Neptic Prayer in Early Medieval Monasticism: the

Byzantine Ascetic Theme of Watchfulness in

the Rule of Benedict

By Daniel VanderKolk

A paper submitted for the 2015 Medieval Congress at Western

Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan

May 14th, 2015

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This paper endeavors to answerin partthe following question: what does it mean to be a hesychast? Scholars traditionally defined 'hesychasm' as a subcategory of Byzantine monastic

life, particularly embodied by the figure Gregory Palamas.

In the 20th century, the inheritors of Byzantine Church theologyRussian and Greek

intellectualsin the context of the "in-between"1 of the diaspora2 began to over emphasize the

differences between "their Eastern Church" and "those Western churches". In many ways this

reactionary, opposing self-definition has prevented fruitful cross-pollination from resulting out of

the interaction of fundamentally exotic Eastern insights amidst the self-critical intellectual

currents of the West.

One such example is the tremendous influx of Eastern Christian-Byzantine and Slavic-

spiritual literature into the West during the past century. These works date from as far back as the

late antique period and as recently as the late medieval and early modern periods3. In large part

they have fallen into Western hands as a result of mainly Catholic scholarly interactions with

Russian Orthodox intellectuals during the inter-war period of the early 20th century.

Unfortunately, these works have been introduced amidst an east-west dichotomy originating

from authors such as Lossky. Now, at the urging of such scholars as Byzantinist John McGuckin,

I believe it is time to begin carefully reappraising "Western" mysticism in the light of "Eastern"

mysticism to truly see if a fundamental difference exists.

I desire to determine whether or not hesychasm has been too narrowly conceived of as a

specialized Late Byzantine monastic practice when in reality it is a comprehensive activity. An 1 See Louth, "Theology of In-between". 2 Russians intellectuals fleeing the Bolshevik Revolution primarily settled in Paris. The ones of concern to this paper are Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergei Bulgakov, Georges Florovsky, and Vladimir Lossky. The main Greek intellectual of concern is John Zizioulas who began his studies in Greece, continued them in Switzerland and America, then finally ended them in the UK. Zizioulas, in many ways, carried on Florovsky's work and Lossky's work. 3 Such as the Discourses of Dorotheos, the authors of the Philokalia, and Nil of Sora's writings.

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activity prevalent in both the Medieval Western Church and in the Byzantine Eastern Church4.

Although this paper lacks sufficient space to explore this question fully, I will focus on reading

one of the most important properties of hesychasmwatchfulnessin one of the most fundamental

Western, Early Medieval5, communal monastic worksthe Rule of Benedict. A reading which,

to my knowledge, has yet to be conducted.

4 See McGuckin, "On the Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church". See also Appendix V. McGuckin's 2014 Commencement Address at St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, published in the seminary's November, 2014 issue, questions the prevalent claim among Eastern Orthodox scholars that the Byzantine Church was more fundamentally apophatic and mystical than the Western Medieval Church. 5 More accurately Late Antique.

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I. Introduction Watchfulness, a Byzantine Christian monastic concept, known as "" in Greek,

denotes the cleansing of mental sins by continuous inner prayer. In recent decades Eastern

Orthodox theologians have promoted a refined form6 of it. They argue for the concept's location

in the early part of their tradition, claiming that it has continuously resurfaced throughout their

ecclesiastical history, even after periods of relative disuse. Such scholars often cite the 18th

century anthology of Byzantine monastic texts titled The Philokalia to support their claims.

A detailed conception of watchfulness did exist in several prominent authors7, at least by

the seventh century. One of them, the abbot of Sinai's Monastery of the Mother of God8,

Hesychios the Priest, offered an elaborate definition of watchfulness9. The elucidation occurs in

his On Watchfulness and Holiness, a work written for a "Theodoulos"10. In it Hesychios offers

203 chaptersor two centuriesin the unordered style of many monastic works, such as those of

Maximus the Confessor or Evagrius Pontikos. Andrew Louth posits that this style could be due

to the apophatic nature of these authors' theology11. While most of the chapters concern inner

prayer and the guarding of the intellect, cursory theological themes are also treatedsuch as the

interpretation of the Old and New Testaments in light of the spiritual life, discussion of the

nature of various virtues, and pious reflections on liturgical practices.

6 Brianchaninov, On the Prayer of Jesus; Gillet, The Jesus Prayer; Matthewes-Green, The Jesus Prayer; Ware, Praying With the Orthodox Tradition. 7 Climacus, The Ladder of Divine Ascent, pg. 53; Ward, The Desert Fathers, pg. 130. 8 Of the Burning Bush. 9 St Hesychios the Priest, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", Nikodimos, The Philokalia, Vol. 1, pg. 161-185. 10 Greek title: " "; Latin title: "Ad Theodulum". 11 Louth, "Aquinas and Orthodoxy".

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In this work, Hesychios offers three main explanations of watchfulness. The first

definition occurs in Chapter One12. This iteration focuses on the nature, purpose, and results of

the spiritual practice. According to Migne's Greek, in this instance, Hesychios defines

"watchfulness" as a mystical technique that purifies the soul of sinfully inclined13 ""14

and ""15, as well as " ". The LSJ defines "" as "that which is

perceived"16. The noun "" is related to the verb "" which means "to perceive, to

comprehend, to conceive"17. "", in the genitive, according to Lampe, means "a spoken

expression; a word; a statement". "" also has the sense of "reasoning". "" is

defined as "base" by the LSJ.

The Greek syntax, based on the arrangement of the adjectives and nouns, divides the

precursor of a sinful behavioror the premeditation to commit a sinfrom the enacting of the

sinful behavior itself. The impassioned sense observations and the impassioned reasonings

" "are distinct from the base deeds or " ".

