New Religious MovementsNew Religious Movements

April 2013April 2013

New Religious MovementsNew Religious Movements

• Throughout history, there have been many religious Throughout history, there have been many religious groups distinct from the larger world religionsgroups distinct from the larger world religions

• Perhaps 100,000,000 people worldwide adhere to Perhaps 100,000,000 people worldwide adhere to groups that may be characterized as “New Religious groups that may be characterized as “New Religious Movements” (NRMs)Movements” (NRMs)

• These groups are quite diverseThese groups are quite diverse– Some originate as offshoots from mainstream religionsSome originate as offshoots from mainstream religions– Some seek to reclaim ancient and/or secret practices and Some seek to reclaim ancient and/or secret practices and

wisdomwisdom– Some are based upon the teachings of a charismatic leaderSome are based upon the teachings of a charismatic leader

• There are far too many New Religious Movements to There are far too many New Religious Movements to listlist– Each year, new movements arise, fragment, disappear, or Each year, new movements arise, fragment, disappear, or

institutionalizeinstitutionalize

CultsCults• In academic terms, a cult is a religious group which is In academic terms, a cult is a religious group which is

distinct from larger traditions, while a sect is a subgroup distinct from larger traditions, while a sect is a subgroup or offshoot of a larger traditionor offshoot of a larger tradition

• Since the mid-20Since the mid-20thth century, the word “cult” has taken on a century, the word “cult” has taken on a pejorative meaning in the popular media; academics tend pejorative meaning in the popular media; academics tend to use the term “New Religious Movement” insteadto use the term “New Religious Movement” instead

• Stark and Bainbridge identify three types of cult:Stark and Bainbridge identify three types of cult:1.1. Audience cults: these do not require conversion; a person Audience cults: these do not require conversion; a person

may listen to the teachings of the leadership, perhaps may listen to the teachings of the leadership, perhaps attending workshops or meetings, but may also hold other attending workshops or meetings, but may also hold other religious affiliations and no regular participation is requiredreligious affiliations and no regular participation is required

2.2. Client cults: these offer a service to members such as Client cults: these offer a service to members such as therapy. A client’s involvement may begin in a casual way therapy. A client’s involvement may begin in a casual way but generally deepens over timebut generally deepens over time

3.3. Cult movements: these are organizations which require Cult movements: these are organizations which require conversion and do not allow membership in other religious conversion and do not allow membership in other religious groups. The level of commitment may be partial (members groups. The level of commitment may be partial (members may still carry on a life outside of the cult) or total (members may still carry on a life outside of the cult) or total (members are cut off from society)are cut off from society)

Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership

• Many NRMs are started by charismatic leaders Many NRMs are started by charismatic leaders who attract a community of followerswho attract a community of followers– The term “charismatic” means “having gifts”; a The term “charismatic” means “having gifts”; a

charismatic leader is one who has the unusual capacity charismatic leader is one who has the unusual capacity to inspire; in the case of religions, a charismatic leader to inspire; in the case of religions, a charismatic leader may be viewed as a guru, prophet, or messiahmay be viewed as a guru, prophet, or messiah

• NRMs based around charismatic personalities NRMs based around charismatic personalities may not survive the death of their leader; those may not survive the death of their leader; those that do are able to “routinize” the charisma and that do are able to “routinize” the charisma and produce new leadersproduce new leaders– Some may become more institutionalized, behaving Some may become more institutionalized, behaving

more like churches than sectsmore like churches than sects– Most major world religions originated as cults/NRMs Most major world religions originated as cults/NRMs

based upon the teachings of a charismatic figurebased upon the teachings of a charismatic figure

Diversity of New Religious Diversity of New Religious MovementsMovements• In order to explore the diversity of New Religious In order to explore the diversity of New Religious

Movements, we will examine several different examples of Movements, we will examine several different examples of NRMs:NRMs:– Baha’iBaha’i– WiccaWicca– RastafariRastafari– ScientologyScientology

• We will also look briefly at instances where NRMs have We will also look briefly at instances where NRMs have been associated with violence, as in the case of the been associated with violence, as in the case of the People’s Temple and Aum ShinrikyoPeople’s Temple and Aum Shinrikyo

