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NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY TEST PROJECTRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPERATION,

LIFE, AND FAILURE MECHANISM

Volume П. Battery Test Results

G. HALPERT

J. M. SHERFEY

MARCH 1969

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GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTERGREENBELT, MARYLAND

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X-735-69-24

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY TEST PROJECT-

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPERATION, LIFE,

AND FAILURE MECHANISM

VOLUME П. BATTERY TEST RESULTS

G. HalpertJ. M. Sherfey

Materials Research and Development BranchSystems. Division

February 1969

GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER

Greenbelt, Maryland

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY TEST PROJECT-




G. HalpertJ. M. Sherfey

Materials Research and Development BranchSystems Division

ABSTRACT

This(program was designed to establish optimum methods for operating_nickel-cadmium batteries in order to substantially^increa&e^HeIr~cycling life.Fifteen batteries containing aerospace-type cells we re "operated under related,but different, cycling schemes to determine the effects of rapid charging,rapid djscharging,j3harge termination, and other factors on theTife of~anickel-cadmium battery. The computerized test automatically monitored andrecorded the many parameters that characterize the operation of a cell.These included capacity, watt-hours, current efficiency, energy efficiency,voltage, and pressure. The parameters were analyzed as a function of cyclelife. The results have led to a set of seven relationships between operationand cycle life. It is suggested that these be considered when designing abattery system for long life.

111

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CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii

INTRODUCTION 1

ACCEPTANCE TESTS 3

BATTERY TEST DESCRIPTION 3

BATTERY OUTPUT COMPARISONS . . 7

Cycle Life 7

Duration, Ampere-Hours, and Watt-Hours 17

Current Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, and E/I Ratio 20

Voltage 23

Pressure 26

Depth of Discharge and Periodic Draining—AMF Battery Test . 28

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN OPERATION AND LIFE 29

Effect of Rapid Charging on Life 29

Effect of Overcharge 31

Effect of Discharge Rate 31

Effect of Depth of Discharge 33

Effect of Periodic Complete Discharge 33

Effect of Temperature 34

Effect of Long-Term, Open-Circuit Stand 34

SUMMARY 35

CONTENTS (Continued)Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 35

References. . . . . . . . . -. 36

Appendix;A—ACCEPTANCE TEST DATA A-l

Appendix B— MANUFACTURER DATA AND ACCEPTANCE TESTDATA FOR CELLS IN TEST B-l

Appendix C—VALUES OF AMPERE-HOURS AND WATT-HOURSVERSUS CYCLE NUMBER C-l

Appendix D—TRENDS IN CURRENT EFFICIENCY, ENERGYEFFICIENCY, AND E/I RATIO. D-l

Appendix E— COMPUTER PLOTS OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE *'VOLTAGE FOR EVERY 500 CYCLES VERSUS .AMPERE-HOURS. E-l

Appendix F— MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM PRESSURE GAUGE READINGSFOR 250-CYCLE INCREMENTS F-l

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1 Battery Test Program (6-ampere-hour cells at 25° C) . . . . 5

2 Histogram of Batteries Tested at Martin Marietta 15

3 Histogram of Batteries Tested at AMF and NAD-Crane. ... 16

TABLES

Table Page

1 Average Value of Endcard Variables. 8

2 Cycling Test Results Ц

vi

TABLES (Continued)

Table Page

3 Comparison of Batteries in Order of Decreasing Cycle Lifeand Days of Operation 13

4 Compilation of First and Second Cell Failures 14

5 Trends in Time-Integral Parameters. . . 18

6 Trends in Current Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, and E/IRatio 22

7 Voltage Range of Five Cells Chosen at Random ( v o l t s ) . . . . 24

8 Average Pressure Changes 27

9 Comparison of Battery Life and Average ДР 27

10 Effect of Charge Current 30

11 Effect of Overcharge (6-ampere-hour cells, 25% depth ofdischarge, 25° C) 32

12 Effect of Rate of Discharge (6-ampere-hour cells, 25% depthof discharge). . , s- . 33

vii

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY TEST PROJECT—




INTRODUCTION

The useful lifetime of a spacecraft can be limited by any of variousfactors, but most often is fixed by the failure of some critical component orsubsystem; it is not uncommon for this failing subsystem to be the battery.Extending the life expectancy of space batteries can, therefore, lead to asignificant decrease in the cost of the space effort by increasing spacecraftlifetimes.

There is a two-step approach that can be used to study the factors thatare essential to extending battery life. The first step entails an empirical(or "black box") study of the relationships between the life of a cell and themanner in which it is operated. Such a study seeks to identify those processes—rapid charging, rapid discharging, deep discharge, overcharge; etc.—which are injurious to the cell and thus tend to limit battery life. With thisknowledge, it would then be possible to operate the battery in such a way asto minimize the effects of those processes. The second step is to identifyand characterize the degradation processes which lead to cell failure andthen to take appropriate steps to curtail or eliminate the problem. Thissecond step is a materials problem.

These two steps were combined in a single program, the Nickel-CadmiumBattery Test Project. The first phase was devoted to cycling 15 batteries insuch a way as to reveal the previously mentioned relationships between modeof operation and cell life. The second phase covered a materials study of thefailed or degraded cells.

This paper is the second volume in a series of four on the combined study.The first volume has been published (by Martin Marietta Corporation). Thecontents of Volumes I and П are outlined in the following paragraphs.

Volume I describes (Reference 1) the various battery cycling modes, i.e.,the "experimental design," and details the procedures and instrumentationinvolved during the various phases of the project—acceptance testing of thecells, cycling of the batteries, and analytical studies of the cells tested.

The present volume—Volume П—gives the results of the cell acceptancetests and battery life testing. It describes the operating conditions for allbatteries, the parameters measured during the life cycling test, and therelationships between operation and life as revealed by the test program.Volume П is divided into the following sections:

• Acceptance Tests—a description of the initial tests on the cells assupplied by the manufacturer

• Battery Test Description—a discussion of the overall test programfrom the standpoint of plan, operation^ and measured parameters

• Battery Output Comparisons—a discussion of the parameters, in-cluding cycle life, capacity, energy efficiency, voltage, andpressure; and of comparisons made between the batteries and of thetrends in the parameters which were the result of the battery cyclingexperience

• Relationships Between Operation and Life—a series of sevensuggestions, based on the cycling test data and the trends in theparameters, to optimize battery operation and to increase life.

The title of the forthcoming Volume Ш is "Analysis of the Cells andTheir Components." The analysis was performed on five cells from each testbattery. A test battery was considered to have failed when five (or more) ofits ten cells had reached any one of the following three limits: (1) a dischargevoltage of less than 1. Ov before completion of the normal discharge half-cycle, (2) a voltage in excess of 1.50v during the normal charge half-cycle,or (3) a loss of more than 75% of its initial capacity! As soon as batteryfailure occurred, the test was terminated, and the five remaining cells weresubjected to a series of other tests to determine the factors affecting degra-dation. Three cells were tested to determine changes in electrical charac-teristics—capacity, overcharge tolerance, electrode imbalance, etc. Theother two cells were opened, and the various components thoroughlyexamined—visually, chemically, and physically—to establish what changeshad taken place. The results are presented in Volume Ш.

An additional report, entitled "Computer Program for Analyzing BatteryPerformance Data," which was an outgrowth of this program, has been pub-lished (Referenced). It contains a description and procedures for a set of fivecomputer routines for abstracting and presenting battery test data. *

ACCEPTANCE TESTS

Before battery assembly, the individual cells were subjected to a seriesof acceptance tests. These tests served as a means of: (1) certifying that thecells met the manufacturer's specification; (2) comparing cell capacities, end-of-charge voltages, pressures, and internal resistance; and (3) selecting cellsto assure that the test batteries were comprised of relatively uniform cells.The results of the acceptance tests are found in Appendix A. When the accept-ance tests were completed, limits of acceptability were established. Thecells that were within the limits were utilized in the test; the others, manyof which were never used in the test program, were allowed to stand on opencircuit. At a later date when Batteries 13 and 14 were established, some ofthe cells were given another acceptance test and installed as part of one orthe other of these new batteries.

