattainment,heregardedthepastqualitiesthathadceasedandchanged:‘Sothisishowthesequalities,nothavingbeen,comeintoplay.Havingbeen,theyvanish.’Heremainedunattractedandunrepelledwithregardtothosequalities,independent,detached,released,dissociated,withanawarenessridofbarriers.Hediscernedthat‘Thereisafurtherescape,’andpursuingit,heconfirmedthat‘Thereis.’”—MN111

Theimportantdifferencesinthetwoformulaearethese:(1)ThefirstformulalistsingreatdetailthequalitiesthatSāriputtaferretedout,whereastheseconddoesn’t.Thismayrelatetothefactthatperceptioninthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionissosubtleandattenuatedthatameditatorinthatdimensioncannotlabelmentalqualitiesclearly.(2)Inthesecondformula,theBuddhaiscarefultosaythatSāriputtadidtheanalysisafteremergingfromtheattainment,andthattheanalysisreferredtopastqualities,whereashedoesn’tqualifytheearlierdiscussioninthisway.Thisindicatesthatitispossibletodothissortofanalysiswhilestayinginanyoftheattainmentsupthroughthedimensionofnothingness,whereasinthefinaltwoattainments,thelevelofperceptionissoattenuatedthatanyoftheperceptionsusedinanalysiswoulddestroytheattainment.Forthisreason,thesetwoattainmentscanbeanalyzedonlyafterthemeditatorhasemergedfromthem.

ThisiswhytheBuddhatreatsthearisingofdiscernmentwithregardtothesefinaltwoattainmentsinmuchlessdetailthanhedoeswithregardtothelowerseven.Thispointwillhaveanimportantbearingonthefollowingdiscussion.

Butthemainlessontodrawfromthesepassagesisthatconcentration,simplyasapleasantabidinginthehereandnow,cannotleadtoawakening.Itneedstheaddedactivityofdiscernmentfortheretobefullrelease.

SilenceintheFormlessAttainments

Moderndiscussionsofthequestionastowhethertheexternalsenseshavetofallsilentinrightconcentrationfortheretobethepossibilityofawakening

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tendtofocusonthefirstjhāna,andfortwoconnectedreasons:(1)Itistheloweststageofconcentrationtobeclassedasrightconcentration.(2)AsMN52andAN9:36show,ameditatorpracticingforthesakeofawakeningneednotmasterallninestagesofconcentration.It’spossibletogainawakeningbasedonamasteryofjustthefirst.Thus,ifastageofconcentrationinwhichthephysicalsensesfallsilentisrequiredforawakening,thisstipulationmustapplytothefirstjhāna.

Threepassagesinthesuttasseemtoprovideclearevidencethatthispropositionisincorrect,inthattheydescribeattainmentswheretheexternalsensesfallsilent,butwithoutincludingthefirstjhāna—oranyoftheotherjhānas—intheirdescriptions.

A.1:ThefirstpassageisAN9:37,whereVen.Ānandadiscussesfourlevelsofconcentrationinwhichthemeditatorcanbepercipientyetwithoutanysensitivitytothephysicalsenses.Threeoftheselevelsarethefirstthreeoftheformlessattainments.Thefourthistheconcentrationthatfollowsontheattainmentoffullawakening.Thefourjhānas,however,arenotmentionedasmeetingthisdescriptionatall.

Ven.Ānandasaid,“It’samazing,friends,it’sastounding,howtheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theworthyone,rightlyself-awakened,hasattainedandrecognizedanopeninginaconfinedplaceforthepurificationofbeings,fortheovercomingofsorrowandlamentation,forthedisappearanceofpainanddistress,fortheattainmentoftherightmethod,andfortherealizationofunbinding,wheretheeyewillbe,andthoseforms,andyetonewillnotbesensitivetothatdimension;wheretheearwillbe,andthosesounds…wherethenosewillbe,andthosearomas…wherethetonguewillbe,andthoseflavors…wherethebodywillbe,andthosetactilesensations,andyetonewillnotbesensitivetothatdimension.”

Whenthiswassaid,Ven.UdāyinsaidtoVen.Ānanda,“Isonepercipientwhennotsensitivetothatdimension,myfriend,orunpercipient?”

[Ven.Ānanda:]“Oneispercipientwhennotsensitivetothatdimension,myfriend,notunpercipient.”

[Ven.Udāyin:]“Whennotsensitivetothatdimension,myfriend,oneispercipientofwhat?”

[Ven.Ānanda:]“Thereisthecasewhere,withthecompletetranscendingofperceptionsof(physical)form,withthedisappearanceofperceptionsofresistance,andnotattendingtoperceptionsofmultiplicity,(perceiving,)‘Infinitespace,’oneentersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace.Percipientinthisway,oneisnot

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sensitivetothatdimension[i.e.,thedimensionsofthefivephysicalsenses].

“Andfurther,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,(perceiving,)‘Infiniteconsciousness,’oneentersandremainsinthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.Percipientinthisway,too,oneisnotsensitivetothatdimension.

“Andfurther,withthecompletetranscendingofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness,(perceiving,)‘Thereisnothing,’oneentersandremainsinthedimensionofnothingness.Percipientinthisway,too,oneisnotsensitivetothatdimension.

“Once,friend,whenIwasstayinginSāketaattheGameRefugeintheBlackForest,thenunJaṭila-BhāgikāwenttowhereIwasstaying,andonarrival—havingbowedtome—stoodtooneside.Asshewasstandingthere,shesaidtome:‘Theconcentrationwhereby—neitherpresseddownnorforcedback,norwithfabricationkeptblockedorsuppressed—stillasaresultofrelease,contentedasaresultofstandingstill,andasaresultofcontentmentoneisnotagitated:ThisconcentrationissaidbytheBlessedOnetobethefruitofwhat?’

“Isaidtoher,‘Sister,theconcentrationwhereby—neitherpresseddownnorforcedback,norkeptinplacebythefabricationsofforcefulrestraint—stillasaresultofrelease,contentedasaresultofstandingstill,andasaresultofcontentmentoneisnotagitated:ThisconcentrationissaidbytheBlessedOnetobethefruitofgnosis[arahantship].’Percipientinthisway,too,oneisnotsensitivetothatdimension.”—AN9:37

Becausethispassage,whendescribingattainmentswheretheexternalsensesfallsilentevenwhenthemeditatorispercipient,mentionsonlythefirstthreeformlessattainmentsandtheconcentrationofarahantship,itseemstogiveclearsupporttotheideathatthereisnoneedforthephysicalsensestofallsilentineverylevelofrightconcentration.Apersoncouldattainanyofthefourjhānasandyetstillhearsounds,etc.,and—asAN9:36notes—couldusethatstageofconcentrationtoattainfullawakening.

A.2:Acarefullookatanotherpassage—thestandarddescriptionofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,thefirstattainmentinVen.Ānanda’slist—showswhytheattainmentsinhislistdifferfromthefourjhānasinthisregard.Thedescriptionstatesthatthemeditatorentersandremainsinthisdimension“withthecompletetranscendingofperceptionsofform,withthedisappearanceofperceptionsofresistance,andnotattendingtoperceptionsofmultiplicity.”Asnotedabove,theword“perception”herecarriesthemeaningofmentalnoteorlabel,theactofrecognizingoridentifyingamentalobject.

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So,tomovefromthefourthjhānatothedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,it’snecessarythatmentallabelsofresistancedisappear,andthatthemeditatortranscendmentallabelsofformandpaynoattentiontomentallabelsofmultiplicity.

Twooftheseterms,resistanceandmultiplicity,requireexplanation.“Resistance”(paṭigha)canbeunderstoodintwoways.DN15identifiesitas

thetypeofcontactthatallowsmentalactivitytodetectthepresenceofforms.Whatthisapparentlymeansisthatmentalactscanrecognizethepresenceofphysicalobjectsprimarilybecausephysicalobjectsputupresistancetoanyotherobjectsthatmightinvadetheirspace.

However,Buddhaghosa,intheVisuddhimagga(X.16),followstheAbhidhammaindefining“resistance”ascontactatthefiveexternalsenses.Becausehegivesnosuttareferencetosupportthisinterpretation,itistheweakerofthetwo.

However,thereisasuttapassage—inMN137—thatdefines“multiplicity(nānattā)”astheobjectsofthefivesenses:forms,sounds,smells,tastes,andtactilesensations.Inotherwords,thispassageassignsto“multiplicity”themeaningthatBuddhaghosaassignsto“resistance.”MN137thencontrastsmultiplicitywiththeword,“singleness(ekattā),”whichitidentifiesasthefirstfourformlessattainments.

Thus,regardlessofwhetherperceptionsofsensoryinputarecalledperceptionsofresistanceorperceptionsofmultiplicity,thepracticalupshotisthatameditatorenteringandstayinginthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspacewould,attheveryleast,havetopaynoattentiontoanymentallabelsthatwouldrecognizeoridentifyobjectspresenttothephysicalsenses.If“resistance”meanscontactatthefivesenses,thensuchperceptionswouldhavetodisappear.

Thisleadstoaquestion:FollowingtheinterpretationdrawnfromMN137,whywouldthesimpleactofnotpayingattentiontoperceptionsoftheobjectsofthesensesmakeameditatorinsensitivetothepresenceofthoseobjects?Theanswerliesinthefactthat,inthesuttas’descriptionsofthestagesofsensoryawareness,perceptionplaysaroleattwostagesintheprocess.

—InMN18,forinstance,perceptioncomesaftersensorycontactandthefeelingsthatarisebasedonthecontact.Toignoreperceptionsofmultiplicityatthisstageoftheprocesswouldnotmakeoneinsensitivetotheobjectsofthesenses.Theywouldbepresentenoughtogiverisetoperceptions,butthemeditatorwouldsimplypaythoseperceptionsnoattention.

—However,inthestandardformulafordependentco-arising(see,forexample,SN12:2),perception—asasub-factoroffabrication(seeMN44)—alsooccurspriortosensorycontact.Topaynoattentiontoperceptionsofmultiplicityatthisstageoftheprocess,andtopaysoleattentiontothe

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perception,“infinitespace”instead,wouldallowthemeditatortobecomeinsensitivetothephysicalsensesandtheirobjects.Thesamewouldbetrueifperceptionsofsensoryinputwereindicatedby“perceptionsofresistance”andthoseperceptionsweretodisappear.

Itwouldseemclearthatbecausethestandardformulaforthenineconcentrationattainmentsmentionstheserequirementsbeginningonlywiththedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,theyarenotrequiredforanyofthelowerlevels.Forameditatorin,say,thefourthjhāna,perceptionsidentifyingsoundswouldnothavedisappeared.Eventhoughhe/shewouldordinarilynotpayattentiontothoseperceptions,heorshecould,forabriefmoment,noteaperceptionidentifyingasoundandthendropit,returningtotheobjectofhis/herconcentration,and—aslongasthisisdonemindfullyandwithequanimity—thiswouldstillcountasbeinginthefourthjhāna.

ThusthereseemsgoodreasontotakeAN9:37andthestandardformulaforthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspaceasauthoritativeinshowingthatitisnotnecessaryforthephysicalsensestofallsilentinanyofthefourjhānas.

A.3:FurthersupportforthisreadingofAN9:37comesfromapassageinMN43inwhichVen.Sāriputtaliststheattainmentsthatcanbeknownwithapurifiedintellect-consciousness—theconsciousnessofmentalphenomena—divorcedfromthefivephysicalsensefaculties:i.e.,theeye,ear,nose,tongue,andbody.Hislistconsistsofthefirstthreeformlessattainments,andmakesnomentionofthefourjhānas.

Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Friend,whatcanbeknownwiththepurifiedintellect-consciousnessdivorcedfromthefive(sense)faculties?”

Ven.Sāriputta:“Friend,withthepurifiedintellect-consciousnessdivorcedfromthefivefaculties,thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspacecanbeknown(as)‘infinitespace,’thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousnesscanbeknown(as)‘infiniteconsciousness,’thedimensionofnothingnesscanbeknown(as)‘Thereisnothing.’

Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Withwhatdoesoneknowaqualitythatcanbeknown?”

Ven.Sāriputta:“Oneknowsaqualitythatcanbeknownwiththeeyeofdiscernment.”

Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:“Andwhatisthepurposeofdiscernment?”Ven.Sāriputta:“Thepurposeofdiscernmentisdirectknowledge,its

purposeisfullcomprehension,itspurposeisabandoning.”—MN43

Inotherwords,theonlyconcentrationattainmentsthatcanbeknownbyapurifiedintellect-consciousnessdivorcedfromthefivephysicalsensefacultiesarethefirstthreeformlessattainments.ThepassagefromMN111quoted

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abovehelpstoexplainwhytheremainingtwoformlessattainmentsarenotlistedhere:Theycannotbeknownthroughtheeyeofdiscernmentwhileoneisinthoseattainments.Ameditatorcananalyzethemwithdiscernmentonlyafterhe/shehaslefttheattainment.

ThesamepointwouldalsoapplytothefourthattainmentinVen.Ānanda’slist,thefruitofgnosis.

ThustobeincludedinVen.Sāriputta’slistinMN43,anattainmenthastomeetthreecriteria:(a)Onecananalyzeitwithdiscernmentwhileoneisinthatattainment,andone’sconsciousnessis(b)purifiedand(c)divorcedfromthefivephysicalsensefaculties.

Ven.Sāriputtadoesnotexplainwhathemeansby“purified”here.Ostensibly,itcouldmeananyofthreethings:purifiedofdefilement,asintheBuddha’sstandarddescriptionofhisownmasteryofthefourthjhāna(see,forexample,MN4);havingpurityofequanimityandmindfulness(asinthestandarddescriptionofthefourthjhāna);or,alternatively,itcouldsimplybeanotherwayofsaying“purelydivorcedfromthefivephysicalsenses,”inwhichcasethesecondcriterionabove(b)wouldbeidenticalwiththethird(c).

Now,ofthethreecriteria,MN111showsthatallfourjhānasmeetthefirstcriterion,becauseameditatorcananalyzethemwithdiscernmentwhiledwellinginthem,andthefourthjhānameetsthefirsttwopossiblemeaningsofthesecond.ThefactthatthefourthjhānaisnotlistedinMN43meansthatitdoesnotmeetthethirdcriterion(or,whatamountstothesamething,thethirdpossiblemeaningofthesecond).Inotherwords,one’sconsciousnesswhileinthefourthjhānaisnotdivorcedfromthefivephysicalsenses.Ifthosesensesdonotfallsilentinthefourthjhāna,thesamecouldbesaidofthelowerthreejhānasaswell.

Inthisway,allthreepassages—AN9:37,MN43,andthestandarddescriptionofthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace—clearlyshowthatthereisnoneedforthephysicalsensestofallsilentwhileinthefourjhānas.Thismeansfurtherthat,togainawakening,thereisnoneedtoattainastageofconcentrationthatblocksoutallawarenessofthosesenses.Awakeningcanoccurwhenbasedonanyofthefourjhānasevenwhenabackgroundawarenessofthephysicalsensesispresent.

Buddhaghosa’s Interpretations

Buddhaghosa,however,arguesthatnoneofthesethreepassagesshouldbetakenatfacevalueinprovingthatameditatorcansenseexternalsensoryinputinthejhānas,andinsteadshouldbeinterpretedtoallowfortheopposite:thattheexternalsensesactuallyfallsilentinthefirstjhāna.Butwhenweexaminehisarguments—andthoseofhismodernsupporters—to

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provehisinterpretationsofthesepassages,wefindthattheyleavemuchtobedesired.

BecausehismostsubstantialargumentfocusesonpassageA.2,wewillbeginwithhisdiscussionofthatpassagefirst.

A.2:InVisuddhimaggaX.17,hearguesthatthephrase,“withthedisappearanceofperceptionsofresistance,andnotattendingtoperceptionsofmultiplicity,”shouldnotbereadasindicatingastepthatoccursonlywiththeentryintothedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace.Instead,itshouldbereadasdescribingastepthathadalreadyoccurredearlierintheascendingstagesofconcentration.

Hebaseshisargumentontwoanalogies.Thefirstisthat,intheformulaforthefourthjhāna,thephrase,“withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain”isactuallydescribingastepthatoccurredearlierinthestagesofconcentration,andnotjustwiththefourthjhāna.

Thereis,however,nobasisforhisdrawingthisanalogyhere.Thethirdjhāna,eventhoughitismarkedbyequanimity,isalsomarkedby“pleasuresensedwiththebody.”Thispleasureisabandonedonlywiththeentryintothefourthjhāna.

Furthermore,MN44showswhypainisnotreallyabandoneduntilpleasureisalsoabandoned:

[Visākha:]“Inwhatwayispleasantfeelingpleasant,lady,andinwhatwaypainful?”