Baha’iBaha’i

• In Iran in 1844, a young man named Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, called the In Iran in 1844, a young man named Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, called the Bab (“Gateway”) by his followers, prophesied the coming of a new Bab (“Gateway”) by his followers, prophesied the coming of a new messenger of Godmessenger of God– In Twelver Shi’ite eschatology, the Bab is the person who re-establishes In Twelver Shi’ite eschatology, the Bab is the person who re-establishes

contact between the hidden Imam and the Shi’ite communitycontact between the hidden Imam and the Shi’ite community• Persian authorities, considering this blasphemy against Islam, put him Persian authorities, considering this blasphemy against Islam, put him

and a large number of his followers to deathand a large number of his followers to death• Leadership passed to a Persian aristocrat named Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri Leadership passed to a Persian aristocrat named Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri

(1817-1892), called Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”)(1817-1892), called Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”)– Baha’u’llah had not met the Bab, but had a religious experience while in Baha’u’llah had not met the Bab, but had a religious experience while in

captivitycaptivity• Baha’u’llah was banished from Iran to Baghdad, which was under the Baha’u’llah was banished from Iran to Baghdad, which was under the

control of the Ottoman Empire at the time, and then moved to Istanbulcontrol of the Ottoman Empire at the time, and then moved to Istanbul• In 1862, he claimed to have a 12-day-long mystical experience, and In 1862, he claimed to have a 12-day-long mystical experience, and

began to identify himself as the new messenger prophesied by the Babbegan to identify himself as the new messenger prophesied by the Bab• Baha’u’llah was then banished to Acre, Palestine, where he wrote Baha’u’llah was then banished to Acre, Palestine, where he wrote

prolifically and won a large number of followersprolifically and won a large number of followers

Baha’iBaha’i

• When Baha’u’llah died in 1892, leadership of the community When Baha’u’llah died in 1892, leadership of the community passed to his son, Abdu’l-Bahapassed to his son, Abdu’l-Baha

• Abdu’l-Baha passed leadership to his son, Shoghi Effendi Abdu’l-Baha passed leadership to his son, Shoghi Effendi Rabbani, who then passed leadership to an elected council, Rabbani, who then passed leadership to an elected council, the Universal House of Justice, in 1963the Universal House of Justice, in 1963

• Baha’is consider Baha’u’llah a prophet in the same way as Baha’is consider Baha’u’llah a prophet in the same way as Abraham, Moses, the Buddha, Krishna, Jesus, and Abraham, Moses, the Buddha, Krishna, Jesus, and MuhammadMuhammad

• Baha’i is universalistic; all religions are understood as Baha’i is universalistic; all religions are understood as worshipping the same godworshipping the same god

• The sacred texts of Baha’i are the writings of Baha’u’llah:The sacred texts of Baha’i are the writings of Baha’u’llah:– The The Kitab-i AqdasKitab-i Aqdas (“The Most Holy Book,” 1873), a book of laws (“The Most Holy Book,” 1873), a book of laws– The The Kitab-i IqanKitab-i Iqan (“The Book of Certitude,” 1861), containing (“The Book of Certitude,” 1861), containing

doctrinedoctrine– Hidden WordsHidden Words (1858), a work on ethics (1858), a work on ethics– The Seven ValleysThe Seven Valleys (1856), a mystical work (1856), a mystical work

Baha’i BeliefsBaha’i Beliefs• Baha’is believe in “progressive revelation”: the idea that humanity Baha’is believe in “progressive revelation”: the idea that humanity

is in the process of maturing, and that God has revealed Godself is in the process of maturing, and that God has revealed Godself to humans through prophets at different times in history in ways to humans through prophets at different times in history in ways that were appropriate to human culture at the timethat were appropriate to human culture at the time