BATTERY TEST DESCRIPTION

The test cells for this study were 6-ampere-hour, VO-6HS nickel-cadmium cells supplied by Gulton Industries. They were tested at the Balti-more Division of the Aerospace Group, Martin Marietta Corporation. Thecells were matched and assembled into slots in individual battery test racks.Most of the batteries contained cells that were matched statistically on thebasis of the acceptance test data, the exceptions being Batteries 13 and 14.The manufacturer data and acceptance test data for each cell in its batteryposition are listed in Appendix B.

Each battery contained ten 6-ampere-hour hermetically sealed,aerospace-type nickel-cadmium cells with a ceramic-metal seal on oneterminal and with the other terminal welded directly to the can. Each cellconsisted of nine (9) nickel-hydroxide-filled positive electrodes of thesintered-nickel type interspersed among ten (10) sintered-nickel cadmium-hydroxide-filled negative electrodes. These platesxwere manufactured bythe Societe des Accumulateurs Fixes et de Traction (SAFT) process, andceramic-metal seal was made by means of a silver braze material inside thecell. Some cells (three to five per battery) were equipped with pressure

*This report is not designated as a numbered volume.

gauges, and others (one per battery) had a 0-250 psia pressure transducerconnected to the fill tube. The remaining cells were sealed at the pinch tube.

All cells were operated at 25°С in a circulating-air temperature cabinetin which the temperature was calibrated at various positions to assure amaximum deviation of ± 1° C. Each cell was constrained at the sides by acoated steel plate to prevent bulging. Two problems were noted during theearly stages of the test. First, some of the cells were concave, and thereforethe center of the coated plate was restrained only when there was pressurewithin the cell. This problem was alleviated by placing small spacers (shims)between the cell wall and the coated plate. The second problem involvedpossible leaks in the ceramic seal; it was solved by potting the seal with anepoxy compound.

The overall battery test program is shown in Figure 1. It can be seenfrom the arrangement of the various operational modes that the intent of theprogram was to isolate variables. Thus the three batteries in Group I wereoperated in such a way as to hold constant all variables except dischargerate and thereby determine the effect of this variable on performance and life.The test was divided into groups according to the type of operating variablebeing studied. The variable in Group I was the rate of discharge; in Group II,the type and rate of charge. In Group in, the variables were charge termi-nation and effect of constant-potential charging; in Group IV, the variable wasthe effect of charge rate during the period prior to the gassing. A secondprinciple of the program was to operate one battery as the "control" batteryand compare the operation of all other batteries to it. Battery 0 served asthe control battery.

Group V comprises the cycling schemes used in the battery cycling testsat the Naval Ammunition Depot (NAD), Crane, Indiana (GSFC Contract Wll,-252B). These tests used the same type of cells from the same manufacturingera as those in Groups I-IV. All batteries in the Martin Marietta test andPacks 13 and 17 at Crane can be compared with Battery 0, which had thesame rate, depth, and/or type of charge or discharge. For the most part,the depth of discharge employed was 25%. In Group IV and in two instancesin Group П, the depth of discharge was greater. One operating cycle inFigure 1 is called the AMF-UDC (upside-down cycle)—58% depth of discharge.This was an unusual cycle in which three batteries, operated at 10°C, 25°C,and 40° С at AMF in Alexandria, Virginia, were drained every fourth cycleto balance the cells in the discharged condition, instead of in the chargedcondition by overcharging as in the normal instance. This cycle is includedbecause the cells came from the same manufacturing lot and were of the type

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used in the Martin Marietta battery test program. Similar logic was used inthe listing of batteries in Group V.

In attempting to isolate variables, it is imperative that at least one param-eter be held constant. The problem arises that, if the charge or discharge rateis changed, either the time or ampere-hours is affected. For this test, depthof discharge was chosen as the basis for comparison and, in most instances,the cells were discharged for 1/2 hour to a depth of discharge of 25%. Otherquestions arose concerning the voltage and current limits. In most instances,the voltage and current limits were chosen to correspond to those of Battery 0(the control battery). For example, the low constant-current voltage (1.425v)of Battery 8 was derived from the average erid-of-charge voltage of the cellsin Battery 0 after a constant-current (C/10) charge. This C/10 charge alsogoverned the charge termination (I = C/10) of Battery 8. The term "C"normally refers to the nominal cell capacity, which in this case would havebeen 6 ampere-hours, and therefore the C/10 rate would be equivalent to0.6 ampere. However, for this test "C" refers to the average actual capacityof the cells; hence the C/10 rate was actually 0.63 ampere. The depth of dis-charge when using the nominal cell capacity was therefore actually 26.25%.Packs 13 and 17 from the Crane test had charge and discharge rates as shownin Figure 1, which resulted in a depth of discharge of 25%, based on thenominal capacity.

The battery test was controlled and monitored by an IBM 1710 processcomputer which scanned the data and recorded them onto punched cards whenpreset limits were reached. The purpose in using a computer is obviouswhen one considers (1) the need for-24-hpurs-per-day operation, monitoring,control, data acquisition, and recording; (2) the ability of the computer tocontain fail-safe devices for emergencies; and (3) the fact that the desiredaccuracy and validity of data acquisition are beyond the limit of human abilityemployed in conjunction with manually operated equipment. As a result ofautomated testing, 0.5 million IBM cards containing battery test data wererecorded and later transferred to four magnetic storage tapes by means of aseries of computer programs.

The battery test was started with Battery 0, which was given a 16-hourcharge prior to cycle 1 discharge. The other batteries, except 10 and 11,were charged the same way before their operation in the prescribed operatingmode. Batteries 10 and 11 were started in the test program with their cellscompletely discharged and then given a cycle 1 charge to initiate the testing.Batteries 0-9 and 12-15, and Packs 13 and 17 from NAD-Crane, were alwaysbalanced by overcharging for the desired time or to the desired limit.

Batteries 10 and 11 and the AMF-UDG batteries were always discharged tofailure in order to balance the cells.

BATTERY OUTPUT COMPARISONS

Battery performance during the cycling test is discussed in this section interms of measured or calculated parameters recorded automatically by theon-line computer. Certain parameters, i.e., voltage and pressure, wererecorded during the half-cycle (charge or discharge) process. Others, i.e.,capacity and efficiency, were recorded upon completion of the half-cyclewhen a compilation or integration of the data was required. For purposes ofdiscussion and ease of computer data reduction, the parameters are dividedinto the following subsections:

• Cycle life

• Duration, ampere-hours, and watt-hours

• Current efficiency, energy efficiency, and E/I ratio

• Voltage

• Pressure

• Depth of discharge and periodic draining—AMF battery test

In each subsection, the variables are discussed in terms of trendsexhibited by the battery during the test and comparison of the trends betweenthe various batteries and battery groups. For general interest, the values formany of the measured or calculated parameters averaged over the entire cyclelife for each battery are given in Table 1. The values are separated into sixsets of parameters for charge and the same six sets of parameters for dis-charge. Two additional sets listed in the "Charge" table are energy efficiency-current efficiency and number, of cycles included in the averaging. This tableserves as a general summary of the many variables observed and recordedduring the test program.

Cycle Life

The criterion used most often to describe battery life is the number ofcharge-discharge cycles in which a battery performs within specified limits.Usually, the limits are applied to each cell in the battery, and the term

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battery failure" depends on how many individual cells have exceeded the pre-set limits (failed). For a battery test such as this, the objective was to obtaina large enough sampling of failed cells to represent the effects of operation onthe battery. A battery was considered failed when five of its ten cells had lostmore than 75% of its 6-ampere-hour capacity, or had an end-of-charge voltageexceeding 1.50v, or fell below a discharge voltage of 1. Ov before completionof the normal discharge half-cycle.

The numbers of cycles and days of operation before battery failure or testtermination are listed in Table 2. Fifteen of the batteries listed are thosetested in this program while the other five were being tested at AMF,Alexandria, Virginia, or NAD, Crane, Indiana. Of the 20 listed, 13 failedbecause of degradation accompanying cycling before termination of the testprogram. The test was terminated when it was decided that additional cyclingcould not produce results having a significant effect on the program objectives.Cell failures in this program were of three types—degradative, catastrophic,and manufacturing-lot dissimilarities. The degradative (long-term) type wasthe most important in that these failures gave the greatest insight into theinfluence of operating factors on battery life. This type is used in establishingrelationships between operation and life appearing later in this report. Thecatastrophic type of failure included cells that leaked or shorted prematurely.The third type of failure was caused by the unusual behavior of those cells thatwere equipped with pressure transducers. One cell of this type was installedin each of the first 11 original batteries. These cells were delivered laterthan the other cells and exhibited abnormal acceptance-test characteristics.They were returned to the manufacturer for adjustment by a long low-rateovercharge and then later returned to Martin Marietta for testing. Because ofthis treatment, because many of these cells failed prematurely, and becausetheir mode of failure was high end-of-charge voltage (unlike that of most oftheir neighbors), it was decided that failure of these cells should be disregarded.