[SisterDhammadinnā:]“Pleasantfeelingispleasantinremaining,andpainfulinchanging,friendVisākha.Painfulfeelingispainfulinremainingandpleasantinchanging.Neither-pleasant-nor-painfulfeelingispleasantinoccurringtogetherwithknowledge,andpainfulinoccurringwithoutknowledge.”

Inotherwords,evenpleasantfeelingcontainspaininthefactthatitchanges.Thusthemeditator,whengoingthroughthestagesofjhāna,doesnotabandoneitherpleasureorpainuntilenteringthefourthjhāna.Thephrasedescribingthisstepisnotreferringtoanythingthathappenedearlierinthestagesofconcentration.Forthisreason,Buddhaghosa’sfirstargumentbyanalogydoesnothold.

Hissecondargumentbyanalogyisthatthedescriptionofthethirdnoblepath—thepathtonon-return—mentionstheabandoningoffetters,suchasself-identityview,thatwerealreadyabandonedasaresultoftheearliernoblepaths,andsothedescriptionoftheentryintothedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspaceshouldbereadthesameway,asmentioningsomethingthathadalreadyhappenedearlier.

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Thisargument,too,doesnothold.Inthedescriptionsofthenoblepaths,thefettersabandonedwitheachpathareexplicitlymentionedinthedescriptionofthatpath,withtheascendingdescriptionsbeingcumulative:Apersonwhohasattainedthefirstpathhasabandonedx;apersonattainingthethirdhasabandonedxandy;andsoforth.Fortheretobeananalogyhere,thenifthedisappearanceofperceptionsofresistanceandlackofattentiontoperceptionsofmultiplicitywereafeatureofthefirstjhāna,theywouldhavetobementionedinthedescriptionofthefirstjhāna.Buttheyaren’t.ThisiswhyBuddhaghosa’ssecondargumentbyanalogyalsodoesnothold.

A.1:AsforAN9:37—inwhichVen.Ānandaliststheattainmentswhereoneispercipientwithoutbeingpercipientofthefiveexternalsensesandtheirobjects—Buddhaghosa’scommentarytothatsuttaexplainstheabsenceofthefourjhānasinVen.Ānanda’slistasfollows:Theobjectofthefourjhānas—theinternalmentalimageonwhichtheyarefocused—countsasa“form”andso,toavoidconfusionwiththeformsthataretheobjectsoftheeye,Ven.Ānandachosetoexcludethosejhānasfromhislist.Thisexplanation,however,ignoresthefactthatVen.Ānandaexplicitlyassigns“thoseforms”totheeye—asheassigns“thosesounds”totheear,etc.—soifhehadmeanttoincludethefourjhānasinhislist,hecouldhavedonesowithoutcausingconfusion.Hislistenerswouldhaveknownclearlythat“thoseforms”referredtoformsseenbytheeye,andnottointernalformsseenbythemind.

ThusBuddhaghosa’sargumenthere,too,isunconvincing.It’smorelikelythatVen.Ānandaexcludedthefourjhānasfromhislistbecausethemeditatorcanstillbesensitivetothefiveexternalsenseswheninthosejhānas.

Still,modernproponentsofthepositionthattheexternalsensesfallsilentinthefirstjhānahaveproposedanotherreasonfornottakingAN9:37atfacevalueinthisway.TheirproposalisthatVen.Ānandaoriginallyincludedthefourjhānasinhislist,but—throughafaultytransmissionofthetext—thosejhānasdisappearedbetweenhistimeandours.

Theargumentinsupportofthisproposalfocusesontheformofthesutta:BecausethesuttaisfoundintheNinessectionoftheAṅguttaraNikāya,andbecauseit’spartofachapterinwhichalltheothersuttaslistallnineconcentrationattainments,itshouldlistthemallaswell,replacingthecessationofperceptionandfeelingwiththeconcentrationthatisthefruitofarahantship.

Thisargument,however,missestwoimportantpoints.ThefirstisthatAN9:37,followingthegeneralpatternintheNines,containsnineitemsalready:thefivephysicalsenses,thefirstthreeformlessattainments,andtheconcentrationthatisthefruitofarahantship.Fiveplusthreeplusoneequalsnine.ThusthesuttaalreadyqualifiesfortheNines.

Thesecondpointisthatnotalltheformlessattainmentsqualifyfor

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inclusioninthissutta.Ven.Ānandahereistalkingaboutstatesinwhichthemeditatorispercipient.AsAN9:36pointsout,thedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionandthecessationofperceptionandfeelingdonotcountaspercipientstates,sotheycan’tbeincludedinVen.Ānanda’slist.Thusonlythefirstthreeformlessattainmentsqualifyforinclusion.Toincludethefourjhānasalongwiththemandtheconcentrationthatisthefruitofarahantship—fourplusthreeplusone—wouldgiveatotalofeight,whichwouldactuallydisqualifythesuttafrominclusionintheNines.

Forthesereasons,themodernargumentfromformisunconvincing—whichmeansthattheface-valueinterpretationofAN9:37stillstands:Ameditatorcanstillbesensitivetothefiveexternalsenseswheninthefourjhānas.

A.3:AsforMN43—inwhichVen.Sāriputtalistswhatcanbeknownbythepurifiedintellect-consciousnessdivorcedfromthefivefaculties—Buddhaghosa,inhiscommentarytothatsutta,maintainsthatthephrase,“purifiedintellect-consciousnessdivorcedfromthefivefaculties,”isareferencetothefourthjhāna.Thispresentshimwithaproblem,though,inthattheconsciousnessofthefourthjhānadoesnotdirectlyknowthethreeformlessattainmentsgiveninVen.Sāriputta’slist.Onewouldhavetobeinthoseattainmentsforone’sconsciousnesstodirectlyknowthem.Togetaroundthisproblem,Buddhaghosamaintainsthat“canbeknownby”canalsomean,“canbeknownasaresultof”—inotherwords,ameditatorcanattainthethreeformlessattainmentsasaresultofattainingtheconsciousnessofthefourthjhāna.

Thisisnotanidiomaticreadingofthepassage,butgrammaticallyitisalegitimateinterpretationoftheinstrumentalcase,thecaseinwhichtheword“consciousness”appearsinthesutta,anditallowsBuddhaghosatomaintainthatconsciousnessisdivorcedfromthephysicalsensesinthefourthjhāna.Because,asnotedabove,thesuttasdonotdescribethejhānasbelowthefourthas“purified,”Buddhaghosaapparentlyfeltnoneedtomentionthelowerjhānasinthiscontext.

However,hisinterpretationpresentshimwithafurtherquestion:If“canbeknown,”means,“canbeexperiencedasaresultofthefourthjhāna,”whyisthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionnotlistedaswell?Toanswerthisquestion,BuddhaghosaquotespartoftheabovepassagefromMN111toaddafurtherstipulationtothemeaningof“known,”sayingthatthedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionisnotlistedbecausenooneexcepttheBuddha—notevenVen.Sāriputta—canresolveitdistinctlyintoitsindividualphenomena.Inotherwords,“canbeknown”mustalsomean,“canbeanalyzedintoitsindividualphenomena.”ThiswouldfitwiththestatementinMN43that“canbeknown,”means,“canbeknownwiththeeye

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ofdiscernment.”ThequestionthatBuddhaghosafailstoaddress,however,isthis:Why

doesn’tVen.Sāriputtaincludethefourthjhānainhislist?Afterall,itmeetsbothofBuddhaghosa’sstipulationsfor“canbeknown”:AsMN111shows,thefourthjhānacanbeknownasaresultofattainingthefourthjhāna,anditcanbeanalyzedintoitsindividualphenomena.IfitmetBuddhaghosa’sunderlyingassumption—thatconsciousnessinthefourthjhānaisdivorcedfromthefivephysicalsenses—thenitwouldhavetobeincludedinthelistaswell.Butit’snot.

ThisleavesagapingholeinBuddhaghosa’sinterpretation—aninconsistencythatunderminestheinterpretationasawhole.

ThemostconsistentinterpretationofVen.Sāriputta’slistinMN43istheonestatedabove:Tobeincludedinthelist,aconcentrationattainmentneedstomeetthreecriteria:Ameditatorcananalyzeitwithdiscernmentwhileinthatattainment,his/herconsciousnessispurified,andthatconsciousnessisdivorcedfromthefivephysicalsensefaculties.Becausethefourthjhānameetsthefirsttwocriteria,thefactthatitisnotlistedinMN43isasignthatitdoesnotmeetthethird.Inotherwords,one’sconsciousnesswhileinthatattainment—orinthelowerjhānas—isnotdivorcedfromthefivephysicalsenses.

Thismeansthat,despitethevariousargumentsproposedforinterpretingAN9:37,MN43,andthestandarddescriptionoftheinfinitudeofspacetosupporttheoppositeposition,allthreepassagesinfactofferclearproofthat—fromtheperspectiveofthesuttas—thephysicalsensesdonotneedtofallsilentinanyofthefourjhānas.Rightconcentrationcanstillberightevenwhenabackgroundsensitivitytothephysicalsensesispresent.

MoreArgumentsforSilenceintheFirst Jhāna

However,proponentsofthepositionthatconcentrationcountsasjhānaonlywhenthephysicalsensesfallsilentdonotfocusonlyonsuttapassageswhosefacevaluehastobedeniedinordertomaintaintheirposition.Theyalsocitefourpassagesthat,theyclaim,givepositiveproofthatthesuttasopenlysupportthem.Buddhaghosacitesoneofthesepassages—AN10:72—butwithoutexplainingwhyitprovesthatthesensesmustfallsilentinthefirstjhāna;modernsupportersofhispositionprovideanargumenttobolsterhiscitation,andaddtheothertwocitationstostrengthentheircase.

Acloseexaminationofthesecitations,though,showsthatnoneofthemactuallysupportthepositiontheyaresupposedtoprove.Toseewhy,wehavetolookcarefullyatwhateachofthefourpassageshastosay.Thefollowingdiscussiontreatsthemonebyone,firstquotingthepassage,thenstatingthe

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modernargumentfor“soundproofjhāna”basedonit,andfinallyshowinghowthepassagedoesnotsupporttheargumentasclaimed.

B.1:“Quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulqualities,oneentersandremainsinthefirstjhāna.”—DN2

Thispassageatthebeginningofthestandardformulaforthefirstjhānastatestheprerequisiteeventsforenteringthatjhāna.Theargumentbasedonitisthis:“Sensuality”heremeanstheobjectsofthefivesenses.Thusameditatorcanenterthefirstjhānaonlywheninputfromthefivesensesfallsaway.

Theproblemwiththisargumentisthatthesuttasneverdefine“sensuality”astheobjectsofthefivesenses.Instead,theydefinesensualityasapassionforsensualresolves—theplansandintentionsthemindformulatesforsensualpleasures:

“Therearethesefivestringsofsensuality.Whichfive?Formscognizableviatheeye—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing;soundscognizableviatheear…aromascognizableviathenose…flavorscognizableviathetongue…tactilesensationscognizableviathebody—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing.Butthesearenotsensuality.Theyarecalledstringsofsensualityinthedisciplineofthenobleones.”

Thepassionforhisresolvesisaman’ssensuality,notthebeautifulsensualpleasures

foundintheworld.Thepassionforhisresolvesisaman’ssensuality.Thebeautiesremainastheyareintheworld,while,inthisregard,

theenlightenedsubduetheirdesire.—AN6:63

Inlightofthisdefinition,“secludedfromsensuality”simplymeansthatonehassubduedone’spassionforsensualresolves.Onehasnotnecessarilyescapedtheinputfromthesenses.Andonehasnotabandonedallresolves.AsMN73pointsout,unskillfulresolvesareabandonedinthefirstjhāna.Becausethefirstjhānacontainsdirectedthoughtandevaluation,resolvedonthesingletaskofsolidifyingone’sfocusonasingleobject,skillfulresolvesareactuallyanecessarypartofthefirstjhāna.Thesinglenessofthetasktakenonbydirectedthoughtandevaluationiswhatqualifiesthefirstjhānaasastateofsingleness.Onlywiththeattainmentofthesecondjhānaareskillfulresolvesabandonedaswell,leadingtosinglenessonahigherlevel.

However,ithasbeenfurtherarguedthat“sensuality”inthestandard

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formulaforthefirstjhānahasaspecialmeaning—i.e.,theobjectsofthefivesenses—differentfromthedefinitiongiveninAN6:63—oranywhereelseinthesuttas.

Thisargument,however,doesn’taccordwithwhatweknowoftheBuddha’steachingstrategy.AshesaidinDN16,hedidn’tkeepasecretteachingthatherevealedonlytoafewpeople.Andbecauseherepeatedtheformulaforthejhānassomanytimes,it’sunlikelythathewouldhaveforgottentoexplainanyspecialtechnicalmeaningsforthetermstheformulacontains.Assumingthathewouldhavewantedhisinstructionstobeusefulandclear,wehavetoconcludethathewouldhavebeencarefultoexplainwhathemeantbyhisterms—whichindicatesthat“sensuality”inthejhānaformulahasthesamemeaningasinAN6:63.

Sothephrase“secludedfromsensuality”inthedescriptionofthefirstjhānameansnothingmorethanthatmeditatorsenteringandremaininginthefirstjhānahavetoabandonsensualresolves.Although—infocusingtheirmindsontheirmeditationtheme—theyshouldn’tfocusattentiononinputfromtheexternalsenses,thestandardformuladoesn’trequirethemtoblockthatinputentirelyfromtheirawareness.

B.2:“Thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna:raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Thisiscalledamonkwho,comingtotheendofthecosmos,remainsattheendofthecosmos.…Thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthesecondjhāna…thethirdjhāna…thefourthjhāna…thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace…thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness…thedimensionofnothingness…thedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception.Thisiscalledamonkwho,comingtotheendofthecosmos,remainsattheendofthecosmos.”—AN9:38

Theargumentbasedonthispassagestatesthat“cosmos”(loka)heremeanstheobjectsofthefivesenses.Thusameditatorwhohasenteredthefirstjhāna—andalltheremainingattainments—musthavegonebeyondtherangeofthosesenses.

Thisargument,however,ignoresthedefinitionfor“cosmos”giveninthesamesutta:

“Thesefivestringsofsensualityare,inthedisciplineofthenobleones,calledthecosmos.Whichfive?Formscognizableviatheeye—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing;soundscognizableviatheear…aromascognizableviathenose…flavorscognizableviathetongue…tactilesensationscognizableviathebody—agreeable,pleasing,charming,endearing,fosteringdesire,enticing.

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Thesearethefivestringsofsensualitythat,inthedisciplineofthenobleones,arecalledthecosmos.”—AN9:38

Inotherwords,theword“cosmos”inAN9:38meansthepleasantandenticingobjectsofthesenses.IftheBuddhahadwantedtostatethatallinputfromthephysicalsensesisblottedoutinallofthejhānasandformlessattainments,hewouldhavedefined“cosmos”inthiscontextasallobjectsofthephysicalsenses.Buthedidn’t.Helimitedittoenticingsensoryobjects.AndasAN6:63states,whenonehassubduedsensualdesire,thebeautifulobjectsremainastheywere.Theyarenotblockedfromawareness.Theysimplylosetheirpower.

ThismeansthatAN9:38isnotsayingthatinputfromthesensesistotallyblockedinthefirstjhāna.Instead,it’ssimplyelaboratingononeoftheimplicationsofthephrase“secludedfromsensuality”:Whenoneissecludedfromone’spassionforsensualresolves,onehasgone—atleasttemporarily—beyondthepowerofenticingobjectsofthesensestofosterdesire.

B.3:“Singlenessofmindisconcentration.”—MN44

Theargumentbasedonthissentencetakesnoteoftwofacts.One,takingthesentenceincontext,theterm“concentration”heremeansrightconcentration,andthereforethejhānas.Two,thetermtranslatedas“singleness”here—ek’aggatā—canliterallybeinterpretedas“one-pointedness”:eka(one),agga(point),–tā(-ness).Fromthesetwofacts,theargumentproceedstoreasonthatifthemindinjhānaistrulyone-pointed,itshouldnotbeawareofanythingotherthanonepoint.Thusitshouldnotbeawareofanyinputfromthesenses.

Thisargumentisalsousedtodenythepossibilitythatameditatormightbeabletoanalyzeastateofjhānawhilestillinit(see“PurityofConcentration,”below),onthegroundsthat,bydefinition,themindcannotthinkandbeone-pointedatthesametime.

Althoughthetwofactsonwhichthisargumentisbasedarehardtodispute,theargumentgoesastrayinimposingtoonarrowameaningonthewordek’aggatā,onethatisforeigntothelinguisticusageoftheCanon.

a)Tobeginwith,aggahasmanyothermeaningsbesides“point.”Infact,ithastwoprimaryclustersofmeanings,inneitherofwhichis“point”thecentralfocus.