• God is unknowable, and the soul is eternalGod is unknowable, and the soul is eternal• Baha’is advocate for economic, racial, and sexual equalityBaha’is advocate for economic, racial, and sexual equality• The most distinctive feature of Baha’i is its call for a united human The most distinctive feature of Baha’i is its call for a united human

federationfederation• This society would be based upon democracy, human rights, and This society would be based upon democracy, human rights, and

the following principles:the following principles:1.1. The end of all forms of prejudiceThe end of all forms of prejudice2.2. Equality for womenEquality for women3.3. Acceptance of the unity and different forms of expression of truthAcceptance of the unity and different forms of expression of truth4.4. Just distribution of wealthJust distribution of wealth5.5. Universal educationUniversal education6.6. The freedom and responsibility of each individual to seek the truthThe freedom and responsibility of each individual to seek the truth7.7. Development of a peaceful community of all humanityDevelopment of a peaceful community of all humanity8.8. Harmony of science and religionHarmony of science and religion

Baha’i PracticesBaha’i Practices• Baha’is pray five times per day after washing Baha’is pray five times per day after washing

their hands and facestheir hands and faces• Baha’is do not take drugs or alcoholBaha’is do not take drugs or alcohol• Life cycle rituals involve a simple naming Life cycle rituals involve a simple naming

ceremony, a declaration of faith at age 15, a ceremony, a declaration of faith at age 15, a wedding ceremony based on the taste of the wedding ceremony based on the taste of the couple, and a simple funeral involving prayer said couple, and a simple funeral involving prayer said in unisonin unison

• The Baha’i calendar has 19 months of 19 days The Baha’i calendar has 19 months of 19 days each, with four extra dayseach, with four extra days

• At the start of each month, Baha’is have a At the start of each month, Baha’is have a community feastcommunity feast– They may also gather weekly for study and worshipThey may also gather weekly for study and worship– The last month of the year is devoted to dawn-to-dusk The last month of the year is devoted to dawn-to-dusk

fasting, like the Muslim fast during Ramadanfasting, like the Muslim fast during Ramadan– Various holidays throughout the year celebrate Various holidays throughout the year celebrate

important events in Baha’i historyimportant events in Baha’i history

Baha’i TodayBaha’i Today

• There are approximately 7 million Baha’is There are approximately 7 million Baha’is today in communities all around the worldtoday in communities all around the world– Approximately 750,000 Baha’is live in North Approximately 750,000 Baha’is live in North

AmericaAmerica– A large percentage live in IndiaA large percentage live in India– The Iranian Revolution of 1979 drove many The Iranian Revolution of 1979 drove many

Baha’is from IranBaha’is from Iran– The world Baha’i headquarters is in Haifa, IsraelThe world Baha’i headquarters is in Haifa, Israel

• Baha’is actively support the United NationsBaha’is actively support the United Nations

Neo-PaganismNeo-Paganism

• ““Paganism” is a broad Paganism” is a broad term originally used by term originally used by Christians to refer to any Christians to refer to any non-Christian religion, non-Christian religion, especially the pre-especially the pre-Christian religions of Christian religions of EuropeEurope

• Neo-Paganism is an effort Neo-Paganism is an effort by modern people to by modern people to recover these traditions recover these traditions in modern timesin modern times

WitchcraftWitchcraft

• In medieval Europe, pre-Christian religion In medieval Europe, pre-Christian religion was identified with witchcraft and devil-was identified with witchcraft and devil-worshipworship

• People suspected of practicing witchcraft People suspected of practicing witchcraft were persecuted, sometimes being burned were persecuted, sometimes being burned at the stakeat the stake

• The extent to which pre-Christian religion The extent to which pre-Christian religion was practiced in medieval Europe is unclearwas practiced in medieval Europe is unclear

• Some modern Neo-Pagans identify as Some modern Neo-Pagans identify as witches and claim to be part of a hidden witches and claim to be part of a hidden lineage dating back to pre-Christian timeslineage dating back to pre-Christian times

WiccaWicca

• Wicca is a Neo-Pagan religion which became Wicca is a Neo-Pagan religion which became popular in England in the 1940spopular in England in the 1940s

• It was popularized by Gerald Gardner (1884-It was popularized by Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), who claimed to have been initiated 1964), who claimed to have been initiated into a secret coven (group) of witches who into a secret coven (group) of witches who traced their lineage to ancient timestraced their lineage to ancient times