A number of features of Table 2 deserve special mention. As a first item,Battery 8 registered 10,218 cycles during the test program and was terminated,when the program ended, with only three cells having failed. This battery wasoperated in a manner conducive to long cycle life. This statement is supportedand discussed below. Second, three batteries were terminated prematurely forspecific reasons, (a) Battery 3 was terminated soon after the start of the testbecause its operating cycle closely approximated that of Battery 0. The cellsfrom Battery 3 were allowed to stand on open circuit for two years, afterwhich time they were given another acceptance test and cycled as Battery 12.(b) Battery 5 failed after only 568 cycles. This failure is attributed to thefact that Battery 5 was charged using two-step current operation (C/2-C/10)

10

Table 2

Cycling Test Results

Battery

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

AMF 10°

AMF 25°

AMF 40°

Pack 13 (Crane)

Pack 17 (Crane)

Cycles

3,065

3,928*

2,072

5,418

568

320

2,837

10, 218*

4,582*

3,834

5,793

3,863*

5,976*

2,323*

6, 613

5,870

2,332

3,598

2, 449

Days

479

860*

370

551

117

75

830

940*

760*

558

480

390*

390*

363*

557

513

260

225

306

No. ofCells Failed

5

1

5

-

5

5

5

5

3

2

5

5

2

0

0

5

5

5

5

5

* Testing terminated before failure of as many as five cells.

11

and both steps were terminated at E-p, which was dependent on the chargevoltage of Battery 0. . (Е-т, is defined as the average end-of-charge voltage ofthe cells in Battery 0 on a given cycle.) Battery 0, on the other hand, wascharged using only a C/10 charge rate. The ET for Battery 0 was not highenough for Battery 5 to achieve a full state of charge. The problem wasaggravated by the fact that the depth of discharge of Battery 5 was 50%.(c) The charge mode for Battery 6 was like that of Battery 5, and it is pre-sumed that both batteries failed for the same reason. Batteries 3, 5, and 6were not considered in deriving the relationships appearing in this report.

Third, it is of interest to compare the cycle life of Battery 7 (2,837cycles) with that of Battery 8 (10,218) while at the same time comparing thenumber of days of operation of Battery 7 (830) with that of Battery 8 (940).The great difference in cycle life in spite of a similarity in the number ofoperating days results from the fact that the operating cycle of Battery 7 took7 hours, while that of Battery 8 was approximately 1-1/2 hours. This com-parison is significant because it confirms the fact that many times a shortcycle life does not necessarily mean inferior performance. For comparison,the batteries are listed in order of decreasing cycle life and decreasingnumber of days of operation in Table 3.

It should not be concluded from the data in Table 3 that nickel-cadmiumbatteries are now generally capable of operating for periods ranging from 1 to3 years. It should be emphasized that the cycle life and days of operationlisted are based upon the criterion of five cell failures or, in some instances,upon deliberate termination of the test. Flight batteries, on the contrary,often fail with the failure of the first cell and almost invariably do so with thefailure of the second. Table 4 was compiled to illustrate the randomness andtendency to early failure of the cells used in this test program. It shows thatten batteries had a first cell failure within a 6-morith period and that six of theten had a second failure within the same period. Only one battery was com-pletely operational after 1 year, although five batteries operated a full yearwithout a second cell failure.

A histogram of the batteries on a cycle basis is given in Figures 2 and 3,affording a better overall picture of the randomness and rate of failure for allthe batteries. The position in the battery of each cell failure is indicated (bycell number), and the number of cycles to failure for each can be approximatedfrom the scale.

12

Table 3

Comparison of Batteries in Order of Decreasing CycleLife and Days of Operation

In Order of DecreasingCycle Life

Battery

8

AMF 10°

13

AMF 25Э

11

4

9

12

1

10

Pack 13 (Crane)

0

7

Pack 17 (Crane)

AMF 40°

14

2

5

6

Cycles

10,218*

6,613

5,976*

5, 870

5,793

5,418

4,582*

3,863*

3,928*

3,834

3,598

3,065

2,837

2,449

2,332

2,323*

2,072

568

320

In Order of DecreasingNumber of Days

Battery

8

1

7

9

10

AMF 10°

4

AMF 25°

11

0

13

12

2

14

Pack 17 (Crane)

AMF 40°

Pack 13 (Crane)

5

6

Days

940*

860*

830

760*

558

557

551

513

480

479

390*

390*

370

363*

306

260

225

117

75


13

Table 4

Compilation of First and Second Cell Failures*

Battery

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

AMF 10°

AMF 25°

AMF 40°

Pack 13 (Crane)

Pack 17 (Crane)

First Failure

Cycles

666

1,580

1,316

—2,098

281

193

1,058

3,563

2,386

1,388

2,080

536

>5,976

>2,323

1,368

1,033

1,991

308

721

Days

142

379

185

—201

41

"39

308

341

358

202

17,3

38

>249

>232

95

72

138

19

45

Second Failure

Cycles

1,899

>3,928

1,500

—2,267

290

320

2,200

3,823

3,323

1,456

2,698

2,434

>5,976

>2,323

5,597

3,865

2,026

502

721

Days

295

>942

211

—217

92

64

640

366

497

212

, 224

172

>249

>232

388

268

140

32

45

* Excludes cell 9 for each battery in the test program.

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1 ' _L _L _L1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

CYCLES

7000 8000 9000 10000

Figure 2. Histogram of Batteries Tested at Martin Marietta

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16

Duration, Ampere-Hours, and Watt-Hours

This subsection is concerned with three derived quantities which werecalculated and recorded by the computer at the end of each half-cycle. Thesequantities are: (1) the duration of the half-cycle, (2) the ampere-hourspassed, and (3) the watt-hours of energy involved. These three parametersare similar in that they are all functions involving time as a variable, in thefollowing integrals:

Duration = Т = / dt,

Ampere-hours = A = / idt,

and

Watt-hours = W = /.V idt,avg' '

where t is time, i is current, and Vavg is the average voltage of the workingcells. These values, three for charge and three for discharge, are plottedversus cycle number in Appendix C. The data for every 25th cycle are plottedfor all batteries in the test program with the exception of Batteries 3, 5, and6, which were discounted for reasons discussed earlier.

The trends in the three variables during the cycling test as exhibited inAppendix С are given in Table 5. A horizontal arrow ( —-) denotes aconstant-level output for the parameter during the cycling life of the battery.Where a level trend is indicated, only the average value of the parametertaken over the entire cycle life is given. Vertical arrows ( | or { ) indicateupward or downward trends in output during cycling. In addition to the averagevalue of the parameter, the upper and lower limits are given. An irregulartrend is denoted by "I" where the parameter showed no distinct trend. Forcases when more than one trend could be assigned to a parameter, a multipletrend is given, as in the case of Battery 9 charge duration.

Most batteries were operated (Figure 1) in a constant-current-for-a-fixed-time mode on charge and/or discharge. Those in Group I were of thistype. This is reflected in their level time-duration and ampere-hourparameters (Table 5). For the watt-hour parameter, however, a downwardtrend is noted. This is because the average voltage is included in the calcu-lation. The decreasing trend in watt-hours for Batteries 0 and 2 on dis-charge reflects a degradation in the discharge voltage level. This wasindicative of the loss in overall capacity of the cells during the cycling test,in which they lost 75% of their 6-ampere-hour capacity. The cause of this

17

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loss is related to the charge rate of C/10 combined with a C/2 discharge rate.This is discussed below.