Thefirstclustercentersonthefactthatasummitofamountainiscalleditsagga.Clusteredaroundthismeaningareideasofaggaasthetopmostpartofsomething(suchastheridgeofaroof),thetipofsomething(suchasthetipofabladeofgrass),andthebestorsupremeexampleofsomething(suchastheBuddhaastheaggaofallbeings).AN5:80playswiththesemeaningsofagga

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whenitcriticizesmonksofthefuturewhowill“searchforthetiptopflavors(ras’agga)withthetipofthetongue(jivh’agga).”

Thesecondclusterofmeaningsforaggacentersontheideaof“dwelling”or“meetingplace.”Ahallwheremonksgatherfortheuposatha,forexample,iscalledanuposath’agga.

Giventhattheobjectofconcentrationissaidtobeadwelling(vihāra),andthatapersondwells(viharati)inconcentration,thissecondclusterofmeaningsmaybethemorerelevantclusterhere.Amindwithasingleagga,inthiscase,wouldsimplybeamindgatheredaroundoneobject,andneednotnecessarilybereducedtoasinglepoint.

b)Butevenmoretellingindeterminingthemeaningofek’aggatāinthecontextofconcentrationaretheeverydaywaysinwhichek’agga,theadjectiveformofthenoun,isusedintheCanontodescribeminds.Twoexamples,onefromtheVinayaandonefromasutta,areparticularlyrelevant.

InMv.II.3.4,thephrase,“wepayattention,”intheinstructionsforhowtolistentothePāṭimokkha,isdefinedas:“Welistenwithanek’aggamind,anunscatteredmind,anundistractedmind.”Evenifek’aggaweretranslatedas“one-pointed”here,the“point”isobviouslynotsorestrictedastomaketheearsfallsilent.Otherwise,wewouldnotbeabletohearthePāṭimokkhaatall.Andthefactthatthemindisek’aggadoesn’tmeanthatwecan’talsohearothersoundsasidefromthePāṭimokkha.It’sjustthatthosesoundsdon’tmakethemindloseitsfocusonasingletheme.

InAN5:151,theBuddhalistsfivequalitiesthatenableone,whenlisteningtothetrueDhamma,to“alightonassuredness,ontherightnessofskillfulqualities.”Thefivequalitiesare:

“Onedoesn’tholdthetalkincontempt.“Onedoesn’tholdthespeakerincontempt.“Onedoesn’tholdoneselfincontempt.“OnelistenstotheDhammawithanunscatteredmind,anek’agga

mind.“Oneattendsappropriately.”

Becauseappropriateattentionmeanstocontemplateexperiencesintermsofthefournobletruths(seeMN2),thispassageshowsthatwhenthemindisek’agga,it’snotonlyabletohear.Itcanalsothinkatthesametime.Ifitcouldn’thearorthink,itcouldn’tmakesenseoftheDhammatalk.Soagain,evenifwetranslateek’aggaas“one-pointed,”theek’aggamindisnotreducedtosominisculeapointthatitcannothearorthink.Itissimplygatheredaroundasingleobject.AndbecauseappropriateattentiondealsinthesametermswithwhichtheBuddharecommendsthatameditatoranalyzejhānawhileinit,themindcanstillcountasek’aggawhiledoingtheanalysis.

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So,inshort,whenMN44definesconcentrationassinglenessorone-pointednessofmind,thedefinitiondoesnotprecludetheabilitytoreceivefromthesenseswhileinconcentration.

B.4:“Forthefirstjhāna,noiseisathorn.“Forthesecondjhāna,directedthoughtsandevaluationsarethorns.“Forthethirdjhāna,raptureisathorn.“Forthefourthjhāna,in-and-outbreathsarethorns.”—AN10:72

ThisistheonesuttacitationthatBuddhaghosaprovidesintheVisuddhimagga(X.17)toprovethattheexternalsensesmustfallsilentinthefirstjhāna.Asnotedabove,though,hedoesn’tsubstantiatehiscase.

Tofillinthisblank,modernargumentsinsupportofBuddhaghosa’sinterpretationofthesepassagescenteronthemeaningoftheword“thorn”here,sayingthatitmeanssomethingwhosepresencedestroyswhatitpierces.Thus,tosaythatnoiseisathornforthefirstjhānameansthatifonehearsanoisewhileinthatjhāna,thejhānahasbeenbroughttoanend.Thisinterpretationissupported,theargumentcontinues,bythepatternfollowedwithregardtotheremainingjhānas:Thepresenceofdirectedthoughtandevaluationautomaticallyendsthesecondjhāna;thepresenceofraptureendsthethird;in-and-outbreathing,thefourth.

However,therearealtogethertenitemsinthissutta’slistof“thorns,”andinsomeofthemthe“thorn”obviouslydoesnotdestroywhatitpierces.Forexample:

“Foroneguardingthesensedoors,watchingashowisathorn.“Foronepracticingcelibacy,nearnesstowomenisathorn.”

If“thorn”weretomeansomethingthatcannotbepresentwithoutdestroyingwhatitpierces,thennearnesstowomenwouldautomaticallydestroyaman’scelibacy,andwatchingashowwouldautomaticallydestroyone’sguardingofthesenses,whichisn’ttrueineithercase.It’spossibletobenearawomenandtocontinuebeingcelibate,andtowatchashowinsuchawaythatdoesn’tdestroyyourguardoveryoursenses.

Aninterpretationof“thorn”thatconsistentlyfitsalltenitemsinthelist,however,wouldbethat“thorn”meanssomethingthatcreatesdifficultiesforwhatittouches.Thustosaythatdirectedthoughtandevaluationisathornforthesecondjhānameansthatthesementalactivitiesmakeitdifficulttoenterorremaininthesecondjhāna;tosaythatnoiseisathornforthefirstjhānasimplymeansthatnoisemakesitdifficulttoenterorremainthere.

ThisinterpretationissupportedbythebackgroundstoryinAN10:72,thesuttawherethesethornsarelisted.Itbeginsbytellinghowagroupofelder

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monksinamonasteryfrequentedbynoisylaypeopleleaveforaquietermonasterywiththethought,“ThejhānasaresaidbytheBlessedOnetobethornedbynoise.WhatifweweretogototheGosiṅgaSālaforestpark?Therewewouldlivecomfortably,withnext-to-nonoise,next-to-nocrowding.”WhentheBuddhalearnsofwhattheyhavedone,hepraisesthem.Hadhewantedtomakethepointthatnoisecannotbeheardinthefirstjhāna,hewouldhavecriticizedthemforgoingtothetroubleofleavingthefirstmonastery,andrecommendedthatiftheywantedtoescapethedisturbanceofnoise,theyshouldhaveenteredthefirstjhānaanddwelledcomfortablythereinstead.Buthedidn’t.

Sothissuttaprovesnothingmorethanthatnoisemakesitdifficulttoenterormaintainthefirstjhāna.Itdoesn’tprovethatnoisescannotbeheardwhileinthejhāna.

Fromthediscussionofthesefourcitations—DN2,AN9:38,MN44,andAN10:72—wecanconcludethatnoneofthemprovideconvincingproofthatthephysicalsenseshavetofallsilentinthefirstjhāna—oranyofthefourjhānas.ThismeansthattheconclusionsdrawnfromAN9:37,MN43,andthestandardformulaforthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspacestillstand:Thephysicalsensesmayfallsilentintheformlessattainments,butthereisnoneedforthemtofallsilentinthefourjhānas.Andbecauseawakeningcanbebasedonanyofthefourjhānas,thismeansfurtherthatameditatorcanattainawakeningwithoutenteringintoaconcentrationattainmentwherethesensesareblockedfromhis/herawareness.

PurityofConcentration

Thisstillleavesopen,however,anotherquestion:Isitnecessaryfortheexternalsensestofallsilentintheformlessattainments,orisitsimplypossibleforthemtofallsilentinthoseattainments?Inotherwords,whenfocusingonaformlessperception,ifonepaysnoheedtoperceptionsofmultiplicityandyettheykeepoccurringinsuchawaythatsensoryinputisnotblockedout,wouldthatstillcountasaformlessattainment?

Causalityasdescribedindependentco-arisingleavesthisopenasatheoreticalpossibility,becausecausalinfluenceswithinthemindcanactnotonlyimmediately—aswheninattentiontoperceptionsofmultiplicityrightnowcouldblockanawarenessoftheexternalsensesrightnow—butalsoovertime,aswhenattentiontoperceptionsinthepastmightallowforanawarenessoftheexternalsensesrightnow.Inotherwords,ifameditatorpaysattentiontoperceptionsofsoundconsistentlybeforeenteringconcentration,thatactofattentioncouldtheoreticallyallowthoseperceptionstopersistduringthesubsequentperiodofconcentrationwhenhe/shewasnolonger

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givingthemanyattentionatall.However,thesuttasdonotsaywhetherthistheoreticalpossibilityactually

appliesinpractice.Infact,theonlynarrativeaccountthataddressestheissueisfoundintheVinaya—thedivisionoftheCanondealingwithmonasticrules.Becauseitissoshort,andbecauseitsprimaryconcerniswithdisciplinaryissues,itdoesnotaddresstheDhammasideoftheissueinanyconclusivedetail.Butitdoesraisesomeimportantpoints.Thestoryisthis:

ThenVen.MahāMoggallānaaddressedthemonks:“Justnow,friends,havingattainedtheimperturbableconcentrationonthebankoftheSappinikāRiver,Iheardthesoundofelephantsplungingin,crossingover,andmakingatrumpetingcall.”

Themonkswereoffendedandannoyedandspreaditabout,“Now,howcanVen.Moggallānasay,‘Justnow,friends,havingattainedtheimperturbableconcentrationonthebankoftheSappinikāRiver,Iheardthesoundofelephantsplungingin,crossingover,andmakingatrumpetingcall.’He’sclaimingasuperior-humanstate.”TheyreportedthismattertotheBlessedOne,(whosaid,)“Thereisthatconcentration,monks,butitisnotpurified.Moggallānaspoketruly,monks.Thereisnooffenseforhim.”—Pr4

Thispassageappearsaspartoftheexplanationofthefourthruleinthemonks’Pāṭimokkha,ormonasticcode,arulecoveringfalseclaimsofmeditativeattainments.ItsmainconcerniswithwhetherVen.Moggallānaviolatedthisruleinmakinghisstatementabouthearingtheelephants.

Thereis,however,atechnicalDhammatermatstakehere:“imperturbableconcentration(āneñja-samādhi).”MN66statesthatthefirstthreejhānasareperturbable—subjecttomovement—whereasthefourthjhānaisn’t.Thefirstjhānaisperturbableinthatitincludesdirectedthoughtandevaluation;thesecond,inthatitincludesrapture-pleasure;thethird,inthatitincludesequanimity-pleasure.MN66doesnotdescribeexactlywhatqualitiesinthefourthjhānamakeitimperturbable—asidefromthefactthatitlackstheprecedingfactors—butAN9:34andAN9:41provideasuggestion.Theynotethatalthoughthefourthjhānaismarkedbypurityofequanimity,itdoesnotfocusonperceptionsdealingwithequanimity.Thismeansthateventhoughphenomenaapartfromtheobjectofconcentrationmaybepresent,themindneitherfocusesonthemnorisitdisturbedbythoughtsorfeelingtonesaroundthoseperceptions.

Butthefourthjhānaisnottheonlystageofconcentrationthatcountsasimperturbable.MN106,withoutfollowingthestandarddescriptionsoftheconcentrationattainments,citesanimperturbableconcentrationbasedonperceptionsofforms—thisisapparentlythefourthjhāna—andonethatisbasedonabandoningperceptionsofforms.Becauseitgoesontosaythatthe

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dimensionofnothingnessliesbeyondtheimperturbable,“imperturbable”wouldapplytotwoformlessattainments:thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspaceandthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.Thustherearethreelevelsofimperturbableconcentrationinall.

Unfortunately,theaccountinPr4doesnotindicatewhichofthesethreestagesofconcentrationVen.Moggallānawasin,sowecannotsayforsurewhetherthisaccountappliestoanyoftheformlessattainments.NordoesitexplainwhattheBuddhameantby“notpurified.”Giventhedifferentways“purified”isusedinthesuttas,itcouldmeanmanythings.Aswenotedabove,“purified”—withreferencetothefourthjhāna—isusedintwosenses:Inthestandardformulafortheconcentrationattainments,“purified”referstopurityofmindfulnessandequanimity.IntheBuddha’sdescriptionofhisownmasteryofthefourthjhāna,“purified”appearsinalistthatsuggestsfreedomfromdefilement:“Whenthemindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridofdefilement,pliant,malleable,steady,andattainedtoimperturbability.…”

Withreferencetotheformlessattainments,MN43usestheword“purified”inwhatmaybeanothersense,indicatingaconsciousnessdivorcedfromthefivesensefaculties.ThiswouldseemtobethemeaningofthewordmostrelevantinthecontextofVen.Moggallāna’sstory.Afterall,simplyhearingthesoundofelephantsisnotadefilement(seeSN35:191(232)),andifthepurityofequanimityandmindfulnessinthefourthjhānacanbeusedtoheardivinesounds(seeMN4),itcansurelyalsobeusedtohearthesoundoftrumpetingelephants.However,giventheuncertaintysurroundingthisstory,thereisnofirmproofthatthisiswhat“purified”meanshere.

TheCommentarytothisstory,indiscussingtheterm“notpurified,”assumesthatVen.Moggallānahadleftthefactorsofjhānaentirelywhenheheardthesoundoftheelephants.TheSub-commentaryseemsclosertothemarkinassumingthathehadrevertedbrieflytofactorsofalowerjhāna,suchasdirectedthoughtandevaluation.IfMoggallānahadentirelyleftthejhānaswhenhearingtheelephants,theBuddhawouldnothavesaidthathehadspokentrulyaboutwhichstageofconcentrationhewasin,andinsteadwouldhavesaidthatMoggallānaspokeoutofamisunderstanding.ThatwouldhavebeenenoughtoexonerateMoggallānafromanoffenseundertherule.

ButbecausetheBuddhasaidthatVen.Moggallānaspoketruly,wehavetoassumethatMoggallānawasinastateofimperturbableconcentration,eventhoughtheattainmentofthatconcentrationwasnotpure.ThismeansthatwehavetofurtherassumethattheCanonallowsforacertainamountofleewayinclassifyingwhatcountsasaparticularstageofrightconcentration.Thefourthjhāna,forexample,canvarysomewhatintheextenttowhichitispurifiedofthefactorsofalowerjhāna—atleastmomentarily—andyetstillqualifyasbeingthefourthjhāna.Thedimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace

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mightvaryintheextenttowhichconsciousnessispurifiedofanyconnectiontothefivephysicalsenses.

Thispointhelpstoexplainanapparentanomalyinthewaythesuttasdescribetheattainmentofthedifferentstagesofrightconcentration.Asnotedabove,therearesomecasesinwhichtheysaysimplythatthemeditatorentersandremainsinaparticularstage.Inothers,theysaythatthemeditator,whileremaininginthatstage,analyzesthestageintermsofthefabricationsofwhichitiscomposed,gainsasenseofdispassionforthosefabrications,andasaresultgainsrelease.

AsAN9:36shows,theprocessofanalysisinvolvessomefairlyextensiveuseofperceptions,alongwithdirectedthoughtandevaluation,evenwhilethemeditatorisinthestatebeinganalyzed.Thiswouldnotbeananomalyinthecaseofthefirstjhāna,whichincludesdirectedthoughtandevaluationasoneofitsdefiningqualities.Butthesuttasstateexplicitlythatthiscanalsohappeninthesecondjhāna—whichisdefinedasresultingfromtheabandoningofdirectedthoughtandevaluation—andonupthroughtheevenmorerefinedlevels,includingthedimensionofnothingness.AccordingtoMN111,theonlyattainmentsinwhichthemeditatormustmindfullyleavetheattainmentbeforeanalyzingitarethedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perceptionandthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.

Iftherewerenoleewayinthedescriptionsofthevariousconcentrationattainments,thissortofanalysiswouldbeimpossibleinanyoftheattainmentsbeyondthefirstjhāna.However,giventheBuddha’scommentinthestoryofVen.Moggallāna,indicatingthattheconcentrationattainmentscanvarysomewhatintheirlevelofpurityandstillcountasrightconcentration,thissortofanalysisispossible.And,infact,theabilitytostepbackfromone’sconcentrationwhilefabricatingitisausefulskill,becauseitisoneofthewaysinwhichameditatorcanachieveawakening.