• Gardner “revealed” the rituals and Gardner “revealed” the rituals and teachings of this group to the publicteachings of this group to the public

• Wicca was introduced to the United States in Wicca was introduced to the United States in the 1960s, where it became quite popularthe 1960s, where it became quite popular

Wicca Practices & BeliefsWicca Practices & Beliefs

• Wiccan belief and practice is highly flexible, with different Wiccan belief and practice is highly flexible, with different covens and individuals interpreting the tradition according to covens and individuals interpreting the tradition according to their own tastestheir own tastes

• Wiccans view the world as being ordered by interconnected Wiccans view the world as being ordered by interconnected natural forces personified as gods and goddessesnatural forces personified as gods and goddesses– This generally includes a supreme Goddess and GodThis generally includes a supreme Goddess and God

• These forces can be accessed through rituals including These forces can be accessed through rituals including dance, singing and chanting, and magicdance, singing and chanting, and magic

• Wiccans celebrate a yearly cycle of eight “Sabbats” Wiccans celebrate a yearly cycle of eight “Sabbats” corresponding to ancient agricultural festivals and the corresponding to ancient agricultural festivals and the equinoxes and solsticesequinoxes and solstices

• Wiccan ethics are summarized by the Wiccan Rede: “An it Wiccan ethics are summarized by the Wiccan Rede: “An it harm none, do what ye will” (“Do what you like as long as it harm none, do what ye will” (“Do what you like as long as it harms no one”)harms no one”)

• Dianic Wicca is a feminist strand of Wicca which prohibits Dianic Wicca is a feminist strand of Wicca which prohibits male membershipmale membership

Other Neo-Pagan ReligionsOther Neo-Pagan Religions

• Many other Neo-Pagan traditions Many other Neo-Pagan traditions exist aside from Wiccaexist aside from Wicca

• Goddess Spirituality seeks to recover Goddess Spirituality seeks to recover the feminine divine as a counter to the feminine divine as a counter to the maleness of the Christian Godthe maleness of the Christian God

• Some Neo-Pagans seek to recover Some Neo-Pagans seek to recover Druidism and other local traditionsDruidism and other local traditions

RastafariRastafari

• The island of Jamaica in the Caribbean is home The island of Jamaica in the Caribbean is home to a unique New Religious Movement: Rastafarito a unique New Religious Movement: Rastafari

• Jamaica is a former British colony which is Jamaica is a former British colony which is predominantly Christian; most Jamaicans are predominantly Christian; most Jamaicans are the descendents of African slavesthe descendents of African slaves

• Although sharing some scripture and beliefs in Although sharing some scripture and beliefs in common with Christianity, Rastafari differs common with Christianity, Rastafari differs from other Caribbean Afro-Christian religions from other Caribbean Afro-Christian religions (Vodou, Santeria) in that it has little in common (Vodou, Santeria) in that it has little in common with traditional African religionwith traditional African religion

Marcus Garvey & Haile Marcus Garvey & Haile SelassieSelassie• Weary of centuries of oppression, Weary of centuries of oppression,

many Afro-Jamaicans were inspired by many Afro-Jamaicans were inspired by Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), an Afro-Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), an Afro-Jamaican activist who called for a Jamaican activist who called for a return to Africareturn to Africa

• Garvey often used prophetic-style Garvey often used prophetic-style language in his speeches; he language in his speeches; he reportedly said “Look to Africa when a reportedly said “Look to Africa when a black king shall be crowned”black king shall be crowned”

• Shortly afterwards, Ras (Prince) Tafari Shortly afterwards, Ras (Prince) Tafari (1892-1975) was crowned Haile (1892-1975) was crowned Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia (at the Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia (at the time, the only nation in Africa not time, the only nation in Africa not colonized by Europeans)colonized by Europeans)

• Some Jamaicans began to view Some Jamaicans began to view Selassie as the Living God, using Selassie as the Living God, using interpretations of the Bible, especially interpretations of the Bible, especially Revelation, to justify their viewRevelation, to justify their view– Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian

Orthodox Christian all his lifeOrthodox Christian all his life

Rasta BeliefsRasta Beliefs• No central authority exists in Rastafari; belief No central authority exists in Rastafari; belief

varies from Rasta to Rastavaries from Rasta to Rasta• Rasta belief is based on return to Zion, the Rasta belief is based on return to Zion, the

Promised Land for the African diaspora, identified Promised Land for the African diaspora, identified as Ethiopia or Africa in generalas Ethiopia or Africa in general– The language and symbolism of the Hebrew Bible The language and symbolism of the Hebrew Bible

figures prominently in Rasta culture, especially the figures prominently in Rasta culture, especially the Exodus narrative and the PsalmsExodus narrative and the Psalms

• White European culture is identified as Babylon, White European culture is identified as Babylon, the realm of evil and slaverythe realm of evil and slavery

• God is called Jah, Haile Selassie is identified as God is called Jah, Haile Selassie is identified as the returned Jesus, and the covenant people of the returned Jesus, and the covenant people of the Hebrew Bible are seen as Africansthe Hebrew Bible are seen as Africans

• Rasta scripture includes the Bible; Rastas believe Rasta scripture includes the Bible; Rastas believe that a secret second half of the Bible exists within that a secret second half of the Bible exists within the human heartthe human heart

Rasta PracticesRasta Practices• Many Rastas wear dreadlocks, in keeping with the Many Rastas wear dreadlocks, in keeping with the

Biblical ascetic order of Nazirites as well as to Biblical ascetic order of Nazirites as well as to symbolize the Lion of Judah, a title for Haile symbolize the Lion of Judah, a title for Haile SelassieSelassie

• Some Rastas observe a special diet called “I-tal,” Some Rastas observe a special diet called “I-tal,” based on kashrutbased on kashrut

• Rastas often use the first-person pronoun “I and Rastas often use the first-person pronoun “I and I,” symbolizing the unity of the Rasta with JahI,” symbolizing the unity of the Rasta with Jah

• Rasta ceremonies include Reasoning, in which Rasta ceremonies include Reasoning, in which Rastas gather, read and interpret the Bible, and Rastas gather, read and interpret the Bible, and smoke ganja (marijuana)smoke ganja (marijuana)

• While some Rastas believe in equality between While some Rastas believe in equality between the brethren (men) and the sistren (women), the brethren (men) and the sistren (women), others do not consider the sistren to be fully others do not consider the sistren to be fully capable of experiencing Rasta awarenesscapable of experiencing Rasta awareness

Rastafari and ReggaeRastafari and Reggae• Rasta theology and Rasta theology and

doctrine is often doctrine is often expressed through expressed through music, especially reggae music, especially reggae musicmusic

• The most famous Rasta The most famous Rasta is reggae musician Bob is reggae musician Bob MarleyMarley

• Reggae music has Reggae music has brought Rastafari to a brought Rastafari to a global audienceglobal audience

Scientology & L. Ron Scientology & L. Ron HubbardHubbard• One of the most well-known NRMs in contemporary One of the most well-known NRMs in contemporary

society is Scientology, founded in 1954 by American society is Scientology, founded in 1954 by American writer L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986)writer L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986)

• In 1950, Hubbard published In 1950, Hubbard published Dianetics: The Modern Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental HealingScience of Mental Healing, in which he outlined a , in which he outlined a method for curing psychological problemsmethod for curing psychological problems

• In 1954, he founded the Hubbard Association of In 1954, he founded the Hubbard Association of Scientologists and the First Church of Scientology in Scientologists and the First Church of Scientology in Washington, DCWashington, DC– Scientology (based on ancient Greek, roughly, “the science Scientology (based on ancient Greek, roughly, “the science

of knowledge”) incorporates the psychological theories of of knowledge”) incorporates the psychological theories of DianeticsDianetics with an elaborate mythology and different levels with an elaborate mythology and different levels of initiationof initiation