The batteries in Group П were all discharged (Figure 1) using the sameconstant-current-fixed-time discharge procedure as with the Group I batteries.However, two types of charge operation were utilized: (a) a single-stepoperation which for both Batteries 12 and 13 included voltage limit termination,and (b) a two-step operation which for Battery 4 included a voltage terminationfor both steps and for Battery 14 included a time termination of the first stepand voltage termination of the second. This operation of Battery 4 resulted inan irregular charge-time duration which further affected the ampere-hour andwatt-hour parameters. The Battery 12 watt-hour parameters decreased forboth charge and discharge. Note (Table 5) the smaller average ampere-hourvalues for charge of the Group П batteries as compared with the Group Ibatteries. Yet the Group П batteries operated for a much longer cycle lifethan the Group I batteries. The charge rate has a profound effect on cycle life.(See the next section, "Relationships Between Operation and Life. ")

In Group Ш, Battery 7 was operated in a constant-current-fixed-timemode for charge; Battery 8 was operated in a constant-potential charge modewhich was terminated when the current dropped to the C/10 level. Battery 9operated in a constant-current mode and was terminated by a pressure limit inone cell of the battery. All three were discharged in the same manner asGroup I and Group П. The watt-hour values of Battery 7, which was chargedexactly twice as long as Battery 0, were level for charge and dischargethroughout the test. Both the current termination of Battery 8 and the pres-sure termination of Battery 9 produced irregular values of charge durationwhich affected the other two parameters as well. The Battery 9 data can bedescribed in terms of three distinct periods (see Appendix C). During the firstperiod (cycles 1-1,300), during which time the pressure transducer cellsatisfactorily terminated the charge, the parameters were level. During thesecond period (cycles 1,300-2,000), the charge-duration parameter wasIrregular and was indicative of the problems in the pressure transducer cell,ш the third period (cycles 2,000-3,500), the pressure transducer cell wasremoved from test, and the battery was charged for a fixed time (3.0 hours),corresponding to the previously established pressure limit. The level param-eters reflect the results of this third period of operation.

In Group IV, Batteries 10 and 11 were charged .and discharged at a con-stant current. The charge was terminated after a fixed time, and the dischargewas terminated at a 1. Ov limit. Also the unusual operation comprised a 50%charge from the completely discharged condition ("height of charge" as com-pared to "depth of discharge"). Battery 10 discharge parameters exhibit two

19

periods, the first of which was the result of the initially planned operationalmode (cycles 1-1,750). The second trend of the parameters during discharge(cycles 1,750-end) reflects a change in charge operation in which the voltagelimit of 1.50, which already had been reached before the end of charge, wasextended to 1.51 on cycle 2,950 and then to 1.52 on cycle 3,100. The problemof high end-of-charge voltage was evident in all cells in this battery. Battery 1-1behaved similarly but only after longer operation. In this instance the chargetime was reduced slightly (see Appendix C, page C-23) instead of increasingthe charge voltage limit. The high end-of-charge voltage for these two bat-teries was accompanied by high pressures at the end of charge. This behaviorwas unexpected, since the cells were never charged for more than 3 ampere-hours after discharge to 1. Ov per cell.

Current Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, and E/I Ratio

Current efficiency and energy efficiency were calculated and recordedonly at the end of each complete cycle. They are defined in the usual termsas follows:

_ • . . , . . Ampere-hours dischargeCurrent efficiency = —7^ °-

Ampere-hours charge

and

_ ...... Watt-hours dischargeEnergy efficiency = „. .. , B-i •bj • Watt-hours charge

Because the watt-hours and ampere-hours were available for each half-cycle, it was decided that another derived quantity would be computed andrecorded. This quantity is referred to as the "E/I Ratio" and is defined asfollows:

_ /T _ .. Watt-hours/Ampere-hoursE/I Ratio = . * т •

Average current

The term "watt-hours" refers to the total watt-hours for the battery divided bythe number of cells. The E/I ratio is thus the time-weighted b attery voltagedivided by the product of number of cells and the time-weighted average current.

This information was recorded in the hope that a study of cycle-to-cyclechanges in this ratio would provide some insight into the rate at which a batteryis degrading, or that an early indicator of ultimate life might be discovered.A cursory study of the results has attained neither of these objectives. Thesedata, accurate to a few parts per thousand, are available on magnetic tape toanyone who wishes to make additional studies.

20

Trends in the three parameters discussed in this subsection—currentefficiency, energy efficiency, and E/I ratio—are given in Table 6 and arepresented graphically in Appendix D.

In Table 6, the following items are significant. For the Group I batteries,it can be seen that current efficiencies are constant over the life of, all threebatteries. This is of course a consequence of fixed-current, fixed-timeoperation. The energy efficiency of Battery 1 (C/8 discharge) was alsoessentially constant. The energy efficiencies of Batteries 0 and 2, however(C/2 and 2C discharge), decreased with life. This decrease was a consequenceof a cycle-to-cycle decrease in the discharge voltage which was large enoughto more than compensate for a simultaneous but smaller decrease in thecharge voltage.

A puzzling problem can be found by comparing the marked irregularityof the energy and current efficiencies of Battery 4 and Battery 8 with thecorresponding efficiencies of Batteries 12, 13, and 14 (Table. 6 and Appendix D).It can be seen in Appendix D that there were relatively large fluctuations inthe current efficiency and energy efficiency of Batteries 4 and 8 and that theseefficiencies were essentially constant in Batteries 12, 13, and 14. This markeddissimilarity is not to be expected, in view of the similarity of the charge-discharge patterns of these batteries. This relationship is paralleled by adissimilarity in the charge E/I ratios of these two groups. Batteries 4 and 8were characterized by an ascending value of E/I on charge, while the value ofthis ratio was constant for Batteries 12, 13, and 14.

There is no reason to believe that this anomaly was caused by a weaknessin the equipment, and attempts to explain these results in terms of electro-chemical phenomena have not been successful. In short, the reason for thesedifferences is not known.

The current efficiency values for the batteries in Group II were quite high(87.7% to 97.5%), which is equivalent to a 1.14 to 1.03 charge-to-dischargeratio. The energy efficiencies were correspondingly high (80.5% to 90.3%).Note that these high efficiencies were accompanied by relatively high valuesfor cycle life. Compare, for example (Figure 2), the lives of Group Пbatteries with those in Group I.

The irregularity in the current efficiency and energy efficiency ofBattery 9 (Appendix D and Table 6) was undoubtedly associated in some waywith the fact that charge termination depended on the pressure of one of thecells. Note that this irregularity disappeared after this cell failed and time-termination of the charge process was adopted.

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The Group IV batteries, numbers 10 and 11, were discharged to 1. Ov percell on each cycle and then given a charge corresponding to 50% of capacity.Both of these batteries exhibited a decreasing trend in both current efficiencyand energy efficiency followed by an increasing trend in these parameters.These changes were less marked for Battery 11. For Battery 10, the voltagesof the cells were approaching 1.50v per cell before 3 ampere-hours wasreturned. The end-of-charge voltage limit for Battery 10 was raised to 1.51vper cell and then to 1. 52v. It is interesting to note that the watt-hour values didnot increase significantly, but the efficiencies increased because ampere-hoursof discharge increased slightly. Although Battery 11 followed the same format,the results were not as pronounced and indicated that the C/2 charge rate wasmore efficient than the C/5 (Battery 10) rate.

The E/I ratios increased only for Batteries 4 and 8. This is interesting,since both batteries exhibited quite irregular trends in watt-hours andampere-hours. In no case did the E/I ratio decrease.

Voltage

The voltage of the 10 cells in each battery was monitored by the computerduring every cycle. However, voltage data were punched onto cards for per-manent record only at a preset cycle number (every 250) or when the watt-hourvalue had changed by 2% from the previously stored value. This was doneautomatically by the computer in its capacity as a processor and data acquisitionsystem. The voltage was taken at constant intervals during the charge and dis-charge cycles, but there were no voltage and current data specifically taken atthe very beginning and end of charge or discharge—an error which should becorrected in future cycling tests.

The voltage on charge and discharge for every 500th cycle is plotted vsampere-hours for each of the battery groups in Appendix E. These data aresummarized in Table 7, in which the range of voltage for cells 1 to 5 is givenat 1.0-ampere-hour input, end of charge, 0.75-ampere-hour of output, andend of discharge. It is significant that the voltage range at 1.0 ampere-hoursof charge appears to be higher for all those batteries which exhibited largercycle life, e.g., 1.39 to 1.40v for Batteries 12, 13, 8, and 9 as compared to1.37 to 1.38v for Batteries 0, 2, and 7. Similarly, the voltage range forthese same longer-life batteries is higher at 0.75 ampere-hour of discharge(1.27 to 1.28v) than is true with the shorter-lived batteries (1.17 to 1.26v).