ThisskilliswhatVen.Sāriputta,inMN43,calls“theeyeofdiscernment.”AN5:28picksupthethemeofvisiontodescribethisskillwithananalogy:

“Andfurther,themonk[havingmasteredthefourjhānas]hashisthemeofreflectionwellinhand,wellattendedto,well-pondered,well-tuned[well-penetrated]bymeansofdiscernment.

“Justasifonepersonweretoreflectonanother,orastandingpersonweretoreflectonasittingperson,orasittingpersonweretoreflectonapersonlyingdown;evenso,monks,themonkhashisthemeofreflectionwellinhand,wellattendedto,well-pondered,well-tuned[well-penetrated]bymeansofdiscernment.Thisisthefifthdevelopmentofthefive-factorednoblerightconcentration.”—AN5:28

Inotherwords,themeditatorcanstepbackorstepabovetheattainment,

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withoutdestroyingit,andpenetrateitbymeansoftheeyeofdiscernmenttothepointofawakening.Touseamoremodernanalogy,ameditatordevelopingconcentrationforthesakeofapleasantabidingislikeahandfullysnuginaglove;onedevelopingconcentrationforthesakeoftheendingoftheeffluentsislikeahandpulledslightlyoutoftheglovebutnotsofarthatitleavestheglove.AstheBuddhalearnedonthenightofhisawakening,theabilitytoanalyzeone’sjhānarequiresanevenhigherlevelofskillthanthesimpleabilitytoenterandremaininthejhāna,forthelatterskill,onitsown,cannotbringaboutawakening(seeAN4:123),whereastheformerskillcan.

TheRightUseofConcentration

Thus,eventhoughVen.MahāMoggallāna’sstorygivesnohardevidenceonewayortheotherastowhetherameditatorintheformlessattainmentscouldhearsounds,itdoesclearupanimportantissuesurroundingthepracticeofrightconcentrationforthepurposeoffullrelease.Anattainmentofconcentrationdoesnothavetobefullypureinordertoqualifyasright—and,infact,ifoneknowshowtousetheimpurityofone’sattainment,itcanactuallybeanaidtoawakening.

Andthere’snoneedforrightconcentrationtoblockoutsounds.Afterall,onecangainawakeningfromanyofthefourjhānas.AN9:37andMN43—innotlistingthosejhānasasamongthosewhereoneisinsensitivetoordivorcedfromthephysicalsenses—standasproofthattheydon’tautomaticallyblockoutsensoryinput.

Theimportantpointaboutconcentrationishowoneusesit.AstheBuddhasaysinMN152,iftheconsummatedevelopmentofone’sfacultiessimplyconsistedintheabilitynottoseesightsorhearsounds,thenblindanddeafpeoplewouldcountasconsummateintheirfaculties.Consummationinthisareaactuallyconsistsofthediscernmentthatallowsonetobeuninfluencedbysensoryinputevenasoneisfullyawareofthatinput.

ĀḷāraKālāmahadstrongconcentration—strongenoughtoblockthesoundof500cartspassingby—buthetookitnofurther.Hetreateditasanendratherthanameansbecausehelackedinsightintohowtocontemplateitwiththeeyeofdiscernmenttoreachawakening.Thesamepointappliestotheinhabitantsofthedimensionofnon-percipientbeings.AsforVen.MahāMoggallāna:Eventhoughhisconcentrationmaynothavebeenaspureastheirs—atleastonthedayhesatbytheriver—hewasstillabletouseitasameansforgoingbeyondallfabrication,andinthatwayreachtotalrelease.

Inthefinalanalysis,that’swhatcounts.

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TheNot-selfStrategy

AstheBuddhaoncesaid,theteachinghemostfrequentlygavetohisstudentswasthis:Allfabricationsareinconstant;allphenomenaarenot-self(anattā)(MN35).Manypeoplehaveinterpretedthissecondstatementasmeaningthatthereisnoself.Others,however,havenoticedstatementsinthePaliCanon—ourearliestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings—thatrefertotheideaofselfinapositivemanner,aswhentheBuddhastatedthattheselfisitsownmainstay(Dhp160),orwhenheencouragedagroupofyoungmen—whoweresearchingforawomanwhohadstolentheirbelongings—tosearchfortheselfinstead(MvI.14.4).Fromthesestatements,thesereadersconcludethatthestatement,“Allphenomenaarenot-self,”ismeanttoclearawayattachmenttoafalseviewofselfsothatanexperienceofthetrueselfcanbeattained.

Thedebatebetweenthesetwopositionshaslastedformillennia,witheachsideabletociteadditionalpassagesfromtheCanontoprovetheothersidewrong.Evennow,bothsidescontinuetofindadherentsattractedtotheirarguments,butneithersidehashadthefinalword.

Acommonwayoftryingtoresolvethisimpassehasbeentosaythatbothsidesarerightbutondifferentlevelsoftruth.Oneversionofthisresolutionstatesthatthereisaselfontheconventionalleveloftruth,butnoselfontheultimatelevel.Analternateversionoftheresolution,however,switchesthelevelsaround:Theconventionalselfdoesnotexist,whereasahigherlevelofselfontheultimateleveloftruthdoes.Andsotheimpasseremains.

Allofthesepositions,however,glossoverthefactthattheonetimetheBuddhawasaskedpoint-blankaboutwhethertheselfdoesordoesn’texist,heremainedsilent.Thepersonwhoaskedhimthequestion,Vacchagottathewanderer,didn’tbothertoasktheBuddhatoexplainhissilence.Hesimplygotupfromhisseatandleft.

However,whenVen.ĀnandathenaskedtheBuddhawhyhedidn’tanswerthequestion,theBuddhagavefourreasons—twoforeachofthetwoalternatives—astowhyitwouldhavebeenunskillfultorespondtoVacchagotta’squestionbysayingeitherthattheselfexistsordoesnotexist.(1)Tostatethatthereisaselfwouldbetosidewiththewrongviewofeternalism.(2)Tostatethatthereisnoselfwouldbetosidewiththewrongviewofannihilationism.(3)Tostatethatthereisaselfwouldnotbeinkeepingwiththearisingofknowledgethatallphenomenaarenot-self.(4)Totell

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Vacchagottathatthereisnoselfwouldhavelefthimevenmorebewilderedthanhealreadywas.

IfwetaketheBuddha’sreasonshereatfacevalue,theyindicatethatbothsidesofthedebateovertheexistenceornon-existenceoftheself,insteadofbeingpartiallyright,aretotallywrong.Theirmistakeliesinthepointtheyhaveincommon:theassumptionthattheBuddha’steachingsstartwiththequestionofthemetaphysicalstatusoftheself,i.e.,whetherornotitexists.

That,ofcourse,isifwetaketheBuddha’sreasonsforhissilenceatfacevalue.ThepartisanswhowanttomaintaintheclaimthattheBuddhatookapositionontheexistenceoftheself,however,havetendedtoignorethefirstthreereasonsforhissilenceinthefaceofthequestionandtofocusexclusiveattentiononthefourth.IfsomeoneelsemorespirituallymaturethanVacchagottahadaskedthequestion,theysay,theBuddhawouldhaverevealedhistrueposition.

However,noneofthefirstthreereasonsapplyspecificallytoVacchagotta’sreactiontotheBuddha’spossibleanswer.

ThepurposeofthisessayistoshowthatthesereasonsshouldbeacceptedasindicatingthattheBuddharefusedconsistentlytotakeastandonwhetherthereisorisn’taself,andthathissilenceonthisissueisimportant.Toestablishthesepoints,itlooksattheBuddha’ssilenceinthreemaincontexts:

(1)thepurposeandrangeofhisteachings;(2)themetaphysicalassumptionsthatmakethatpurposepossible;and(3)hispedagogicalstrategyintryingtoachievethatpurpose.

Onceweunderstandthesecontexts,wecancometoabetterunderstandingnotonlyoftheBuddha’ssilence,butalsoof:

(4)whyviewsconcerningtheexistenceornon-existenceoftheselfdonotservethepurposeoftheBuddha’steachings;

(5)whyperceptionsof“self”and“not-self”neverthelesscanactasstrategiestohelpservethatpurpose;

(6)inparticular,whatpurposeisservedbytheperception,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”;and

(7)whyalltheseperceptionsarenolongerneededandnolongerapplyoncetheyhavesucceededinservingtheBuddha’smainpurposeinteaching.

Inotherwords,thepurposeofthisessayistoshowthattheBuddha’steachingsonselfandnot-selfarestrategiesforhelpinghisstudentsattainthegoaloftheteaching,andthatneitherapplyoncethegoalisattained.

1 . ThePurpose&RangeoftheTeachings

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AlloftheBuddha’steachingshavetobeunderstoodinlightoftheirprimarypurpose,whichistosolveasingleproblem:theproblemofdukkha(stress,suffering).Otherissuesaretreatedonlyastheyrelatetosolvingthisproblem.Anyissuesthatareirrelevanttothisproblem—orwouldinterferewithitssolution—lieoutsideoftherangeofwhathewaswillingtoaddress.

‘Bothformerlyandnow,Anurādha,it’sonlystressthatIdescribe,andthecessationofstress.’—SN22:86

“Thecessationofstress,”here,doesnotrefertothesimplepassingawayofindividualinstancesofstress,whichhappensallthetime.Instead,itreferstothetotalendingofstress,anattainmentthatcanbereachedonlythroughapathofpracticeaimedatfosteringdispassionfortheoriginationorcauseofstress.

ThesefactsshapetheBuddha’scentralteaching,thefournobletruths:stress,itsorigination,itscessation,andthepathofpracticeleadingtoitscessation.

2. TheMetaphysicalAssumptionsoftheFourNobleTruths

Fromthesefourtruths,themetaphysicalassumptionsunderlyingtheBuddha’steachingsasawholecanbedetected.Andtheyarenothardtofind,forthey’rerevealedbythewaythetruthsareinterrelated.Thefirsttwonobletruthsstatethatstressiscausedbythementalactionofcravingandclinging.Thelasttwotruthsstatethatthecessationofstresscanbereachedbymeansoftheactionsthatmakeupthepathtoitscessation.ThewaythesetruthsarepairedshowsthattheBuddha’sbasicmetaphysicalassumptionsconcernaction(kamma):thatactionisreal,thatit’stheresultofchoice,thatithasconsequences,andthatthoseconsequencescanleadeithertocontinuedstressortoitsend.

Giventheseassumptions,itmakessensetolookatperceptionsofselfandnot-selfastypesofkamma,andtoevaluatethemastowhethertheyareactionscausingstressorleadingtoitsend.AndthatisexactlywhattheBuddhadoes.Hepointstotheactofcreatingasenseofself-identity—inhisterms,“I-making”and“my-making”(ahaṅkāra,mamaṅkāra—seeAN3:33)—asamajorcauseofstress.Thenot-selfteachingisalsoanaction,aperceptionthatisoneofmanyactionsemployedaspartofthepathtotheendingofstressbybringingthatcausetoanend.However,theBuddhaalsofoundthatcertaintypesofself-identitywereusefulingettinghisstudentsstartedonthepathandtomotivatethemtostayoncourseuntiltheskillsofthepathweresomaturethattheperceptionofselfwasnolongerneeded.Theperceptionofnot-selfwouldthenbeusedtoundercutanyclingingtoanypossiblesenseofself,thus

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bringingaboutfullawakening.Becauseoneofthedescriptionsofawakeningisthatit’sthe“endofaction”(SN35:145;AN4:237;AN6:63),everyactofperception—includingperceptionofselfandnot-self—wouldbeputasidewhenawakeningisreached.

ThismeansthatintheBuddha’steachingsaboutthepath,both“self”and“not-self”areused,notasmetaphysicaltenets,butasstrategies:perceptionsthataremeanttoserveaparticularpurposealongthewayandtobeputasidewhennolongerneeded.

Infact,theentirepathtotheendofstressisasetofeightstrategies—thefactorsthatgivethepathitsnameasaneightfoldpath:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.Allofthesefactorsareskillstobedevelopedandmastered:strategiesdevotedtoaskillfulpurposethatarethendroppedwhenthatpurposeisachieved.

Rightview—theproperfocusandframeworkforunderstandingstressanditscessation—isoneofthesestrategies.Andit’sunderthispathfactorthatviewsaboutselfandnot-selffunctioninhelpingtobringstresstoanend.Thismeansthattheteachingsonselfandnot-selfareanswers,nottothequestionofwhetherornotthereisaself,buttothequestionthattheBuddhasaidliesatthebeginningofthediscernmentleadingtorightview:“What,whendonebyme,willleadtomylong-termwelfareandhappiness?”(MN135)Youfindlong-termwelfareandhappinessbylearningtouseperceptionsofselfandnot-selfinaskillfulway.

Asforthegoal,thecessationofstress,theCanonstatesthatalthoughitmaybeexperienced,itliesbeyondtherangeofdescription,andsoanydescriptionsofselfornot-selfwouldnotapply.Becauseitistheendofaction,itisdevoidofallstrategies.Conceptsofselfandnot-selfcanbedroppednotonlybecausetheyareinadequatetodescribethegoal,butalsobecauseoncethegoalisattainedtheyhavenofunctiontoserve.

3. TheBuddha’sTeachingStrategy

Tohelphislistenersmasterrightviewasameanstothatgoal,theBuddhafollowedapedagogicalstrategyofansweringonlythosequestionsthatstayedontopic.Inlinewiththispolicy,hedividedquestionsintofourcategoriesbasedonhowtheyshouldbehandledtokeepthelistenerproperlyfocusedwiththecorrectframeworkinmind(AN4:42).Thefirstcategorycoversquestionsdeservingacategoricalanswer,i.e.,ananswertrueacrosstheboard.Thesecondcategorycoversthosedeservingananalyticalanswer,oneinwhichhewouldexpandorrephrasethequestiontoshowunderwhatconditionshisanswerswouldorwouldnotapply.Thethirdcategorycoversquestionsin

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whichthequestionershouldbecross-questionedfirsttohelpclearupthequestionorhelppreparethequestionertounderstandtheanswer.Thefourthcategorycoversquestionsthatshouldbeputasidebecausetheytreatissuesthatareofftopicandwouldleadthequestioneroffcourse.

Themostimportantquestionsdeservingcategoricalanswersarethosefocusedontheskillsofthefournobletruths:comprehendingstress,abandoningitscause,realizingitscessation,anddevelopingthepathofpracticetoitscessation.

Oftheseskills,themostcentraloneistodevelopthepathfactorsthatundercutthecauseofstresswithinthemind:passionanddesireforthingsthatareboundtochange.Asafirststepinthisskill,theBuddhaoffered—aspartofrightview—differentwaysofcategorizingtherangeofobjectsforwhichpeoplefeelpassionanddesire.Aprimarysetofcategoriesconsistsoffiveactivities,calledaggregates(khandha):form,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.Whenpeopleclingtotheseactivitiesthroughpassionanddelight,theysuffer.AsVen.Sāriputta,oneoftheBuddha’sforemostdisciples,explainedtoagroupofhisfellowmonks:

Ven.Sāriputta:‘Friends,inforeignlandstherearewisenoblesandbrahmans,householdersandcontemplatives—forthepeopletherearewiseanddiscriminating—whowillquestionamonk:“Whatisyourteacher’sdoctrine?Whatdoesheteach?”

‘Thusasked,youshouldanswer,“Ourteacherteachesthesubduingofpassionanddesire.”

‘“…passionanddesireforwhat?”‘“…passionanddesireforform…feeling…perception…fabrications…

consciousness.”‘“…seeingwhatdanger[or:drawback]doesyourteacherteachthe

subduingofpassionanddesireforform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness?”

‘“…whenoneisnotfreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,andcravingforform,thenwithanychangeandalterationinthatform,therearisesorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,anddespair.”…

‘[Similarlywithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.]‘“…andseeingwhatbenefitdoesyourteacherteachthesubduingof

passionanddesireforform…feeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness?”

‘“…whenapersonisfreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,andcravingforform,thenwithanychangeandalterationinthatform,theredoesnotariseanysorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,ordespair.”

‘[Similarlywithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.]’

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—SN22:2

Oneofthemainmanifestationsofpassionanddesirefortheseaggregatesistoviewthemas“me”or“mine,”creatingasenseofselfaroundthem.

‘Thereisthecasewhereanuninstructed,run-of-the-millperson—whohasnoregardfornobleones,isnotwell-versedordisciplinedintheirDhamma;whohasnoregardformenofintegrity,isnotwell-versedordisciplinedintheirDhamma—assumesformtobetheself,ortheselfaspossessingform,orformasintheself,ortheselfasinform.Heisseizedwiththeideathat‘Iamform’or‘Formismine.’Asheisseizedwiththeseideas,hisformchangesandalters,andhefallsintosorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespairoveritschangeandalteration.