Scientology PracticesScientology Practices• Scientologists strive to become “Clear,” a state of Scientologists strive to become “Clear,” a state of

mind that is free of all “engrams” (psychological mind that is free of all “engrams” (psychological problems or baggage)problems or baggage)

• To become Clear, one must identify one’s To become Clear, one must identify one’s engrams through a therapeutic process called engrams through a therapeutic process called “auditing”“auditing”– Auditing is conducted by a senior Scientologist with the Auditing is conducted by a senior Scientologist with the

aid of an “E-meter,” a device similar to a lie detectoraid of an “E-meter,” a device similar to a lie detector

• The auditing process, called “The Bridge to Total The auditing process, called “The Bridge to Total Freedom,” has various stages in which the Freedom,” has various stages in which the Scientologist undergoes progressively more in-Scientologist undergoes progressively more in-depth auditing and learns the esoteric mythology depth auditing and learns the esoteric mythology of Scientologyof Scientology

Scientology BeliefsScientology Beliefs

• Scientologists call the mind/soul the ThetanScientologists call the mind/soul the Thetan• According to Scientologist myth, the Thetans were According to Scientologist myth, the Thetans were

a race of advanced, incorporeal extraterrestrial a race of advanced, incorporeal extraterrestrial beings who became trapped in the material worldbeings who became trapped in the material world

• By becoming Clear, a human being comes to By becoming Clear, a human being comes to understand his or her true nature as a Thetan and understand his or her true nature as a Thetan and is capable of out-of-body experiences and other is capable of out-of-body experiences and other paranormal abilitiesparanormal abilities– According to the esoteric teachings of Scientology, alien According to the esoteric teachings of Scientology, alien

Thetans also exist on Earth, having been trapped in the Thetans also exist on Earth, having been trapped in the material world in the distant past by the alien warlord material world in the distant past by the alien warlord XenuXenu

– L. Ron Hubbard worked as a science fiction writer early in L. Ron Hubbard worked as a science fiction writer early in his life, which may have influenced the more fantastical his life, which may have influenced the more fantastical elements of Scientologist mythologyelements of Scientologist mythology

Scientology TodayScientology Today• There may be approximately There may be approximately

100,000-200,000 Scientologists 100,000-200,000 Scientologists worldwide, mostly in North worldwide, mostly in North America and EuropeAmerica and Europe

• The current Chairman of the The current Chairman of the Church of Scientology is David Church of Scientology is David MiscavigeMiscavige

• The Church of Scientology has The Church of Scientology has attracted criticism for its attracted criticism for its secretive organizational structure, secretive organizational structure, its criticism of mainstream its criticism of mainstream psychiatry, the fees it charges for psychiatry, the fees it charges for auditing, and its use of lawsuits auditing, and its use of lawsuits against its criticsagainst its critics

• Some celebrity Scientologists Some celebrity Scientologists include Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, include Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Kirstie Alley, John Travolta, Isaac Kirstie Alley, John Travolta, Isaac Hayes, and Chick CoreaHayes, and Chick Corea

New Age SpiritualityNew Age Spirituality

• ““New Age Spirituality” is a catch-all term for a number of New Age Spirituality” is a catch-all term for a number of spiritual movements originating in the West in the 1970s spiritual movements originating in the West in the 1970s and 1980sand 1980s

• Common themes in these movements are their anti-Common themes in these movements are their anti-institutional, individualistic ethos, reverence for nature, institutional, individualistic ethos, reverence for nature, emphasis on self-improvement, and adoption of shamanic emphasis on self-improvement, and adoption of shamanic themesthemes

• Given their individualistic nature, it is difficult to categorize Given their individualistic nature, it is difficult to categorize them as “religions”them as “religions”

• New Age movements may draw upon Western, Eastern, New Age movements may draw upon Western, Eastern, and/or indigenous religious practices, but are generally and/or indigenous religious practices, but are generally oriented towards people in contemporary Western societyoriented towards people in contemporary Western society

• Many such movements may be categorized as “audience Many such movements may be categorized as “audience cults”cults”