These observations cannot be completely explained in terms of obviousreasons such as charge-to-discharge ratios. It seems very probable, however,

23

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that these voltage differences are related to the differences in the amount ofgassing and overcharge as discussed below.

It seems probable that additional information could be derived from thelarge amount of voltage data generated during the test program. However,such studies are best conducted using statistical techniques. These have notbeen attempted by the authors.

Pressure

At least four of the ten cells in each battery were equipped with pressuregauges (except Battery 14, in which three cells were so equipped), and one cellin most batteries was equipped with a pressure transducer (none in Battery 14).Pressure measurements were made by visual inspection during a completecycle at least once per month. These were tabulated and stored in log books.The pressure transducer output was fed into the computer so that, on everycycle in which voltage was recorded, pressure data were recorded also.

The pressure gauge data have been reduced and are presented in Appen-dix F. The minimum and maximum pressures are given at intervals ofapproximately 250 cycles. The difference between these two values (ДР),averaged over the life of the battery, is given in Table 8.

It can be seen in Table 8 that the average ДР for Battery 1 was greaterthan that of either of the other two batteries in Group I. The difference—10.4 psi vs 8.4 psi—is probably significant, but the authors can offer noclear explanation for the fact that a lower discharge rate is found to beassociated with a larger pressure change.

A more fruitful comparison can be made between Battery 0 and Battery 9.The cycling regime for these two batteries was the same except that the formerreceived more overcharge—2. 06 ampere-hours of charge vs 1. 83 ampere-hours of charge (see Table 1). This difference brought about a very significantdifference in the respective average ДР values (see Table 8) and, moreimportantly, in the cycle life of these two batteries. Five cells of Battery 0failed after 3, 065 cycles, but only two cells of Battery 9 failed (excludingcell 9) after 4, 582 cycles.

Another interesting relationship is disclosed in Table 9, which lists thevarious batteries in ascending order of average ДР. It can be seen that(except for batteries marked "*") there is an inverse relation between thisvariable and the cycle life given in the third column. "No. of Cells Failed"(fourth column) should be taken into account in making this comparison.

26

Table 8

Average Pressure Changes

CellNo

0123456789

Average

Battery No.

0

7.35.08.49.8

10.18.3

8.2

1

11.411.712.410.09.99.68.0

10.4

2

8.79.78.87.38.28.4

8.5

4

4.13.43.62.93.74.13.02.9

3.5

12

1.00.9

1.40.41.10.60.50.60.5

0.8

13

0.90.70.30.30.0

0.4

14

1.01.31.3

1.2

7

14.618.2.22.313.415.818.521.0

17.7

8

2.31.91.92.33.23.62.1

2.5

9

3.72.82.42.02.03.93.84.21.4

2.9

10

6.98.37.66.96.0

7.1

11

2.72.23.02.82.64.63.64.4

3.2

Table 9

Comparison of Battery Life and Average ДР

Battery

13*12*14*8*9*

114

10021*

7

ДР(psi)

0.40.81.22.52.93.23.57.18..28.5

10.417.7

No. ofCycles

5,9763,8632,323

10,2184,5825,7935,4183,8343,0652,0723,9282,837

No. ofCells Failed**

020325555515

* Removed from line prior to failure.** Cell 9 of all batteries excluded.

27

Battery 1, the only battery discharged at a low rate (C/8), is an obvious 'exception. Apparently this slow discharge had a deleterious effect on theability of the negative to recombine oxygen without adversely affecting life.

It should be noted that Batteries 10 and 11 exhibited a significant ДР.This was somewhat unexpected, since these batteries were charged for only 3ampere-hours and discharged'to l.Ov—a 50% height-of-charge cycle contrastedwith a 50% depth-of-discharge cycle. The AP values for these two batterieswere 0 during early cycle life, as expected. However, after a few hundredcycles, it appeared that gas was being generated near the end of the 50% charge.The ДР increased during the first 1,000 to 1,300 cycles, then leveled off.The two batteries were ultimately removed from test when the cells failed byhaving an end-of-charge voltage greater than 1.52v (the only batteries in whichthe cells failed in this mode). Note that Battery 11 had a lower ДР thanBattery 10, even though it was charged at the higher rate (C/2 as compared withC/5). This was probably caused by the fact that the nickel electrode is moreefficient at the higher charge rate.

Depth of Discharge and Periodic Draining—AMF Battery Test

All batteries in the battery test project were operated at 25% depth ofdischarge with the exception of Batteries 5 and 6, which failed prematurely,and Batteries 10 and 11, which were operated using the "height of charge"operational procedure (see Figure 1).

The so-called AMF study of the "Upside-Down Cycle" points to the possi-bility of a significant increase in depth of discharge without a prohibitive de-crease in battery life. Since this program has not been described previously,it is reported briefly here.

Three batteries were involved, each containing 10 cells and each operatedat a different temperature. These were 10°, 25°, and 40°С. А 65-35 cycle(65 minutes of charge, 35 minutes of discharge—simulating the conditions ofan earth orbit) was used with a discharge rate of 6 amperes, which correspondsto a 58% depth of discharge. A "taper" charge was used, i. e., constantvoltage with a 6-ampere current limit. Each of the three batteries wasoperated with a different voltage limit to compensate for temperature, andeach such limit was adjusted upward several times during the life of a batterywhenever there was evidence of "fading."

The cycle used was unconventional in that the cells in a given battery wereequalized with respect to their charge condition not by overcharging, as is theusual practice, but by complete discharging of the cells. This was

28

accomplished during every fifth 100-minute "orbital" period by discontinuingthe usual cycling pattern at the end of discharge and connecting across eachcell a 0.5-ohm resistor. These resistors were left in place for 100 minutes,at the end of which time they were removed and the battery was put on charge.In short, the complete charge-discharge pattern consisted of four "working"cycles followed by a "bleed" period. The operation was of course automatedby means of relays, stepping switches, etc. The results of this program arepresented in Figure 3.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN OPERATION AND LIFE

The data and observations given above seem to support the followingconclusions:

"1. Rapid charging tends to increase cycle life.

2. Excessive overcharging tends to decrease cycle life.

3. High discharge rates tend to decrease cycle life.

These are discussed below together with relationships involving tempera-ture, depth of discharge, and open-circuit stand derived from this programand the other tests cited.

Effect of Rapid Charging on Life

The first conclusion above is supported by a wealth of evidence, most ofwhich is summarized in Table 10.

a) The most conclusive evidence comes from a comparison of Batteries12 and 13 of Group B. Note that the former had had three cell failures at3, 863 cycles, while the latter had had none after 5,976 cycles.

b) The test results obtained at NAD-Crane (Packs 13 and 17, Group A)support the same conclusion.

c) A comparison of Group A of Table 10 with Groups В and D also pointsto the beneficial effect of rapid charging.

d) Batteries 4 and 14 (Group C) can be compared by consulting Figure 2.Note that after 2,323 cycles Battery 4 had experienced three failures andBattery 14 had experienced none.

29

Table 10

Effect of Charge Current

BatteryType

ofCharge

CurrentCharge •

Terminatedby

Hours Amp-Hrs Voltage Cycles DaysNo. ofCellsFailed

GROUP A - DEPTH OF DISCHARGE 25% (C/2 for 1/2 hour)

0

Pack 17(NAD-Crane)

Pack 13(NAD-Crane)

Constantcurrent

Constantcurrent

Constantcurrent

0.63

0.75

1.875

Time

Time

Time

3.25

2.5

1.0

2.04

1.875

1.875

3,065

2,449

3,598

5

5

5

GROUP В - DEPTH OF DISCHARGE 25% (C/2 for 1/2 hour)

12

13

Constantcurrent

Constantcurrent

1.25

3.15

Volts

Volts

1.425

1.45

3,863*

5,976*

3

0

GROUP С - TWO-STEP CHARGE - 25% DOD (C/2 for 1/2 hour)

4

14

Constantcurrent

Constantcurrent

1.250.63

3.150.63

VoltsVolts

TimeVolts

0.17

GROUP D - DISCHARGED TO 1. Ov EVERY CYCLE - 50%

10

11

Constantcurrent

Constantcurrent

1.25

3.15

Time

Time

2.5

1.0

3.12

3.15

1.4251.423

1.420

5,438

2,323*

5

0

DOD (C/2 for 1/2 hour)

3,834

5,793

5

5

GROUP E - CONSTANT POTENTIAL - 25% DOD (C/2 for 1/2 hour)

8 Constantvoltage

Variable Current =0.63 amp

6 ampcurrentlimit

10,218* 3


30

e) The data in Group D of Table 10 clearly point to the beneficial effect ofrapid charge.

f) Battery 8 (Group E) was charged at constant voltage with a currentlimit of 6 amperes. Thus its charge rate, at least at the beginning of charge,was the greatest of any of the batteries. Its cycle life was also the greatest.