‘[Similarlywithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.]’—SN22:1

Thesewaysofbuildingaself-identityaroundanyoftheaggregatesarewhattheBuddhameantbytheterms,“I-making”and“my-making.”BeingsengageintheprocessofI-makingandmy-makingbecauseofthepleasuretobefoundintheaggregates.

‘Mahali,ifformwereexclusivelystressful—followedbystress,infusedwithstressandnotinfusedwithpleasure—beingswouldnotbeinfatuatedwithform.Butbecauseformisalsopleasurable—followedbypleasure,infusedwithpleasureandnotinfusedwithstress—beingsareinfatuatedwithform.Throughinfatuation,theyarecaptivated.Throughcaptivation,theyaredefiled.Thisisthecause,thistherequisitecondition,forthedefilementofbeings.Andthisishowbeingsaredefiledwithcause,withrequisitecondition.[Similarlywiththeotheraggregates.]’—SN22:60

TheactivitiesofI-makingandmy-makingaredefilingbecause,eventhoughtheyaimatpleasure,theyleadtostress—bothbecausetheactofclingingisstressfulinandofitself,andbecauseittriestofindadependablehappinessinthingsthataresubjecttochange,stressful,andnottotallyunderone’scontrol.

‘Ifformwereself,thisformwouldnotlenditselftodis-ease.Itwouldbepossible[tosay]withregardtoform,“Letmyformbethus.Letmyformnotbethus.”Butpreciselybecauseformisnotself,thisformlendsitselftodis-ease.Anditisnotpossible[tosay]withregardtoform,“Letmyformbethus.Letmyformnotbethus.”[Similarlywiththeotheraggregates.]’—SN22:59

‘Monks,doyouseeanyclingingintheformofadoctrineofself

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which,whenyouclingtoit,therewouldnotarisesorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,anddespair?’

‘No,lord.’‘…NeitherdoI…Whatdoyouthink,monks:Ifapersonwereto

gatherorburnordoashelikeswiththegrass,twigs,branches,andleaveshereinJeta’sGrove,wouldthethoughtoccurtoyou,“It’susthatthispersonisgathering,burning,ordoingwithashelikes”?’

‘No,lord.Whyisthat?Becausethosethingsarenotourselfanddonotpertaintoourself.’

‘Evenso,monks,whateverisnotyours:Letgoofit.Yourlettinggoofitwillbeforyourlong-termwelfareandhappiness.Andwhatisnotyours?Formisnotyours…Feelingisnotyours…Perception…Fabrications…Consciousnessisnotyours.Letgoofit.Yourlettinggoofitwillbeforyourlong-termwelfareandhappiness.’—MN22

QuestionsthatfocusedonwhyandhowtoputanendtoI-makingandmy-makingwereamongthosethattheBuddhawouldanswercategorically.

Mogharāja:Onewhoregardstheworldinwhatwayisn’tseenbyDeath’sKing?

TheBuddha:Alwaysmindful,Mogharāja,regardtheworldas

empty,havingremovedanyview

intermsofself.Thiswayoneisaboveandbeyonddeath.Onewhoregardstheworldinthiswayisn’tseenbyDeath’sKing.—Sn5:15

Inotherwords,theBuddhawouldgivecategoricalanswerstoquestionsthatregardedtheactivityofclingingtoasenseofselfasbothasachoiceandasachoicethatcouldbereversed.

Tohelphislistenersseethatactivityinaction,andtoreverseitthenandthere,hewouldoftenusethefollowingstrategyofcross-questioningtogetthemtoexaminetheirexperienceofthefiveaggregatesinawaythatwouldleadthemtosensedisenchantmentanddispassionfortheaggregates,andsotostoptheprocessesofI-makingandmy-makingaroundthem.Theresultwas

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thatmanyofhislisteners,onbeingcross-questionedinthisway,wouldgaintotalreleasefromallstress.

‘Whatdoyouthink,monks—Isformconstantorinconstant?’‘Inconstant,lord.’‘Andisthatwhichisinconstanteasefulorstressful?’‘Stressful,lord.’‘Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjectto

changeas:“Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam”?’‘No,lord.’[Similarlywithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.]‘Thus,monks,anyformwhatsoeverthatispast,future,orpresent;

internalorexternal;blatantorsubtle;commonorsublime;farornear:Everyformistobeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometobe:‘Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.’

[Similarlywithfeeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.]‘Seeingthus,theinstructeddiscipleofthenobleonesgrows

disenchantedwithform,disenchantedwithfeeling,disenchantedwithperception,disenchantedwithfabrications,disenchantedwithconsciousness.Disenchanted,hebecomesdispassionate.Throughdispassion,heisreleased.Withrelease,thereistheknowledge,“Released.”Hediscernsthat“Birthisended,theholylifefulfilled,thetaskdone.Thereisnothingfurtherforthisworld.”’

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Gratified,thegroupoffivemonksdelightedintheBlessedOne’swords.Andwhilethisexplanationwasbeinggiven,themindsofthegroupoffivemonks,throughlackofclinging/sustenance,werereleasedfromeffluents.—SN22:59

Notice,however,theconclusiontowhichthispatternofcross-questioningleads:thattheaggregatesdonotdeservetoberegardedas“mine,”“myself,”or“whatIam.”Forthepurposesofleadinghislistenerstorelease,theBuddhadidnotaskthemtocometothefurtherconclusionthatthereisnoself.Infact,questionsastowhetherthereisorisnotaselffallintothecategoryofthosedeservingtobeputaside.Questionsframedinthoseterms,insteadofaidingintheendofstress,simplyactasfettersandentanglements,interferingwiththepath.

Here,forinstance,istherecordoftheBuddha’sencounterwithVacchagotta:

Ashewassittingthere,VacchagottathewanderersaidtotheBlessedOne,‘Nowthen,MasterGotama,isthereaself?’Whenthiswassaid,theBlessedOnewassilent.

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‘Thenistherenoself?’ForasecondtimetheBlessedOnewassilent.ThenVacchagottathewanderergotupfromhisseatandleft.Then,notlongafterVacchagottathewandererhadleft,Ven.Ānanda

saidtotheBlessedOne,‘Why,sir,didtheBlessedOnenotanswerwhenaskedaquestionaskedbyVacchagottathewanderer?’

‘Ānanda,ifI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisaself,weretoanswerthatthereisaself,thatwouldbeincompanywiththosecontemplativesandbrahmanswhoareexponentsofeternalism[i.e.,theviewthatthereisaneternalsoul].AndifI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisnoself,weretoanswerthatthereisnoself,thatwouldbeincompanywiththosecontemplativesandbrahmanswhoareexponentsofannihilationism[i.e.,thatdeathisannihilation].IfI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisaself,weretoanswerthatthereisaself,wouldthatbeinkeepingwiththearisingofknowledgethatallphenomenaarenot-self?’

‘No,lord.’‘AndifI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewandererifthereisnoself,

weretoanswerthatthereisnoself,thebewilderedVacchagottawouldbecomeevenmorebewildered:“DoestheselfthatIusedtohavenownotexist?”’—SN44:10

Aswehavealreadynoted,peoplewhoholdthattheBuddhatookapositiononewayortheotheronthequestionofwhetherornotthereisaselfhaveattemptedtoexplainawaytheBuddha’ssilenceinthefaceofVacchagotta’squestions.TheyusuallydosobyfocusingonhisfinalstatementtoĀnanda:Vacchagottawasalreadybewildered,andtosaythatthereisnoselfwouldhavelefthimevenmorebewildered.Insomecases,theyaddthesamequalificationtotheBuddha’sfirsttwostatementstoĀnanda,sayingthatVacchagottawouldhavemisunderstoodthestatementthatthereisaselfastendingtowardeternalism,orthestatementthatthereisnoselfastendingtowardannihilationism.Forexample,someofthesepeopleclaimthattheBuddhatookananalyticalYesandNopositiononthequestion—thattheselfexistsononelevel,butnotonanother.IfhehadsimplyansweredYesorNotoVacchagotta’squestions,thelatterwouldnothaveunderstoodthesubtletyoftheteaching.Othersclaimthatthattosaythattheselfdoesnotexistisnotreallyannihilationism,asthereisnoselftobeannihilated.Awiserperson,alloftheseinterpretationsconclude,wouldnothavemisunderstoodthesepoints.

Asproof,theyfocusonthequalificationsthattheBuddhausestoprefaceallfourofhisreasons:“IfI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewanderer…”This,theyclaim,indicatesthatifsomeoneelsehadaskedthequestion,theBuddhawouldhaverespondeddifferentlybecausethestatements,“Theselfexists”

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and/or,“Theselfdoesnotexist”wouldhavemeantsomethingelsetoadifferentperson.

Thisinterpretation,though,ignoresfourthings:(1)IftheBuddhahadwantedtoasserttoapersonmorespirituallyadvancedthanVacchagottathatthereisaselforisnoself,hecouldhavedonesowithĀnanda.Buthedidn’t.(2)Ifhehadheldtoananalyticalviewontheexistenceoftheself—suchasthattheselfexistsononelevelbutnotonanother,orthattosaythattheselfdoesnotexistisnotanannihilationistviewbecausethereisnothingtobeannihilated—hecouldhavegiveneitherVacchagottaorĀnandaananalyticalanswer,explainedthroughcross-questioning.Butagain,hedidn’t.(3)Thequalification,“IfI,beingaskedbyVacchagottathewanderer…”prefacesnotonlythefirst,second,andfourthreasons,butalsothethird.IfitweremeanttolimitthereasonsonlytothefactthatVacchagottaaskedthequestions,thenitwouldapplytothethirdreasonaswell.However,noonehaseverproposedthatitdoes,andthereisnosupportfromanywhereelseintheCanontosuggestthatitdoes.(4)Mostimportantly,thereisanotherpassageintheCanoninwhichtheBuddhatellsagroupofhismonksthattheequivalentquestions,“DoIexist?”and“DoInotexist?”shouldbeputasideinallcases,regardlessofwhoisaskingthem.

‘Monks,thereisthecasewhereanuninstructed,run-of-the-millperson…doesn’tdiscernwhatideasarefitforattention,orwhatideasareunfitforattention.Thisbeingso,hedoesn’tattendtoideasfitforattention,andattends(instead)toideasunfitforattention…Thisishowheattendsinappropriately:“WasIinthepast?WasInotinthepast?WhatwasIinthepast?HowwasIinthepast?Havingbeenwhat,whatwasIinthepast?ShallIbeinthefuture?ShallInotbeinthefuture?WhatshallIbeinthefuture?HowshallIbeinthefuture?Havingbeenwhat,whatshallIbeinthefuture?”Orelseheisinwardlyperplexedabouttheimmediatepresent:“AmI?AmInot?WhatamI?HowamI?Wherehasthisbeingcomefrom?Whereisitbound?”

‘Asheattendsinappropriatelyinthisway,oneofsixkindsofviewarisesinhim:TheviewIhaveaselfarisesinhimastrueandestablished,

ortheviewIhavenoself…ortheviewItispreciselybecauseofselfthatIperceiveself…ortheviewItispreciselybecauseofselfthatIperceivenot-self…ortheviewItispreciselybecauseofnot-selfthatIperceiveselfarisesin

himastrueandestablished,orelsehehasaviewlikethis:Thisveryselfofmine—theknowerwhichis

sensitivehereandtheretotheripeningofgoodandbadactions—istheselfofminewhichisconstant,everlasting,eternal,notsubjecttochange,andwillendureaslongaseternity.

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‘Thisiscalledathicketofviews,awildernessofviews,acontortionofviews,awrithingofviews,afetterofviews.Boundbyafetterofviews,theuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersonisnotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath,fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,grief,anddespair.Heisnotfreedfromstress,Isay.

‘Thewell-taughtdiscipleofthenobleones…discernswhatideasarefitforattention,andwhatideasareunfitforattention.Thisbeingso,hedoesn’tattendtoideasunfitforattention,andattends(instead)toideasfitforattention…Heattendsappropriately,Thisisstress…Thisistheoriginofstress…Thisisthecessationofstress…Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofstress.Asheattendsappropriatelyinthisway,threefettersareabandonedinhim:identity-view,uncertainty,andgraspingathabitsandpractices.’—MN2

Thispassagemakesmanyimportantpoints,buttwoaremostrelevanthere.First,itdisprovestheinterpretationthattheBuddhaavoidedthelabelofannihilationismbyholdingthatthereisnoselftobeannihilatedatdeath.Asthepassageshows,simplytoaskinthepresent,“DoInotexist?”andtocomeupwiththeanswer,“Ihavenoself,”isjustasmuchafetterastocomeupwiththeanswer“Ihaveaself”thatlatermightbeannihilated.Bothpositionsgetinthewayofattendingtoideasthatarefitforattention.

Second,thepassageshowsthatsuchquestionsas“Isthereaself?”“Istherenoself?”“AmI?”“AmInot?”“WhatamI?”allfallintothecategoryofquestionsthatshouldconsistentlybeputaside,regardlessofwhoasksthem.ThustheBuddha’sfirstthreereasonsfornotansweringVacchagotta’squestionsholdnotonlyinVacchagotta’scase,butineverycasewherethosequestionsortheirequivalentsareasked.

4.TwoFettersofViews

WhenevertheBuddhaputaquestionaside,therewasalwaysareasonwhy.TheabovepassagefromMN2givestheshortanswertothe“why”inthiscase:Boththeview“Ihaveaself”andtheview“Ihavenoself”—and,iffact,allattemptstoanswerthequestion,“DoIexist?”—actasfettersandentanglementsthatpreventtheendingofstress.InthetermsthatVen.SāriputtausesinSN22:2,theactofholdingtoaviewthatthereisaselforthatthereisnoselfisaformofpassionordesirefortheperceptionsandmentalfabricationsthatgointoformingtheview.

That’stheshortanswer.Togainamoredetailedunderstandingofwhythequestionsbehindtheseviewsshouldbeputaside,it’sworthlookingintothefirstthreereasonstheBuddhagavefornotrespondingtoVacchagotta’squestionsinSN44:10.

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•Thefirstreasonstatesthattosay“Thereisaself”istosidewiththewrongviewofeternalism.Hereit’simportanttonotethattheBuddhaisnotstatingthatallviewsofanexistingselfareeternalistic.Aswewillsee,heiswellawareofviewsclaimingtheexistenceofaselfthatisnoteternal.However,thestatement,“Thereisaself”conformswitheternalisminthatitsharesthesamepracticaldrawbacksasaneternalistview.Itcannotbeusedaspartofthestrategyforputtinganendtostressbecause,inholdingtothissortofview,thereisadoublelevelofattachment:totheviewitself,andtotheobjectstheviewidentifiesasself.ThisiswhytheBuddhasofrequentlydeconstructedtheviewofanexistingselfinordertohelphislistenersadvancealongthepath.

OneofhismostthoroughtreatmentsoftheviewthatthereisaselfisfoundintheGreatCausesDiscourse(DN15).Thereherejectsanyandallviewsthatthereisaself.Firstheclassifiesalltheoriesoftheselfintofourmajorcategories:thosedescribingaselfthatiseither(1)possessedofform(abody)andfinite;(2)possessedofformandinfinite;(3)formlessandfinite;and(4)formlessandinfinite.Thenhestatesthatapersonwhosedefinitionoftheselffallsintoanyofthesefourcategoriesmightsayeitherthattheselfisalreadythatway,thatitwillnaturallybecomethatway(whenatsleeporatdeath),orthatitcanbemadetobethatwaythroughpractice.Thisgives,inall,twelvewaysofdefiningtheself.

Thetextgivesnoexamplesofthefourbasiccategories,butwecancitethefollowingasillustrations:(1)theoriesthatdenytheexistenceofasoul,andidentifytheselfwiththebody;(2)theoriesthatidentifytheselfwithallbeingorwiththeuniverse;(3)theoriesofdiscrete,individualsouls;(4)theoriesofaunitarysouloridentityimmanentinallthings.TheBuddhapointsoutthatanyviewfallingintoanyofthesecategoriesentailsobsession.

Hethengoesontoshowthatanyassumptionofaself,howeverdefined,revolvesaroundoneormoreofthefiveaggregates,asnotedabove—assumingtheselfeitherasidenticalwiththeaggregate,aspossessingtheaggregate,asintheaggregate,orascontainedwithintheaggregate.Forexample,aformlessinfiniteselfmightbeassumedtocontainconsciousnesswithinit,orasbeingidentifiedwithconsciousness.Becausetheseaggregates,includingtheconsciousness-aggregate,areallinconstantandstressful,theresultisthatanytheoryofaself,nomatterhowdefined,entailsobsessionwithwhatisinconstantandstressful.Theobsessionitselfisalsostressful.Thisiswhyanyviewthatthereisaselfcountsasafetterofviews.NoneofthemcantakeyoubeyondrangeofDeath’sKing.