New Age SpiritualityNew Age Spirituality

• The cultural changes in Western society in the 1960s led some to The cultural changes in Western society in the 1960s led some to believe that a “new age” was imminentbelieve that a “new age” was imminent– This became popularly known as the “Age of Aquarius,” drawing upon This became popularly known as the “Age of Aquarius,” drawing upon

the Zodiacthe Zodiac– The “new age” was to be characterized by freedom, peace, love, and The “new age” was to be characterized by freedom, peace, love, and

universal spiritualityuniversal spirituality• By the 1970s and 1980s, a variety of practices associated with this By the 1970s and 1980s, a variety of practices associated with this

“new age” became popular“new age” became popular• These practices included astrology, “channeling” of spiritual These practices included astrology, “channeling” of spiritual

beings, meditation, psychic practices and hypnosis, alternative beings, meditation, psychic practices and hypnosis, alternative healing, tarot reading, diets, etc.healing, tarot reading, diets, etc.

• Spiritual progress is often equated with material success; Spiritual progress is often equated with material success; practitioners of New Age spirituality often believe that personal practitioners of New Age spirituality often believe that personal spiritual development will lead to “self-help” and material spiritual development will lead to “self-help” and material prosperityprosperity

• Various thinkers, writers, and gurus have contributed to the Various thinkers, writers, and gurus have contributed to the development of New Age spiritualitydevelopment of New Age spirituality

New Religious Movements and New Religious Movements and ViolenceViolence• Suspicion of New Religious Movements is related to Suspicion of New Religious Movements is related to

some high-profile instances of violence, including:some high-profile instances of violence, including:– In 1978, 918 members of the People’s Temple, a In 1978, 918 members of the People’s Temple, a

communist-influenced NRM, committed mass communist-influenced NRM, committed mass “revolutionary suicide” at Jonestown, Guyana“revolutionary suicide” at Jonestown, Guyana

– In 1993, 83 members of a millenarian movement called In 1993, 83 members of a millenarian movement called the Branch Davidians were killed in a fire when the FBI the Branch Davidians were killed in a fire when the FBI besieged their compound in Waco, Texas, believing the besieged their compound in Waco, Texas, believing the Branch Davidians had weaponsBranch Davidians had weapons

– In 1995, members of the Japanese NRM Aum Shinrikyo In 1995, members of the Japanese NRM Aum Shinrikyo released nerve gas at a Tokyo subway station, killing 13 released nerve gas at a Tokyo subway station, killing 13 people and seriously injuring many morepeople and seriously injuring many more

– In 1997, 39 members of the UFO religion Heaven’s Gate In 1997, 39 members of the UFO religion Heaven’s Gate committed suicide, believing their souls would be taken to committed suicide, believing their souls would be taken to a spaceship hiding behind the Hale-Bopp Cometa spaceship hiding behind the Hale-Bopp Comet

Anti-Cult MovementsAnti-Cult Movements

• Around the world, NRMs are often viewed with suspicion, Around the world, NRMs are often viewed with suspicion, and are sometimes persecuted by state authoritiesand are sometimes persecuted by state authorities– This may occur in states with official or unofficial state This may occur in states with official or unofficial state

religions, like Iran or Russia, or in secular or atheistic statesreligions, like Iran or Russia, or in secular or atheistic states• Non-state organizations may also persecute NRMsNon-state organizations may also persecute NRMs

– In the United States in the 1970s an 1980s, widespread fear of In the United States in the 1970s an 1980s, widespread fear of NRMs using “brainwashing” techniques to control the minds of NRMs using “brainwashing” techniques to control the minds of their followers led the “anti-cult” movement to hire special their followers led the “anti-cult” movement to hire special agents to capture and “deprogram” members of NRMsagents to capture and “deprogram” members of NRMs

• Most scholars argue that the indoctrination techniques used by Most scholars argue that the indoctrination techniques used by NRMs are not fundamentally different than those used by other NRMs are not fundamentally different than those used by other religious, political, and cultural groupsreligious, political, and cultural groups

• Some organizations that used coercive deprogramming techniques Some organizations that used coercive deprogramming techniques have been sued; the practice is rare todayhave been sued; the practice is rare today