Effect of Overcharge

The effect of overcharge on the life of a sealed nickel-cadmium cell haslong been a controversial topic. Unfortunately, the results of this investigationare not such that they will settle the issue; but they are of some interest.

The pertinent data were obtained from Batteries 0 ,7 , and 9, and aregiven in Table 11. These three batteries were all discharged in the samemanner and were all charged at C/10. A comparison of the results obtainedfrom Batteries 0 and 9 indicates that overcharge is very deleterious, arelatively small decrease in the amount of overcharge causing a very signifi-cant increase in life.

The data from Batteries 0 and 7, on the other hand, indicate that adeliberately excessive amount of overcharge had little or no effect. However,the latter conclusion is clouded by the fact that there is considerable evidenceto indicate that the last three cell failures in Battery 7 were caused either byhuman error or by a malfunction of the apparatus. If this is the fact, it mustbe concluded that a large excess of overcharge may be beneficial.

It is conceivable that this last conclusion and that derived from a com-parison of Batteries 0 and 9 are both correct. If so, it must be concluded thatthere is an amount of overcharge (e.g., Battery 0) that, all other things beingequal, tends to a minimum life expectancy for the cell. Either a lesseramount of overcharge (e.g., Battery 9) or a greatly increased amount of over-charge (e.g., Battery 7) has the effect of increasing life.

Battery 8 is included in Table 11 in order to present additional evidencethat a minimum amount of overcharge (and high efficiency) is conducive tolong life provided that the other variables such as charge rate and dischargerate are similarly optimized.

Effect of Discharge Rate

It is .the consensus of experimenters and designers that the life of a batteryis increased by lowering the rate of discharge. The data presented in Table 12show clearly that this is true.

31

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Table 12

Effect of Rate of Discharge(6-ampere-hour cells, 25% depth of discharge)

Battery

012

DischargeRate

C/2C/82C

Cycles

3,0653,928*2,072

No. ofCells.Failed

515

* Test terminated before battery failure.t

Effect of Depth of Discharge

It is widely known that battery life varies inversely with depth of dis-charge. Batteries 4, 5, and 6 were included in this study to increase ourknowledge of this relationship. Unfortunately, the charge mode adopted forBatteries 5 and 6 was such that they failed prematurely because of insufficientcharging. This was discussed under "Cycle Life," above.

Effect of Periodic Complete Discharge

The only batteries subjected to periodic complete discharge were the AMFtest batteries. The procedure used to operate these batteries also includeddischarge at the relatively rapid С rate and to 58% depth of discharge—bothdetrimental to cell life—and charge at a constant potential (rapid charge) andwith a minimum of overcharge—both beneficial to nickel-cadmium cell life.These conditions are discussed in the above paragraphs.

The effect of periodic complete discharge cannot be easily evaluated,because no batteries in the test program were operated in the same manneras the AMF batteries but without periodic discharge. However, very approxi-mate estimates can be made using the results of other test programs. * Takinga conservative approach, these results lead to the conclusion that the cyclelife of the 40° battery was almost doubled and that of the 10° and 25° batterieswas more than doubled.

*Numerous documents are available giving test results obtained at the NavalAmmunition Depot, Crane, Indiana (GSFC Contract W11.252B).

33

Considering that the detrimental discharge procedure balanced to someextent the beneficial charge procedure, the extraordinary life of these bat-teries must be ascribable to periodic complete discharge.

For a practical operating spacecraft system using this procedure, asignificant increase in life or a significant weight saving, or some combina-tion of both, could be obtained. However, the price would be a substantialincrease in the complexity of the battery control circuitry. It was the con-sensus of spacecraft power system designers that such an increase in com-plexity was — particularly because of reliability considerations — too high aprice to pay, and it was decided to abandon the idea.

Effect of Temperature

It is generally recognized that high operating temperatures shorten celllife and that the optimum temperature is between room temperature and theice point. The results below, obtained from the AMF program, confirm thisview.

Temperature Cycles to 5th Cell Failure

10°С 6,613

25° С 5,870

40°С 2,332

Effect of Long-Term, Open-Circuit Stand

The cycling of Batteries 12, 13, and 14 commenced 18 months afterBattery 0 was started. The cells of Battery 12 were the same cells as thoseof Battery 3, which had been terminated after 128 cycles. Those cellsremained in the 25% discharged condition at room temperature for approxi-mately two years before conditioning and acceptance testing for use inBattery 12; the cells of Batteries 13 and 14 were cells which had been givenacceptance testing but which had not been previously employed in the test.These cells were also stored on open circuit at room temperature beforetesting. There is nothing about the performance of these, batteries (Figure 2)to indicate that a year or two of storage had a significant effect on cycle life.

34

SUMMARY

The effects discussed in the preceding section have been translated intosuggestions for optimum operational methods. (Items 4 and 5 are based onthe results of the AMF battery test.) These suggestions, then, are guidelinesthat the battery engineer or power systems designer should follow in order toattain optimum battery life:

1. Rapid charging, i. e., high current during the pregassing period ofcharge; modified constant-potential operation is desirable.

2. Maximum current efficiency, i.e., a minimum of overcharge,achieved by maintaining low end-of-charge voltage or by apressure signal.

3. Minimum rate of discharge.

4. Minimum depth of discharge.

5. Operating temperature below 25 °C, preferably closer:to 10° C.

6. Long-term, open-circuit stand is not necessarily detrimental tocycle life.

7. Periodic complete discharge probably lengthens the life of a battery.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge the efforts of those individuals at Martin Mariettawho helped to make this program successful. Those involved include L. R.Long, J. Marello, R. Amos, S. Weisman, and C. Abey.

35

REFERENCES

1. Nickel-Cadmium Battery Test Project—Relationship Between Operation,Life and Failure Mechanism. Volume I—Experimental Design. MartinMarietta Corporation, Baltimore, Md., Report No. ER 14543, 1966.

2. Halpert, G., Computer Program for Analyzing Battery Performance Data.GSFC Document X-735-66-385, 1966.

36

APPENDIX A

ACCEPTANCE TEST DATA

Each of the tables A-l through A-4 contains the following acceptance testinformation for all of the nickel-cadmium cells that were given that particulartest (both accepts and rejects): measured values of ampere-hour capacity,terminal charging voltages, capacity test pressure readings, and internalresistance measurements. Figure A-l is a histogram of capacity distribution,and Figure A-2 presents a plot of normal vs "overvoltage" cell charge-characteristics. Figure A-3 is a histogram of capacity test final pressuredistribution. Figure A-4 is a plot of capacity test sampling of pressurecharacteristics, and Figure A-5 is a histogram of internal resistance distri-bution in milliohms.

A-l

Table A-lMeasured Capacity Values

Mfr. cellserial no.

28692874285828542852288728702884285128533145286328562882312931423151314928723130

. 2871312428653120288631312878288831093139287931592860311831283126

Test cellno.

001002003,004005006007008009010Oil

F012LF013G

014015016017018019020021022023024025026027028029030031032033034035036

Ampere-hourcapacity

5.9436.1046.2136.1706.3016.2536.2486.4846.1786.3446.2186.2356.4196.3226.4806,5806.3226.6066.2966,4976,2096.8686.5896.4186.1136, 4536.4536. 414:

6.0526.2796.3276.0566.4846.3845.9956.152

Mfr. cellserial no.

311731533110286731553154286231142873314131253148316231563116286131122876314431132850310831602881315828312848286631232826312728252838316428362877

Test cellno.