•TheBuddha’ssecondreasonfornotansweringVacchagotta’squestionsisthatifheweretostatethatthereisnoself,hewouldbesidingwiththewrongviewannihilationism.Thisisbecausethisstatementsharesthesamepracticaldrawbacksasanannihilationistview.It,too,interfereswiththestrategiesneededtoputanendtostressbecausetheactofholdingtoitcanactasafetter

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ontwomainlevels.Onthegrosserlevel,aviewofthissortcanbeusedtojustifyimmoral

behavior:Ifthereisnoself,thereisnoagentwhoisresponsibleforaction,noonetobenefitfromskillfulactions,andnoonetobeharmedbyunskillfulactions.

ThispointisillustratedinMN109,whereanassemblyofmonksislisteningtotheBuddha,andoneofthemaskstheBuddhahowtoputanendtoI-makingandmy-making.TheBuddharesponds:

‘Monk,oneseesanyformwhatsoever—past,future,orpresent;internalorexternal;blatantorsubtle;commonorsublime;farornear—everyform,asitactuallyiswithrightdiscernment:“Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.”

‘Oneseesanyfeelingwhatsoever…anyperceptionwhatsoever…anyfabricationswhatsoever…

‘Oneseesanyconsciousnesswhatsoever—past,future,orpresent;internalorexternal;blatantorsubtle;commonorsublime;farornear—everyconsciousness—asitactuallyiswithrightdiscernment:“Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.”’[SeeSN22:59,above.]

Anothermonksittingintheassembly,however,takesthiscontemplationinanunskillfuldirection.Insteadofusingitforitsintendedpurpose—theendofI-makingandmy-making—heturnsittowardaconclusionthatactiondonebywhatisnot-selfwillnotbeabletotouchoneself:

Nowatthatmomentthislineofthinkingappearedintheawarenessofacertainmonk:‘So—formisnot-self,feelingisnot-self,perceptionisnot-self,fabricationsarenot-self,consciousnessisnot-self.Thenwhatselfwillbetouchedbytheactionsdonebywhatisnot-self?’

Thisconclusion,ineffect,deniestheBuddha’sunderlyingassumptionsabouttheefficacyofkamma.TheBuddha’sfirstresponsetothismisuseofhisteachingistodenounceit:

ThentheBlessedOne,realizingwithhisawarenessthelineofthinkinginthatmonk’sawareness,addressedthemonks:‘It’spossiblethatasenselessperson—immersedinignorance,overcomewithcraving—mightthinkthathecouldoutsmarttheTeacher’smessageinthisway:“So—formisnot-self,feelingisnot-self,perceptionisnot-self,fabricationsarenot-self,consciousnessisnot-self.Thenwhatselfwillbetouchedbytheactionsdonebywhatisnot-self?”

TheBuddhathenturnstotheothermonksandleadsthemthroughhis

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standardquestionnaireofcross-questioningaboutwhethertheaggregatesdeservetoberegardedasself(asinSN22:59,above).Theresultisthatsixtyofthemonksgainfullawakeningbyabandoningallclinging.Inthisway,insteadofarguingwiththeerrantmonk,theBuddhashowsbyexamplehowtheteachingonnot-selfshouldbeused:asastrategyforabandoningclinging.Tousetheteachingasametaphysicaltenetdenyingbothone’sresponsibilityforactionandtheefficacyofactionindeterminingone’spleasureandpainis,intheBuddha’swords,asignofsenselessness,immersedinignoranceandovercomebycraving.

Onamorerefinedlevel,theactofholdingtotheviewthatthereisnoselfcontainsafetterintheveryactofholdingtotheview.Itcanalsoleadameditatortobecomefetteredtoanyexperienceofpeaceorequanimitythatmeditatingonthisviewmightproduce.AsMN106pointsout,theperceptionofnot-self,whenconsistentlyappliedtoallexperiencethroughthesenses,canleadtoaformlesslevelofmeditativeabsorptioncalledthedimensionofnothingness.

‘Thenagain,thediscipleofthenobleones,havinggoneintothewilderness,totherootofatree,orintoanemptydwelling,considersthis:‘Thisisemptyofselforofanythingpertainingtoself.’Practicingandfrequentlyabidinginthisway,hismindacquiresconfidenceinthatdimension.Therebeingfullconfidence,heeitherattainsthedimensionofnothingnessnoworelseiscommittedtodiscernment.Withthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,it’spossiblethatthisleading-onconsciousnessofhiswillgotothedimensionofnothingness.’—MN106

Onattainingthislevelofconcentration,apersonwhoholdstotheviewthatthereisnoselfwouldreadtheexperienceofnothingnessasconfirmationofthatview.Satisfiedthathehadfoundthetruth,hewouldstopthere,notrealizingthatthereismoreworktobedone.That’sbecauseinthatstate,asinalltheformlessattainments,anycontentmentwiththeattainmentandthepeacefulsenseofequanimityitcontainsmakesitanobjectofclinging.

Whenthiswassaid,Ven.ĀnandasaidtotheBlessedOne:‘Thereisthecase,lord,whereamonk,havingpracticedinthisway—“Itshouldnotbe,itshouldnotoccurtome;itwillnotbe,itwillnotoccurtome.Whatis,whathascometobe,thatIabandon”—obtainsequanimity.Now,wouldthismonkbetotallyunbound,ornot?’

‘Acertainsuchmonkmight,Ānanda,andanothermightnot.’‘Whatisthecause,whatisthereason,wherebyonemightand

anothermightnot?’‘Thereisthecase,Ānanda,whereamonk,havingpracticedinthis

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way—(thinking)“Itshouldnotbe,itshouldnotoccurtome;itwillnotbe,itwillnotoccurtome.Whatis,whathascometobe,thatIabandon”—obtainsequanimity.Herelishesthatequanimity,welcomesit,remainsfastenedtoit.Asherelishesthatequanimity,welcomesit,remainsfastenedtoit,hisconsciousnessisdependentonit,issustainedbyit[clingstoit].Withclinging/sustenance,Ānanda,amonkisnottotallyunbound.’

‘Beingsustained,whereisthatmonksustained?’‘Thedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception[onelevel

higherthanthedimensionofnothingness].’‘Then,indeed,beingsustained,heissustainedbythesupreme

clinging/sustenance.’‘Beingsustained,Ānanda,heissustainedbythesupreme

clinging/sustenance;forthis—thedimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception—isthesupremeclinging/sustenance.Thereis[however]thecasewhereamonk,havingpracticedinthisway—“Itshouldnotbe,itshouldnotoccurtome;itwillnotbe,itwillnotoccurtome.Whatis,whathascometobe,thatIabandon”—obtainsequanimity.Hedoesn’trelishthatequanimity,doesn’twelcomeit,doesn’tremainfastenedtoit.Asdoesn’trelishthatequanimity,doesn’twelcomeit,doesn’tremainfastenedtoit,hisconsciousnessisnotdependentonit,isnotsustainedbyit[doesnotclingtoit].Withoutclinging/sustenance,Ānanda,amonkistotallyunbound.’—MN106

Inotherwords,togainfreedomfromthesubtlestresstobefoundevenintheequanimityoftheformlessattainments,ameditatorneedstoavoidlookingforproofthatthereisnoself,andinsteadtolookforwhichmentalactivityiscausingthestress.Seeingitintheactofpassionthatrelishesthefeelingproducedbytheattainment,onecangainreleasefromit.

5. “Self”&“Not-self”asSkillfulStrategies

AvoidingthequestionoftheexistenceoftheselfnotonlyallowedtheBuddhatosidestepanissuethatcouldpreventastudent’sprogressonthepathtotheendofsuffering;italsoallowedhimtofocusdirectlyonthekammaofselfandnot-self.Inotherwords,itallowedhimtolookatthementalactivitiesofI-makingandmy-makingasactivities,andtoexaminetheminthetermsthatareappropriatetoactivities:Whenaretheyskillfulinleadingtotheendofstress,andwhenaretheynot?Ifhehadheldtothedoctrinethatthereisnoself,therewouldhavebeennospaceinhisteachingforthepossibilitythatthenotionofselfcouldactuallyplayaskillfulroleonthepath,foritwouldhavebeenalie.WithnoroomforI-makingormy-making,thequestionthatliesat

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thebeginningofdiscernment—“What,whendonebyme,willleadtomylong-termwelfareandhappiness?”—wouldhavebeenaborted.

If,ontheotherhand,hehadheldtothedoctrinethatthereisaself,thenwhateverheidentifiedasselfcouldnotberegardedasnot-self,andsowouldhavebeenleftasanobjectofclinging,andthusaremainingareaoflimitationandstress.

ButtotreatI-makingandmy-makingpurelyasactivitiesallowedhimtogiveprecise,helpfuladviceonwhenandwheretheperceptionsofselfandnot-self—andwhatkindofself—areskillfulstrategiesandwhennot.

WehavealreadyseenseveralexamplesoftheBuddharecommendingtheperceptionofnot-selfasskillful.Hereareafewexamplesofwhenheandhisdisciplesrecommendedtheperceptionofselfasaskillfulstrategyalongthepath.

Yourownselfisyourownmainstay,forwhoelsecouldyourmainstaybe?Withyouyourselfwell-trained,youobtainamainstayhardtoobtain.—Dhp160

Evilisdonebyoneself.Byoneselfisonedefiled.Evilisleftundonebyoneself.Byoneselfisonecleansed.Purityandimpurityareone’sowndoing.Noonepurifiesanother.Nootherpurifiesone.—Dhp165

Youyourselfshouldreproveyourself,shouldexamineyourself.Asaself-guardedmonkwithguardedself,mindfulyoudwellatease.—Dhp379

‘Andwhatistheselfasagoverningprinciple?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,havinggonetoawilderness,tothefootofatree,ortoanemptydwelling,reflectsonthis:“It’snotforthesakeofrobesthatIhavegoneforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness;itisnotforthesakeofalmsfood,forthesakeoflodgings,orforthesakeofthisorthatstateof[future]becomingthatIhavegoneforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.SimplythatIambesetbybirth,aging,anddeath;bysorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs;besetbystress,overcomewithstress,[andIhope,]‘Perhapstheendofthisentiremassofsufferingandstressmightbeknown!’Now,ifIweretoseekthesamesortofsensualpleasuresthatIabandonedingoingforthfromhome

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intohomelessness—oraworsesort—thatwouldnotbefittingforme.”Sohereflectsonthis:“Mypersistencewillbearousedandnotlax;mymindfulnessestablishedandnotconfused;mybodycalmandnotaroused;mymindcenteredandunified.”Havingmadehimselfhisgoverningprinciple,heabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisunblameworthy,andlooksafterhimselfinapureway.Thisiscalledtheselfasagoverningprinciple.’—AN3:40

Ven.Ānanda:‘“Thisbodycomesintobeingthroughconceit.Andyetitisbyrelyingonconceitthatconceitistobeabandoned.”Thusitwassaid.Andinreferencetowhatwasitsaid?Thereisthecase,sister,whereamonkhears,“Themonknamedsuch-and-such,theysay,throughtheendingoftheeffluents,hasenteredandremainsintheeffluent-freeawareness-releaseanddiscernment-release,havingdirectlyknownandrealizedthemforhimselfrightinthehere-and-now.”Thethoughtoccurstohim,“Themonknamedsuch-and-such,theysay,throughtheendingoftheeffluents,hasenteredandremainsintheeffluent-freeawareness-releaseanddiscernment-release,havingdirectlyknownandrealizedthemforhimselfrightinthehere-and-now.Thenwhynotme?”Thenheeventuallyabandonsconceit,havingreliedonconceit.“Thisbodycomesintobeingthroughconceit.Andyetitisbyrelyingonconceitthatconceitistobeabandoned.”Thusitwassaid,andinreferencetothiswasitsaid.’—AN4:159

Thesepassagesshowthattheideaofselfcanplayausefulroleonthepathbycreatingasenseofself-relianceandclearmotivationtopractice.WithouttheseskillfulformsofI-makingandmy-making,ameditatorwouldfindithardtogetstartedandtostayonthepath.Onlyaftertheseskillfulusesoftheideaofselfhavedonetheirworkinleadingthemeditatortostrongmindfulnessandconcentrationcantheybeabandonedwiththeperceptionofnot-selfappliedtothepath,aswehaveseenabove.Ultimately,eventhisperceptioncanbeabandonedwhenpassionanddelightforallfiveaggregates—includingtheaggregateofperception—areputaside,andthemindreachestotalreleasefromstress.

6.TheStrategicUseoftheKnowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”

Astheabovediscussionshows,theBuddha’sfirsttworeasonsfornotansweringVacchagotta’squestionshavemanystrategicimplicationsandshowthewisdomoftakingnopositionastowhetherthereisorisnotaself.ThisleavesuswiththeBuddha’sthirdreasonfornotansweringVacchagotta’s

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questions:thattosaythereisaselfwouldnotbeinkeepingwiththearisingoftheknowledgethat“Allphenomenaarenot-self.”TounderstandwhytheBuddhasawthearisingofthisknowledgeassoimportant,wehavetounderstand(a)whatthestatement,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”meansand(b)whatstrategicpurposeitservesonthepath.

IntheBuddha’svocabulary,boththewords“All”(sabba)and“phenomena”(dhamma)haveverypreciserangesofmeaning.First,“All”:

‘WhatisAll?Simplytheeyeandforms,earandsounds,noseandaromas,tongueandflavors,bodyandtactilesensations,intellectandideas.This,monks,istermedtheAll.Anyonewhowouldsay,“RepudiatingthisAll,Iwilldescribeanother,”ifquestionedonwhatexactlymightbethegroundsforhisstatement,wouldbeunabletoexplain,andfurthermore,wouldbeputtogrief.Why?Becauseitliesbeyondrange.’—SN35:23

Inotherwords,therangeoftheword“All”goesonlyasfarasthesixsensesandtheirobjects—sometimescalledthesixspheresofcontact.Anythingbeyondthatrangecannotbedescribed,evenasremainingornotremainingwhenthosespheresofcontactfadeandcease.

Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:‘Withtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthesixspheresofcontact,isitthecasethatthereisanythingelse?’

Ven.Sāriputta:‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend.’Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:‘Withtheremainderlessfadingandcessationof

thesixspheresofcontact,isitthecasethatthereisnotanythingelse?’Ven.Sāriputta:‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend.’Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:‘…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnot

anythingelse?’Ven.Sāriputta:‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend.’Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:‘…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnot

anythingelse?’Ven.Sāriputta:‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend.’Ven.MahāKoṭṭhita:‘Beingasked…ifthereisanythingelse,yousay,

“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Beingasked…ifthereisnotanythingelse…iftherebothisandisnotanythingelse…ifthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse,yousay,“Don’tsaythat,myfriend.”Now,howisthemeaningofthisstatementtobeunderstood?’

Ven.Sāriputta:‘Saying,“…isitthecasethatthereisanythingelse…isitthecasethatthereisnotanythingelse…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnotanythingelse…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse?”oneisobjectifyingthenon-objectified.Howeverfarthe

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sixspheresofcontactgo,thatishowfarobjectificationgoes.Howeverfarobjectificationgoes,thatishowfarthesixspheresofcontactgo.Withtheremainderlessfadingandcessationofthesixspheresofcontact,therecomestobethecessationofobjectification,thestillingofobjectification.’—AN4:173

Thedimensionofnon-objectification,althoughitcannotbedescribed,canberealizedthroughdirectexperience.

‘Monks,thatdimensionistobeexperiencedwheretheeye[vision]ceasesandtheperceptionofformfades.Thatdimensionistobeexperiencedwheretheearceasesandtheperceptionofsoundfades…wherethenoseceasesandtheperceptionofaromafades…wherethetongueceasesandtheperceptionofflavorfades…wherethebodyceasesandtheperceptionoftactilesensationfades…wheretheintellectceasesandtheperceptionofidea/phenomenonfades:Thatdimensionistobeexperienced.’—SN35:116

Sotheword“All,”eventhoughitmaycovertheentiretyofexperiencethatcanbedescribed,doesnotcovertheentiretyofwhatcanbedirectlyexperienced.

Similarconsiderationsapplytotheword,“phenomenon.”Asthelastquotationindicates,“phenomenon”appliestoobjectsoftheintellectormind(manas).Iti90showsthattheseobjectscanbeeitherfabricated—conditioned,willed,puttogether—ornot.Thusintheteaching,“Allfabricationsareinconstant;allphenomenaarenot-self,”theterm“not-self”appliestoawiderrangeofphenomenathandoestheterm“inconstant.”Onlyfabricatedphenomenaareinconstant;bothfabricatedandunfabricatedphenomenaarenot-self.