037038039040041042043044

F045L046047049050051052053054

F055L056057

F058L059060062063064065066067068

F069S070071072073074

Ampere-hourcapacity

6.2576.2395.9566. 3276.1876,1486.0606. 0306.0696,2796.4186.266 .5. 9695. 9606.5496.4106.2486,4406.1436.4236.2226.4186.1176.4406.2796.2096.3016.1136.2486.4326.6196.1746.1826.3316.2356.584

A-2

Table A-lMeasured Capacity Values (Continued)

Mfr. cellserial no.

282928393165284131433121

. 316628462842282828553161284528372827283031322880311131503115286828402883283531193458284928322883284734573122283428942925

Test cellno.

075F076L

078079080082085086088089090091092093094095096097098099100102103

F104L105106107108109110111

F112G115120193194

Ampere-hourcapacity

6.1046.1966.6026.3496.1356.7856.4366.4756.5196.3976.4016.1306.1746.2316.4056.3146.3316.4626.7946.3706.6726.0566.2746.1356.1836.5236.3926.1486.2396.3926.4886.6466.5106.5586.5066.715

Mfr. cellserial no.

289829312926292928962891292729022904291128952924290729342928292229302932291429352910289029062900292329122901289229052899292029162908290928932919

Test cellno.

195196197198200201202203

F204S205206207208209210211212213214215216217218219

F220S221222223224225226227228229230231

Ampere-hourcapacity

6.3186.6506.1526.2696.4236.7945.9916, 5286.2056.1436.340 '5,8556.5156.0656.0046.2356. 5066.3666.4756.1006.3496.6466.4806.8336.4056.4717.0126.8426.3536.3756.0606.4456.3096.5496.6546.287

.Legend:

•,F- Failed cell S-Shorted cell L-Caustic leak G-Blocked pressure gauge

A-3

Table A-2Terminal Charging Voltages

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Test Cell No.

01

1.461.421.42

02

1.441,421.41

03

1.441.431.41

04

1.451.411.42

05

1.451.421.42

06

1.441.421.41

07

1.461.421,42

08

1.441.421.41

09

1.451.411.41

10

1.451.421.42

Test Cell No.

11

1.431.411.42

F12L

1.441.421.42

F13G

1.441.421.40

14

1.431.401.41

15

1.441.431.42

16

1.441.421.41

17

1.4.31.411.42

18

1.441.421.42

19

1.441.421.40

20

1.431.411.4.3

Test Cell No.

21

1.431.421.42

22

1.451.431.43

23

1.451.411.40

24

1.431.431.42

25

1.431.401.40

26

1.451.411.41

27

1.441.421.42

28

1.431.421.41

29

1.451.411.41

30

1.441.431.43

Test Cell No.

31

1.441.421.41

32

1.441.411.40

33

1.441.421.42

34

1.441.441.43

35

1.451.411.41

36

1.451.431.43

37

1.441.431.43

38

1.441.411.40

39

1.451.431.43

40

1.441.431.41

Test Cell No.

41

1.451.431.43

42

1.451.431.42

43

1.451.431.42

44

1.451.431.43

F45L

1.451.431.42

46

1.461.441.42

47

1.461.441.42

F48X 49

1.451.431.43

50

1.451.421.42

Test Cell No.

51

1.431.411,40

52

1.43.1.431.43

53

1.441.421.41

54

1.441.411.41

F55L

1.431.421, 41

56

1.451.421.42

57

1.441.411.41

F58L

1.431.431.42

59

1.451.441.43

, '60

1.441.411.40

A-4

Table A-2Terminal Charging Voltages (Continued)

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

l23

Chg

123

Chg

123

Test Cell No.

F61X

—

62

1.431.431.42

63

1.431.431.42

64

1.431.431.42

65

1.421.43 .1.42

66

1.441.431,43

67

1.441.431.43

68

1.431.431.42

F69S

1.431.451.45

70

1.431.431.42

Test Cell No.

71

1.451.431.42

72

1.461.441.43

73

1.441.421.42

74

1.441.431.42

75

1.451.421.42

F76LS

1.451.431.42

F77X

—

78

1.451.431.43

79

1.451.421.42

80

1.461.431.42

Test Cell No.

F81X

—

82

1.451.441.43

F83X

—

F84L

1.461.431.44

85

1.441.431.43

86

1.451.441.43

F87S

1.451.431.43

88

1.441.431.42

89

1.441.431.42

90

1.451.441.43

Test Cell No.

91

1.451.421.43

92

1.451.421.42

93

1.451.421.42

94

1.451.411.42

95

1.451.421.42

96

1.461.441.43

97

1.451.421.42

98

1.451.421.43

99

1.441.431.42

100

1.451.421.43

Test Cell No.

F101X

—

102

1.451.431.43

103F

1.441.421.42

104L

1.441.421.41

105

1.441.421.42

106

1.451.431.43

107

1.441.421.42

108

1.441.431.42

109

1.441.421.42

110

1.441.431.43

Test Cell No.

Ill

1.441.421.42

F112G

1.441.431.42

F113X

-

F114X

—

115

1.451.431.43

F116X

—

F117X

—

F118X

—

F119X

—

120

1.441.431.42

A-5

Table A-2Terminal Charging Voltages (Continued)

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Chg

123

Test Cell No.

F121X through F192X

Test Cell No.

193

1.441,421.42

194

1.451.431.42

195

1.441.421.42

196

1.451.431.42

197

1.441.421. 42

198

1.451-.431.42

F199T

—

200

1.451.431.42

Test Cell No.

201

1.451.431.43

202

1.451.431.42

203

1.451.421.42

F204S

1.451.431?43

205

1.451.421.42

206

1.451.431.42

207

1.441.421.42

208

1.451.431.42

209

1.451.431.42

210

1.441.421.42

Test Cell No.

211

1.451.431.42

212

1.451.431.42

213

1.451.431.42

214

1.441.431.42

215

1.451.431.42

216

1.451.431.42

217

1.451 . 431.42

218

1.451.431.42

219

1.451.431.42

F220S

1.451.431.42

Test Cell No.

221

1.451.431.42

222

1.451.431.42

223

1.451.431.42

224

1.451.431.42

225

1.441.431.42

226

1.461.431.42

227

1.451.431.43

228

1.451.431.42

229

1.451.431.42

230

1.451.431.42

Test Cell No.

231

1.451.431.42

Legend:

F-Failed cellS-Shorted cellX-Overvoltage on charge

L-Caustic leakT-Malformed terminalG-Blocked gauge

A-6

Table A-3Typical Capacity Test Pressure Data

Cell numbers 001 to 010

001

+04+09

-18-18-17-16-15-15-14-14-10-10-07-04+00+03+00+06+06+08+09+09+09+09+09+09+10+11+11+11

002

-10-08

-25-24-22-22-21-20-14-14-18-16-16-15-15-10-10-10-06-05-05-02-01+00+00+00+00+00+00+00

003

+00+03

-19-18-16-17-16-16-15-16-13-14-14-10-10-05+03+00+00+01+03-03+01+03+06+06+04+05+05+05

004

+01+05

-18-16-16-16-16-15-15-15-12-10-15-08-05-03-05-05-03+00+00+03+01+03+06+06+06+05+05+05

005

+00+04

-24-21-20-19-19-20-20-18-16-15-15-15-15-10-05-02-05-03+00+03+00+03+03+03+04+04+04+04

006

+01+07

-22-20-20-18-18-16-16-15-14-12-10-09-07-05-03+00+01,+03+03+03+06+06+07+07+08+08+08+08

007

-01+05

-20-20-20-18-18-16-16-15-is-15-14-12-10-07-05-04+00-01+02+03+03+03+03+05+05+05+05+06

008

-11-09

-30-25-25-22-21-17-20-20-19-20-20-18-17-15-15-15-12-10-10-07-05-05-02-01-03-02-01-01

009

+00+04

-30-20-20-18-18-17-16-15-15-15-17-10-10-05-03+00+01+03+03+06+06+06+06+06+05+05+06+06

010

-00+03

-20-20-20-18-18-20-20-18-15-15-15-14-10-10-05-05-05+00-03+03+00+03+03+03+04+04+04+04

Time

Chg 1 TermChg 2 Term

10-110-210-310-411-111-211-311-412-112-212 312-413-113-213-313-414-114-214-314-415-115-215-315-416-116-216-3Chg 3 term

Cell numbers Oil to 020

Oil

+00+03+04

F012L

+01+05+06

F013G

-25-25-25

014

-09-05-01

015

+01+03+03

016

-05+00+02

017

+00+02+03

018

+02+04+05

019

+03+06+08

020

+00+00+01

Time

Chg 1 termChg 2 termChg 3 term

A-7

Table A-3Typical Capacity Test Pressure Data (Continued)


021

-02+01+02

022

+03+13.+14

023

-09+00+00

024

+02+05+06

025

•"+01+03+04

026

+03+05+05

027

-09-04-01

028

-05+00+01

029

+13+16+17

030

+00+02+03

Time

Chg 1 termGhg 2 termChg 3 term


031

-07-05-01

032

+03+06+09

033

-09-05-05

034

+03+06+06

035

+15+22+24

036

+15+21+22

037

+06+:08+12

038

+00+01+02

039

+08+13+15

040

-03+03+04

Time

Chg 1 termGhg 2 termChg 3 term


041

+05+07+08

042

+02+09+10

043

-05+01+02

044

+11+ 15+17

F045L

-05+01+02

046

-05+01+02

047

+05+09+10

F048L

—

049

+00+01+03

050

-05+00+02

Time



051

+01+04+04

052

+01+04+05

053

-06+01+02

054

+07+12+15

F055L

-10-05+00

056

+00+03+02

057

+01+04+04

F058L

-08+04+07

059

+06+11+ 12

060

+00+01+02

Time



F061X

-12+08

062

-20+06+12

063

-12+12+15

064

-26+06+12

065

-25+03+05

066

-20+19+26

067

-17+16+18

068

-22+05+10

F069S

-25+02+03

070

-15+06+08

Time



071

-20

072

-15+13+15

073

-17+07+08

074

-20+04+06

075

-20+06+09

F076L

-22+03+04

F077X

+02

078

-17+04+05

079

-20+05+06

080

-05+17+19

Time


A-8

Table A-3Typical Capacity Test Pressure Data (Continued)


F081X

—

082

+12+20+24

F083X

—

F084L

—

085

+04+09+12

086

+05+09+13

F087S

—

088

-07+03+06

089

+02+10+13

090

+12+20+22

Time



091

+15

+27

092

+12

+16

093

-06

+01

094

+02

+07

095

+00

+04

096

+13

+25

097

+06

+13

098

-05

+02

099

+04

+07

100

-04

+02

Time



F101X

—

102

+16+26+28

103

-10+02+03

F104L

+00+05+06

105

+00+03+03

106

+02+07+09

107

+03+04+05

108

+00+02+03

109

+04+12+12

110

+05+09+09

Time



111

-15-07-01

F112G

-30 .-30-30

F113X F114X 115

+00+06+14

F116X

—

F117X F118X

— ,

F119X

—

120

-12-04+05

Time


All remaining cells either failed acceptance tests or were not equipped with pressuregages.

Legend:

F-Failed cellS-Internal shortX-OvervoltageL-Caustic leakG-Blocked gauge

"-" values in in. of Hg"+" values in psia

A-9

Table A-4Internal Resistance Measurements

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.

Cell no.Int. res.

0013.5*

Oil3.9

0213,5

0313.5

0413.9

0513.9

F061X

0713.9

F081.4.4

0913,9

F101X

1113.9

F131X4.6

0023.5

F012L3.7

0223.5

0323.3

0424.6

0523.9

0624.7

0724.0

0823.7

0924.6

1024.6

F112G3.7

F132X4.0

0033.7

F013G4.2

0233.7

0333.7

0434.4

0534.2

0634.7

0733.9

F0834.4

0934.9

1034.9

F113X4.0

F133X4.9

0043.5

0144.0

0243.3

0343.9

0443.9

0543.9

0643.9

0744.7

F0843.9

0944.0

F104L4.0

F114X3.9

F134X4.6

0053.7

0153.9

0253.7

0354.9

F0453.9

F055L3.9

0653.5

0754.9

0854.4

0954.4

1053.9

1153.9

F135X

0063.7

0163.7

0263.7

0364.2

0464.2

0563,9

0664.0

F076L4.2

0864.2

0963.9

1064.6

F116X4.0

F136X4.6

0074.0

0174.2

0273.5

0373.5

0473.7

0573.5

0673.9

F077X

F087

0974.7

1074.4

F117X

F137X3.9

0083.7

0183.7

0283.7

0384.2

F048

F058L4.2

0683.7

0783.9

0884.2

0984.6

1083 ;9

F118X

F138X3.7

0093.9

0194.2

0293.7

039

3.7

0493.7

0594.0

F069S3.7

0794.2

0894.4

0994.4

1094.2

F119X

F139X4.4

0103.9

0203.7

0304.0

0403.7

0503.5

0603.7

0703.9

0804.2

0904.2

1004.6

1103.9

1203.9

F140X3.7

F121X through F192X failed acceptance test.

1933.7

1943.9

1C53.7

1963.9

1974.0

1983.9

F199T 2004.0

* АИ Internal resistance values in milliohms.

A-10

Table A-4Internal Resistance Measurements (Continued)

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

Cell no.Int. res.

2013.9

2114.2

2214.7

2313.5

2023.7

2123.9

2223.9

F232X

2033.9

2133.7

2233.7

F233X

E204

2143.3

2243.9

F234X

2054.2

2153.5

2254.4

F235X

2064.2

2163.7

2264.2

F236X

2074.6

2173.5

2273.9

F237X

2083.7

2183.7

2283.9

F238X

2094.4

2193.3

2293.9

F239X

2105.1

F220

2303.7

F240X

Legend: F-Failed cellS-Internal shortX-OvervoltageG-Blocked gaugeL-Caustic leakT-Malformed terminal

A-ll

14

12

10

in

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4

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4

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11

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12

14

9

13 133 CELLS

TIAVG CAPACITY = 6.340 AMP-H -STD DEVIATION = 0.214

8—

~6—

[71 ~

[T|

~2 71

г Т| ГГ

О- О О — •—

AMPERE-HOUR CAPACITY

Figure A-l. Capacity Distribution, Nickel-Cadmium CellAcceptance Tests, September 1963

A-12

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41 1

3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0

INTERNAL RESISTANCE (milliohms)

5.2

Figure A-5. Internal Resistance Distribution, Nickel-CadmiumCell Acceptance Tests, September 1963

A-16

APPENDIX В

MANUFACTURER DATA AND ACCEPTANCE TEST DATAFOR CELLS IN TEST

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CellNo.

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1

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6

7

8

9

MartinMarietta

No.

12

22

35

39

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50

51

202

207

226

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6.703

6.746,

6.629

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7. 008

6.550

6.572

6.899

6.812

6.943

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6.681

7.118

6.615

6.725

6.987

6.484

6.550

6.790

6.768

6.921

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6.576

6.148

6.558

6.655

6.947

6.462

6.480

6.615

6.667

6.794

Term,Press.*

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1 .1415

59

10

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143

677

354

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1.4671.4571.450

1.501.4491.490

. 1.4631.453.1.448

1.4921.4731.468

1.4681.4571.452

1.4581.4561.442

1.4531.4441.440

1.4541.4381.435

1.4581.4421.433

1.4591.4451.441

N For cycles 1,2, and 3 respectively.

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APPENDIX С

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APPENDIX F

MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM PRESSURE GAUGE READINGSFOR 250-CYCLE INCREMENTS

Tables F-l through F-12 list battery pressure ranges in psi for batteries0, 1, 2, 4, and 7 through 14. The tables give minimum, maximum, andaverage values by cell.

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О

Ю

со' оо

ао из

el.гН

N

Ю

-

|>

СП

•*ооопо<поt-оспол<ш<

F-12

Table F-12Battery 14, Pressure Ranges (psi)

Cycle

66

140

Avg AP

Cell 0

Min

-11

-10

Max

-10

-9

АР

1

1

1.0

Cell 1

Min

-2

-11/2

Max

0

-1

АР

2

1/2

1.3

Cell 9

Min

-10

-10

Max

-81/2

-9

AP

11/2

1

1.3

No. ofCells

3

3

AvgАР

1.5

0.8

1.2

F-13

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