Thehighestunfabricatedphenomenonisdispassion(virāga,whichcanalsobetranslatedas“fading,”asinAN4:173andSN35:116,above).

‘Amongwhateverphenomenatheremaybe,fabricatedorunfabricated,dispassion—thesubduingofintoxication,theeliminationofthirst,theuprootingofattachment,thebreakingoftheround,thedestructionofcraving,dispassion,cessation,therealizationofunbinding—isconsideredsupreme.Thosewhohaveconfidenceinthephenomenonofdispassionhaveconfidenceinwhatissupreme;andforthosewithconfidenceinthesupreme,supremeistheresult.’—Iti90

Someofthetermsfollowing“dispassion”inthispassageareitssynonyms;somearenot.Thosethataren’tareeventsthatfollowautomaticallyonit.However,becausedhammacanalsomean“event,”alltheseeventscomeundertheclassificationofthehighestunfabricatedevent.

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However,eventhoughtherealizationofunbinding(nibbāna)isclassedasadhamma,severalpassagesintheCanonindicatethatunbindingitselfisnot.Thispointisclearestinthefollowingexchange,wheretheyoungbrahmanUpasīvadescribesthegoalasadhamma,whereastheBuddhaiscarefultosaythatitiswherealldhammasaredoneawaywith.

Upasīva:Onewhohasreachedtheend:Doeshenotexist,orisheforeternityfreefromaffliction?Please,sage,declarethistomeasthisdhammahasbeenknownbyyou.

TheBuddha:Onewhohasreachedtheendhasnocriterionbywhichanyonewouldsaythat—itdoesnotexistforhim.Whenalldhammasaredoneawaywith,allmeansofspeakingaredoneawaywithaswell.—Sn5:6

Giventherangeofthewords“All”and“phenomena,”theknowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”wouldapplytoallobjectsofthemind,fabricatedornot,registeredthroughthesixsenses.Thiswouldincludeunbindingasanobjectofthemind,asintherealizationofunbinding.However,itwouldnotapplytounbindingitself,becausethatiswherealldhammasendandaredoneawaywith.Thispoint,thoughsubtle,hasanimportantbearingonthestrategicuseoftheknowledgethatallphenomenaarenot-self.

Infact,thatisthefirstpointtonoteaboutthisknowledge:Itismeanttobeusedstrategically.Insteadofbeingadescriptionofwhatislearneduponattainingthegoal,itispartofthepathleadingtothegoal.

‘Alldhammasarenot-self’—Whenonesees[this]withdiscernmentandgrowsdisenchantedwithstress,thisisthepathtopurity.—Dhp279

Thisknowledgeisespeciallyusefulataveryadvancedstageofthepath,foritcanhelpapersonwhohasalreadyattainedapartialawakeningtoattaintotalawakening.

Thereare,allinall,fourstagesofawakeningdescribedintheCanon:Thefirstthreeinvolveseeingthedeathless;thelast,atotalplungeintounbinding.Thispointisindicatedinthefollowingsimile:

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Ven.Nārada:‘It’sasiftherewereawellalongaroadinadesert,withneitherropenorwaterbucket.Amanwouldcomealongovercomebyheat,oppressedbytheheat,exhausted,dehydrated,andthirsty.Hewouldlookintothewellandwouldhaveknowledgeof“water,”buthewouldnotdwelltouchingitwithhisbody.Inthesameway,althoughIhaveseenproperlywithrightdiscernment,asithascometobe,that“Thecessationofbecomingisunbinding,”stillIamnotanarahant[afullyawakenedone]whoseeffluentsareended.’—SN12:68

Theimpliedanalogyhereisthatthearahantislikesomeonewhohasplungedintothewellanddwellstouchingthewaterwithhisbody.

Anothersimilecomparesthepathtototalawakeningtotheactofcrossingariver.Inthiscase,thewaterstandsforcravingandfortheflowofsufferinginthewandering-onofrepeatedrebirth.Thefirstthreestagesofawakeningcorrespondtothepointwhereonegainsafootingonthefarsideoftheriver;fullawakening,thepointwhereonehasclimbedtosafetyonthebankwherealldhammashavebeenbroughttoafinalend.

‘Alldhammasgainfootinginthedeathless.‘Alldhammashaveunbindingastheirfinalend.’—AN10:58

Thepracticaldifferencebetweengainingafootingandclimbingthebankliesinhowonereactstotheexperienceofthedeathless—andthisiswheretheknowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”comesintoplay:

‘Thereisthecasewhereamonk…entersandremainsinthefirstjhāna:raptureandpleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthoughtandevaluation.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfromthosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothepropertyofdeathlessness:“Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—theresolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishmentofallacquisitions;theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;unbinding.”

‘Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,ifnot,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,andfromthetotalwastingawayofthefivelowerfetters[self-identityviews,graspingathabitsandpractices,uncertainty,sensualpassion,andirritation]—heisduetobespontaneouslyreborn[inthePureAbodes],theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld.

‘[Similarlywiththeremainingjhānasandtheformlessattainmentsupthroughthedimensionofnothingness.]’—AN9:36

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Asthispassageindicates,theactofperceivingthefiveaggregatesasnot-selfis,forsomepeople,enoughtogainfullawakening.Ifanypassionanddelightarisearoundtheexperienceofthedeathless—takingthatexperienceasanobject—suchpeoplecandetectthepassionanddelightascomingunderthefabricationaggregate,andsotheycanapplytheperceptionofnot-selftothatpassionanddelightaswell.Otherpeople,however,focustoonarrowlyontheexperienceofthedeathless,andsowhenpassionanddelightariseforthatexperience,theymisperceivethemaspartoftheexperience.Thiswouldleadthemtoassumethatthepassionanddelightareunfabricated.Becausetheunfabricateddoesnotfallundertheaggregates,andbecausetheyhavebeenapplyingtheperceptionnot-selfonlytotheaggregatesastheyperceivedthem,theywouldnotapplythesameperceptiontothepassionanddelightthattheywronglyperceiveaspartofthedeathless.

It’spreciselythismisperceptionthattheknowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”ismeanttocure.Whenthisknowledgeisappliedeventotheexperienceofthedeathless,itcanhelpdetectthefabricatedpassionanddelightaroundthedeathlessasactuallyseparatefromit.Afterall,thesefabricationsaredhammas,andtheycomefromviewingthedeathlessasadhamma.Thustheperceptionofnot-selfappliestothemandtotheaspectofthedeathlessexperiencethatstilltakesthatexperienceasanobjectofthemind.Whenthisperceptionfullyremovesthelastremainingactofclingingtothesesubtlemind-objectsandevents,allactivityatthesixsensesceases.Fullawakeningoccurswithafullplungeintounbinding.

It’sbecausetheknowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”canleadtothisgoal,andbecausetheBuddhawantedtopreventanythingfromgettinginthewayofthearisingofthisusefulknowledge,thatheremainedsilentwhenVacchagottaaskedhimifthereisaself.

7. TheAbandoningofAllStrategies

Oncethegoalisattainedwiththeendingofaction,allstrategiesaredropped.Aswehavenoted,eventheknowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self”doesnotapplyoncethereisafullplungeintounbinding.However,thatdoesnotmeanthatwhatliesbeyondtherangeofthatknowledgeshouldbeperceivedasself.TobelievethatitdoeswouldbetofallintothewrongviewthattheBuddhaavoidedbynotansweringVacchagotta’sfirstquestion.AstheabovepassagefromSn5:6indicates,thereisnowayofdescribingthepersonwhohasreachedtheend:apointthatappliesbothtodescriptionsthatuse“self”andthosethatuse“not-self.”

Insayingthattheawakenedpersoncannotbedescribed,theBuddhawasnotsimplybeinglazyinhisuseoflanguage.Hehadaveryclearnotionof

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whatdefinesalivingbeing.

Ashewassittingtooneside,Ven.RādhasaidtotheBlessedOne,‘“Abeing,”lord.“Abeing,”it’ssaid.Towhatextentisonesaidtobe“abeing”?’

‘Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforform,Rādha:Whenoneiscaughtup[satta]there,tiedup[visatta]there,oneissaidtobe“abeing[satta].”

‘Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforfeeling…perception…fabrications…

‘Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingforconsciousness,Rādha:whenoneiscaughtupthere,tiedupthere,oneissaidtobe“abeing.”’—SN23:2

‘Ifonestaysobsessedwithform,that’swhatoneismeasuredby.Whateveroneismeasuredby,that’showoneisclassified.

‘Ifonestaysobsessedwithfeeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness,that’swhatoneismeasuredby.Whateveroneismeasuredby,that’showoneisclassified.

‘Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithform,monk,that’snotwhatoneismeasuredby.Whateveroneisn’tmeasuredby,that’snothowoneisclassified.

‘Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithfeeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness,that’snotwhatoneismeasuredby.Whateveroneisn’tmeasuredby,that’snothowoneisclassified.’—SN22:36

Withnothingbywhichhe/shecanbemeasuredordefined,thereisnowayofdescribingthepersonwhoisfreefrompassionanddelightfortheaggregates.ThatiswhytheBuddhakeptinsistingthatanawakenedpersoncannotbedescribedasexisting,notexisting,both,orneither(DN9;MN63;MN72).

Thispointappliesnotonlytowhatotherpeoplemightsayabouttheawakenedperson,butalsotowhattheawakenedpersonwouldsayabouthimorherself.Afterall,intheattainmentofthegoal,allsixsensesphereshaveceased;whentheyhaveceased,thereisnothingfelt.Whenthereisnothingfelt,noteventhethought,“Iam”wouldoccur.

TheBuddha:‘Asforthepersonwhosays,“Feelingisnottheself:Myselfisinsensitive[tofeeling],”heshouldbeaddressedasfollows:“Myfriend,wherenothingwhatsoeverisfeltatall,wouldtherebethethought,‘Iam’?”’

Ven.Ananda:‘No,lord.’

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TheBuddha:‘Thusinthismanner,Ānanda,onedoesnotseefittoassumethat“Feelingisnotmyself:Myselfisinsensitive[tofeeling].”’—DN15

Thefactthatnothingisfeltthroughthesenses,however,doesnotmeanthattheexperienceofthegoalisatotalblank.Itcontainsitsowninherentsukha:pleasure,happiness,ease,andbliss

‘Nowit’spossible,Ānanda,thatsomewanderersofotherpersuasionsmightsay,“Gotamathecontemplativespeaksofthecessationofperception&feelingandyetdescribesitaspleasure.Whatisthis?Howisthis?”Whentheysaythat,theyaretobetold,“It’snotthecase,friends,thattheBlessedOnedescribesonlypleasantfeelingasincludedunderpleasure.Whereverpleasureisfound,inwhateverterms,theBlessedOnedescribesitaspleasure.”’—SN36:19

It’sbecauseofthissupremepleasurethatwhenanawakenedperson,afterexperiencingthegoalandreturningtotherealmsofthesixsenses,nolongerfeelstheneedtofeedonthefeelingsthatthesixsensesprovide.

‘Sensingafeelingofpleasure,onesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Sensingafeelingofpain,onesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Sensingafeelingofneither-pleasure-nor-pain,onesensesitdisjoinedfromit.Thisiscalledawell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleonesdisjoinedfrombirth,aging,anddeath;fromsorrows,lamentations,pains,distresses,anddespairs—disjoined,Itellyou,fromsufferingandstress.’—SN36:6

Withnoneedtofeedoffthesixsenses,theawakenedpersonisfreedfromanyneedtoreada“self”or“other”intosensoryexperience.Thisiswhatliberatessuchapersonfromanypassionforviews.Asaresult,experiencecanoccurwithno“subject”or“object”superimposedonit,nosuppositionofexperienceorthingexperienced.Therecanbesimplytheexperienceinandofitself.

‘Monks,whateverinthisworld—withitsdevas,MārasandBrahmās,itsgenerationscompletewithcontemplativesandbrahmans,princesandmen—isseen,heard,sensed,cognized,attained,soughtafter,ponderedbytheintellect:ThatdoIknow.Whateverinthisworld…isseen,heard,sensed,cognized,attained,soughtafter,ponderedbytheintellect:ThatIdirectlyknow.ThathasbeenrealizedbytheTathāgata[thefullyawakenedperson],butintheTathāgataithasnotbeenestablished…

‘Andso,monks,theTathāgata,whenseeingwhatistobeseen,doesn’tsupposean(objectas)seen.Hedoesn’tsupposeanunseen.Hedoesn’tsupposean(object)to-be-seen.Hedoesn’tsupposeaseer.

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‘Whenhearing…Whensensing…Whencognizingwhatistobecognized,hedoesn’tsupposean(objectas)cognized.Hedoesn’tsupposeanuncognized.Hedoesn’tsupposean(object)to-be-cognized.Hedoesn’tsupposeacognizer.

‘Andso,monks,theTathāgata—beingthesamewithregardtoallphenomenathatcanbeseen,heard,sensed,andcognized—is“Such.”AndItellyou:Thereisnoother“Such”higherormoresublime.

Whateverisseenorheardorsensedandfastenedontoastruebyothers,OnewhoisSuch—amongtheself-fettered—wouldnotfurtherassumetobetrueorevenfalse.Havingseenwellinadvancethatarrowwheregenerationsarefastenedandhung—‘Iknow,Isee,that’sjusthowitis!’—there’snothingoftheTathāgatafastened.—AN4:24

Aviewistrueorfalseonlywhenoneisjudginghowaccuratelyitreferstosomethingelse.Oneneedstomakethesejudgmentsaboutviewsaslongasonehasnotyetfullyreachedfullawakeningandstillneedstomakeuseofviewsforthatpurpose.Butwhenawakeningisfullyreached,onenolongerneedsviewsasguidestothehighesthappiness,forthathappinesshasalreadybeenattained.Sooneisfreetoregardeveryviewpurelyasamentalorverbalact,anevent,inandofitself.Whenthisisthecase,trueandfalsecanbeputaside.

ThusfortheTathāgata—whoselackofhungerfreeshimnottoimposenotionsofsubjectorobjectonexperience,andwhocanregardsights,sounds,feelings,andthoughtspurelyinandofthemselves—viewsdon’thavetobetrueorfalse.Theycanjustbephenomena—actions,events—tobeexperienced.Withnonotionofsubject,therearenogroundsfor“Iknow,Isee”;withnonotionofobject,nogroundsfor,“That’sjusthowitis.”Viewsoftrue,false,self,noself,etc.,thuslosealltheirholdingpower,andthemindisleftfreetoitsSuchness:untouched,uninfluencedbyanythingofanysort.AlthoughtheBuddha,asateacher,usedviewsasstrategiestohelphisstudentsgainrelease,hisSuchness—havinggonebeyondtheneedforsuchstrategies—wassomethingbeyond.

‘DoesMasterGotamahaveanypositionatall?’‘A“position,”Vaccha,issomethingaTathāgatahasdoneawaywith.

WhataTathāgataseesisthis:“Suchisform,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance;suchisfeeling,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance;suchisperception…sucharefabrications…suchisconsciousness,suchitsorigination,suchitsdisappearance.”Becauseof

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that,Isay,aTathāgata—withtheending,fading,cessation,renunciation,andrelinquishmentofallsupposings,allexcogitations,allI-makingandmy-makingandobsessionwithconceit—is,throughlackofclinging/sustenance,released.’—MN72

‘This,monks,theTathāgatadiscerns.Andhediscernsthatthesepositions,thusseized,thusheldto,leadtosuchandsuchadestination,tosuchandsuchastateintheworldbeyond.Andhediscernswhatishigherthanthis.Andyetdiscerningthat,hedoesnotgraspatthatactofdiscerning.Andasheisnotgraspingatit,unbinding[nibbuti]isexperiencedrightwithin.Knowing,astheyhavecometobe,theorigination,disappearance,allure,anddrawbacksoffeelings,alongwiththeescapefromfeelings,theTathāgata,monks—throughlackofclinging/sustenance—isreleased.’—DN1

***TheCanonthuscontainsplentyofevidencethattheBuddhameanthis

mostfrequentteaching—thatallphenomenaarenot-self—tobeusedasastrategyforputtinganendtoclinging.Becausetheendofclingingleadstotheendofsuffering,thisteachingthusservestheoverallpurposeofwhyhetaughtinthefirstplace.Hedidnotmeanforthisteachingtoserveaspartofananswertothemetaphysicalquestionofwhetherornottheselfexists.That’sbecausenoanswertothisquestion—eitheracategoricalYes,acategoricalNo,orananalyticalYesandNo—couldserveasaneffectivestrategyonthepathtotheendofstress.Infact,theselatterviewsareallobstaclesinthepath.Atthesametime,theydonotcorrespondtoanyviewheldbytheawakenedpersononcethepathhasachieveditsgoal,forsuchapersoncannotbedescribedintheseterms,andindeedliesbeyondtheswayofanyviewatall.

Themetaphysicalquestionthatthenot-selfteachingdoesrespondtoconcernstheefficacyofaction:thathumanactionistheresultofchoice,andthatthosechoicescanleadeithertostressortothetotalendingofstress.Whenviewedinthislight,questionsofselfandnot-selfbecomequestionsofactionandskill:whenchoosingtouseaperceptionofselfwillleadtolong-termwelfareandhappiness,whatkindofperceptionofselfisusefultowardthatend,andwhenit’sskillfultoapplytheperceptionofnot-selfinstead.Byavoidingthequestionofwhetherthereisorisnotaself,theBuddhawasfreedtofocusonthemosteffectivewaytouseperceptionsbothofselfandofnot-selfastoolsonthepath.Inparticular,hewasfreedtoemploytheteachingthatallphenomenaarenot-selfasatoolleadinghisstudentstodropsubtleformsofclingingwithout,atthesametime,creatingevensubtlerforms.That’swhythisstrategycanhelpthemreachfullawakening.

Becausethepathtoawakeningleadstoatotalhappiness,theneedtothinkintermsofselfandnot-selfendswhenthepathreachesitsgoal.Andbecause

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thepathisasetofactionsleadingtotheendofaction,allaspectsofthepath—includingperceptionsofselfandnot-self—arestrategies:actionsadoptedtoserveapurpose,andthenputasidewhenthatpurposeisserved.Althoughanawakenedpersoncanstillusetheseperceptionsforstrategicpurposeswhendealingwithothers,thefactthattheyareperceptions—andthusincludedundertheaggregates—meansthattheyaretranscendedintheplungeintounbinding.

That,ofcourse,issimplywhattheCanonsays.Whetherit’strue—i.e.,actuallyusefulinputtinganendtostress—cannotbeprovensimplybyquotingtheCanon.TheultimatetestofthisinterpretationistoputitintopracticeandseeifittrulyleadstotheaimoftheBuddha’steachings:thetotalendingofallsufferingandstress.

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TheBuddha’sLastWord

Onthenightofhistotalunbinding,ashewaslyingonhissideunderapairoffloweringtrees,theBuddhagavehislastinstructionstohisfollowers.Hisfinalsentencewasappamādenasampādetha:Reachconsummationthroughheedfulness.Englishsyntaxrequiresthatweplace“heedfulness”lastwhenwetranslatethesentence,whichmayexplainwhysomanydiscussionsofthispassagefocusonheedfulnessastheBuddha’spartingmessage.There’snothingreallywrongwiththat—afterall,ashesaidelsewhere(AN10:15),heedfulnessisthesourceofallskillfulqualities—butintheoriginalPalisentence,theverbfor“reachconsummation”actuallycomeslast.BecausetheBuddhaprobablygavecarefulattentiontochoosingthewholeofhislastsentence,it’sworthlookingcarefullyatthewordthatusuallygetsoverlooked:togainasenseofwhatitmeans,howitconnectswiththerestoftheBuddha’steaching,andwhyhewouldemphasizeitbymakingitthelastwordhewouldeverspeak.

Consummationisastateoffullnessorperfection.AstheBuddharecognized,someformsofconsummationcomewithlittleornoeffort,aswhenyou’rebornintoalarge,well-connectedfamily,consummateingoodhealthandawiderangeofpossessions.Butashenoted,thissortofconsummationdoesn’tputanendtosuffering;whenyoulosethesethings,it’snotreallyaseriousloss.Theseriouslossesarewhenyouloseyourvirtueoryourcorrectunderstandingofwhichactsareskillfulandwhichonesarenot,forifyoulosethesethings,youractionswillleadtomoresufferingforyourselfandforothers,nowandintothefuture(AN5:130).

Thisiswheretheconceptofmeaningfulconsummationcomesin.Ifyouwanttoendyoursuffering,youneedtodevelopconsummatemasteryoftheskillsthatallowyoutoseethecauseofthatsufferingandtoperfecttheinnerqualitiesrequiredtobringittoanend.Aswiththemasteryofanyreallyimportantskill,thiscallsforconcertedeffort.

Thecauseofsufferingisavijjā,awordthatmeansbothignoranceandlackofskill.Thereisnowaywecantracebacktoapastpointintimewhenignorancebegan(AN10:61),butwecanlearnbothtodetectthementalqualitiesinthepresentthatsustainignoranceandtomastertheskillsthatputanendtothemhereandnow.AsAjaanSuwat,oneofmyteachers,oncesaid,eventhoughignorancehasexistedsincetimeimmemorial,consummateknowledgecanenditinaninstant,justaslightcaninstantlyenddarkness

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regardlessofhowlongthatdarknesshasreigned.Consummateknowledgeistheknowledgethatseesthingsintermsofthe

fournobletruths,plustheskillmasteringthetaskthateachtruthentails:comprehendingsuffering;abandoningitscause—i.e.,thecravingthatsustainsignorance;realizingthecessationofsuffering;anddevelopingthepathtoitscessation.

Attainingconsummationispartofdevelopingthepath,andinparticularthepathfactorofrighteffort:makingtheefforttogiverisetoskillfulmentalqualitiesandtobringthemtotheculminationoftheirdevelopment.Althoughtheideaofconsummationcouldlogicallyapplytoanyskillfulquality,theBuddhaassociateditwithspecificlistsofqualitiesthatrelatetotwodistinctstagesofthepath.Andeventhoughconsummationintheseareasisn’tfullyreacheduntilthepatharrivesatthenobleattainments,youcanworktowardconsummation,andreapthebenefitsthatcomefromheadinginthatdirection,fromtheverybeginningofthepath.

Thefirstlevelofconsummationdealswithqualitiesperfectedwhenameditatorreachesthefirstlevelofawakening,calledstream-entry.Suchapersonissaidtobeconsummateinview(diṭṭhi-sampanno)andconsummateinvirtue(sīla-sampanno)—thetwoformsofconsummationthattheBuddha,inAN5:130,saidareofutmostimportance.Consummationinviewcomeswhenyoudropignorancelongenoughtoseehow,whenthementalfabricationsdependentonignorancealsofallaway,allsufferingendsandthere’sanexperienceofadeathlessdimensionoutsideofspaceandtime.Consummationinvirtuecomesfromsteppingoutoftimelongenoughtoseewithoutadoubthowyourownactionshavesustainedsufferingforanimmeasurablylongtime—itdidn’tstartjustwiththislifetime—and,asaresult,youneverwanttoactingrosslyunskillfulwayseveragain.

Thisexperienceofthedeathlessradicallyandpermanentlyaltersmanythingsinthemind,buttheexperienceitselfisonlytemporary.Andit’snotenoughtoendcraving,becausemanymorequalitiesofmindneedtobebroughttoconsummationforawakeningtobefull,leavingnopossibilityofanyfurthermentalsuffering.

Onestandardlistofqualitiesthatstream-enterersneedtodevelopfurtherismentionedinMN53:thefifteentypesofconduct(caraṇa),whicharedividedintothreesets.SomeofthequalitiesinthefirsttwosetsareactuallymentionedelsewhereintheCanonasqualitiesalreadybroughttoconsummationonthefirstlevelofawakening.Theirinclusioninthecaraṇamayrelatetothefactthateventhoughtheyarealreadyperfected,theystillhavetobeputtousetocompletethetasksofmeditation.

Thefirstsetofqualitiescontainsfourfactors:virtue,restraintofthesenses,wakefulness,andmoderationineating.Thesequalitiesdealwithpractical

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issuesinhowyoumanageyourday-to-dayactivitiessothattheyareconducivetoawakening.Althoughthesequalitiesmayseemextremelymundane,ifyou’reintentonawakening,youcan’taffordtoneglectthem.

Thesecondsetofqualitiescontainssevenfactors:conviction,shame,compunction,learning,persistence,mindfulness,anddiscernment.ThisisalistthattheBuddhainAN7:63comparestoafrontierfortress,indicatingthatwhenthey’remasteredtheyprotectthemindfrombeinginvadedbyunskillfulhabits.ConvictionintheBuddha’sawakeningislikethefoundationpostforthefortress;shameandcompunctionatthethoughtofactinginunskillfulwaysarelikeamoatandroadencirclingthefortress;learningtheDhammaislikestockingthefortresswithweapons;persistenceislikeatroopofsoldiers;mindfulnessislikeagatekeeperwhorecognizeswhoshouldandshouldn’tbeallowedintothefortress;anddiscernmentislikethefortresswall,well-plasteredsothattheenemycan’tfindanyhandholdsorfootholdstoclimbupandinvadethefortressofyourmind.

Thethirdandfinalsetofcaraṇaconsistsofthefourjhānas—levelsofstrongconcentration—whichtheBuddhacomparedtotheprovisionsneededtokeepthegatekeeperandthesoldiersofthefortresswell-nourishedandstronginperformingtheirduties.

Thesefifteenqualities,whenbroughttoaconsummatelevelofmastery,counteractthecravingthatsustainsavijjā.Thisiswhytheyleadtothethreecognitiveskillsorknowledges(vijjā)thatbringaboutfullawakening:knowledgeofyourownpreviouslives;knowledgeofthepassingawayandrearisingofbeingsinlinewiththeirkamma;andknowledgeoftheendingofmentaleffluents—deeplyrootedunskillfulqualitiesthat“flowout”ofthemind.Thefirsttwooftheseskillsaffirmtheprinciplesofkammaandrebirthandtheinterconnectionbetweenthetwo.Thethirdskill,however,isthemostcrucialofthethree,asitclearlyseesexperienceintermsofthefournobletruthsandcompletesthedutiesappropriatetoeach,sothattheeffluentsnolongerflow.Inthisway,thisthirdskillleadsdirectlytotheendingofkammaandrebirth,andtofullreleasefromsufferingandstress.

TheBuddhahimselfwasconsummateinthesefifteentypesofconductandinthethreecognitiveskillstheyengender,whichiswhy“consummateinknowledgeandconduct”(vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno)isincludedinthestandardlistofhisvirtueschanteddailyinBuddhistcommunitiesthroughouttheworld.Byconcludinghisteachingswith“reachconsummation,”hewasencouraginghisfollowerstodevelopthesesamevirtuesaswell.

What’sremarkableabouttheseformsofconsummationishowunremarkabletheyare.AstheBuddhaoncesaid,hewasn’taclose-fistedteacher,savingasecretoresotericdoctrineforlast.Instead,theword“reachconsummation”simplyreiteratesthemainteachinghehadstressedopen-

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handedlyfromtheverybeginningofhiscareer:Developtheeightfoldpath—whichisthesamethingastraininginvirtue,concentration,anddiscernment—soastoreleasethemindfromitseffluentsandthesufferingtheyentail.Theformsofconsummationthatdon’tfalldirectlyunderthisteachingarepractical,down-to-earthstepsforkeepingyouonthepath,moment-by-moment,day-by-day.

Shameandcompunctiondevelopthehealthysenseofself-esteemandheedfulnessthatseeseventheslightestunskillfulactionsasbeneathyouandascarryingfearfulconsequences.Whenyoumasterthesequalities,theypreventyoufromdoingthingsyouwouldlaterregret.

Senserestraint:Whenyoulookatanything,noticewhyyou’relookingandwhathappenstothemindasaresult.Ifunskillfulqualitiesaredoingthelookingorflareupfromthelooking,changethewayyoulookatthings.Applythesameprincipletoallyoursenses,anditwillprotectyourpowersofmindfulnessandconcentrationfromleakingoutyoursensedoorsinthecourseoftheday.

Wakefulness:Sleepnomorethanisabsolutelynecessary,andspendyourwakinghoursincleansingthemind,regardlessofwhateverelseyou’redoing.

Moderationineating:Keepcarefulwatchoveryourmotivationforeating,andeatonlyenoughtomaintainyourstrengthandhealthforthepractice.

Byincludingtheseissuesundertheterm“consummation,”theBuddhawasemphasizingthepointthatnopossibleopeningforcravingtosneakintothemind,howeversmall,shouldbeoverlooked.Perhapsitwasbecauseheknewhoweasyitistobecomecomplacentandtorationalizecarelessnessinthesefundamentalareasthathewantedhisdisciplestouseheedfulnessinviewingthemasconsummateskills,worthyofscrupulousattention.

Byendinghisteachingswiththeverbsampādetha,“reachconsummation,”hewasusingashorthandtermtogivethesebasicprinciplesthelastwordintheDhamma.Andhewasencouragingustogivethemthelastwordinourlives.

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Glossary

Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Pāliform:Ācariya.

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeofdefilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.AtitlefortheBuddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.

Brahmā:Adevainhabitingtherealmsofformorformlessness.

Brahman:Amemberofthepriestlycaste,whichclaimedtobethehighestcasteinIndia,basedonbirth.InaspecificallyBuddhistusage,“brahman”canalsomeananarahant,conveyingthepointthatexcellenceisbasednotonbirthorrace,butonthequalitiesattainedinthemind.

Deva:Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheterrestrialandcelestialrealmshigherthanthehuman.

Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mentalquality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassagesdescribingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Whencapitalizedinthisbook,Dhammameansteaching.Sanskritform:Dharma.

Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentration,devoidofsensualityorunskillfulthoughts,focusedonasinglephysicalsensationormentalnotionwhichisthenexpandedtofillthewholerangeofone’sawareness.Jhānaissynonymouswithrightconcentration,theeighthfactorinthenobleeightfoldpath.Sanskritform:Dhyāna.

Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.

Māra:Thepersonificationoftemptationandallforces,withinandwithout,thatcreateobstaclestoreleasefromsaṁsāra.

Nāga:Amagicalserpent,technicallyclassedasacommonanimal,butpossessingmanyofthepowersofadeva,includingtheabilitytotakeonhumanshape.

Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,

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anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthistermalsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbāna”insomecontextsdenotestheexperienceofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskritform:Nirvāṇa.

Pāli:ThelanguageoftheoldestextantcompleteCanonoftheBuddha’steachings.

Pāṭimokkha:Thebasiccodeofrulesformonksandnuns.Themonks’codecontains227rules;thenuns’,311.

Saṁsāra:Transmigration;theprocessofwanderingthroughrepeatedstatesofbecoming,entailingrepeatedbirthanddeath.

Saṁvega:Asenseofoverwhelmingterrorordismayoverthepointlessnessoflifeasitisnormallylived.

Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthecommunitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Onthenobleorideal(ariya)level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohaveattainedatleaststream-entry.

Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sūtra.

Tādin:“Such,”anadjectivetodescribeonewhohasattainedthegoal.Itindicatesthattheperson’sstateisindefinablebutnotsubjecttochangeorinfluencesofanysort.

Tathāgata:Literally,“onewhohasbecomeauthentic(tatha-āgata),”or“onewhoisreallygone(tatha-gata),”anepithetusedinancientIndiaforapersonwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InthePaliCanon,thisusuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhisarahantdisciples.

Uposatha:Observanceday,coincidingwiththefullmoon,newmoon,andhalfmoons.LayBuddhistsoftenobservetheeightpreceptsonthisday.“Uposatha”alsoreferstotheceremonyinwhichmonksmeettolistentotherecitationofthePāṭimokkhaonthefullmoonandnewmoonuposathas.

Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesixvolumesinprintedtext.

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Abbreviations

AN AṅguttaraNikāyaDhp DhammapadaDN DīghaNikāyaIti ItivuttakaKhp KhuddakapāṭhaMN MajjhimaNikāyaMv MahāvaggaSN SaṁyuttaNikāyaSn SuttaNipātaUd Udāna

ReferencestoDN,Iti,Khp,andMNaretodiscourse(sutta);referencestoDhp,toverse.ReferencestoMvaretochapter,

section,andsub-section.Referencestoothertextsaretosection(nipāta,saṁyutta,orvagga)anddiscourse.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Acknowledgements 4DangerisNormal 5What’sNobleabouttheNobleTruths? 9TruthswithConsequences 13WeAreNotOne 27UnderYourSkin 34SilenceIsn’tMandatory 41Background:theNineAttainments 42SilenceintheFormlessAttainments 47Buddhaghosa’sInterpretations 52MoreArgumentsforSilenceintheFirstJhāna 56PurityofConcentration 62TheRightUseofConcentration 66

TheNot-selfStrategy 681.ThePurpose&RangeoftheTeachings 692.TheMetaphysicalAssumptionsoftheFourNobleTruths 703.TheBuddha’sTeachingStrategy 714.TwoFettersofViews 785.“Self”&“Not-self”asSkillfulStrategies 826.TheStrategicUseoftheKnowledge,“Allphenomenaarenot-self” 847.TheAbandoningofAllStrategies 89

TheBuddha’sLastWord 95Glossary 99Abbreviations 102

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