Hesychios elaborates on this division in Chapter 11218 where he attributes such significance to it

as to claim that the essence of the New Testament is purification from the precursors of sin while

the essence of the Old Testament is the forbidding of sinful acts or " ".

12 See "Appendix I". 13 Literally " ". 14 "" is the neuter, plural, genitive form of ", , ". 15 "" is the masculine, plural, genitive form of ", , ". 16 In the Online Liddell-Scott-Jones Greek-English Lexicon. 17 See Bradshaw, "Drawing the Mind into the Heart" and "The Mind and the Heart in the Christian East and West" for a philosophical treatise of the heart in Byzantine theology. 18 St Hesychios the Priest, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", Nikodimos, The Philokalia, Vol. 1, pg. 181.

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The second definition of watchfulness, given by Hesychios in Chapter 6, is a more

exacting formulation of the concept. Here "" is laconically explained as a filtering of

thoughts at the bottleneck of the heart, thus preventing the Christian from being demonically

deceived.

The third main definition of watchfulness is offered by Hesychios in Chapters 13-18.

These texts stand somewhat apart from the other 197 in that they function more as a whole than

any other grouping does. While each text in the 203 could stand alone, these six in particular are

meant to be considered together. Still, this passage comes to the reader autonomously, with no

context different than the other chapters. The text immediately preceding this selection proffers a

summary of Christ's incarnation and earthly ministry. The text immediately proceeding this

selection is an exhortation to fill one's time with theological contemplation after a beginning in

the spiritual life has been made. Chapters 13-18 read as follows:

13. I shall now tell you in plain, straightforward language what I consider to be

the types of watchfulness which gradually cleanse the intellect from impassioned

thoughts. In these times of spiritual warfare I have no wish to conceal beneath

words whatever in this treatise may be of use, especially to more simple people.

As St Paul puts it 'Pay attention, my child Timothy, to what you read'.

14. One type of watchfulness consists in closely scrutinizing every mental image

or provocation; for only by means of a mental image can Satan fabricate an evil

thought and insinuate this into the intellect in order to lead it astray.

15. A second type of watchfulness consists in freeing the heart from all thoughts,

keeping it profoundly silent and still, and in praying.

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16. A third type consists in continually and humbly calling upon the Lord Jesus

Christ for help.

17. A fourth type is always to have the thought of death in one's mind.

18. These types of watchfulness, my child, act like doorkeepers and bar entry to

evil thoughts. Elsewhere, if God gives me words, I shall deal more fully with a

further type which, along with the others, is also effective: this is to fix one's gaze

on heaven and to pay no attention to anything material.

These chapters lay down a broad definition of watchfulness that encompasses both the activity of

scrutinizing mental images and the activity of ignoring all thoughts and the activity of unceasing

prayer and the activity of always being mindful of death. Hesychios even considers the constant

mindfulness of the next life at the expense of this one as a form of "". Watchfulness

sometimes takes on such broad properties as to encompass the whole Christian spiritual life.

The Greek term "", which Migne translates into Latin by the term "Temperantia" is

best translated as "sobriety". The noun derives from the verb "" which means "to be sober,

to drink no wine". The verb comes from an adjective "" which means: "unmixed with

wine". Often in antique literature, the noun "" was employed with a sense of "self-

discipline" as a means to attaining some political goal19. It did not mean "keeping clean" in our

modern sense of "sober". We might even label this concept with words like "serious" or "cool-

headed".

19 See Appendix II: Polybius, Histories, Book 16, Section 21, #4; Strabo, Geography, Book 7, Chapter 3, Section 11.

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"Temperantia" is suitably translated as "moderateness, sobriety, discreetness." The noun

comes from the verb "temper20" which means "to observe proper measure, be moderate, restrain

oneself, act temperately". Frequently in the ancient world "temperantia" indicated a sense of

"balance"21. The Latin term "temperantia" seems to more emphasize the idea of balance or

moderation in the concept of watchfulness than the Greek term "" seems to do. However,

rebuttal of evil and good thoughtsan integral component of watchfulnessseems to be an act of

balance or moderation22. This activity is the exercise of allotting due proportion to the mental

situation stimulated by the thought. "Temperantia" accurately emphasizes this property of

watchfulness.

To recapitulate, Hesychios puts forward a broad definition of "". It is a means of

cleansing inner sins of thought and sensation. It is a means of preventing wicked deeds. It is a

guard over the heart, preventing thoughts and sensations from rooting and growing into sinful

behavior. Watchfulness includes several activities: the harsh criticism of every thought and

imagination, the abandonment of all thoughts, unceasing prayer, andfinallythe continuous

meditation upon death, judgment, and afterlife. These activities amount to the inward keeping of

the Gospelkeeping the Ten Commandments with humility of spirit.

20 Temper, temperare, temperv, tempertum. 21 See Appendix II: Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Partitione Oratoria, Chapter 22, Section 76; Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, Chapter 45. 22 See Hesychios, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", pg. 165, for a discussion of "". "" is even alluded to in the sub-title of the Migne, which reads " , ".

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John Cassian, visiting the same monastic milieu as Hesychios, about four centuries

before23, found a similar notion of watchfulness articulated by the ascetic fathers he met24.

Cassian's reception of these teachings particularly concerns this paper because it is primarily

through Cassian's writings that we would suspect the notion of watchfulness to enter Benedict's

Rule25. In Chapter X26 of Cassian's The Second Conference of Abbot Isaac27 we find this

reference to watchfulness:

Wherefore in accordance with that system, which you admirably compared to

teaching children...we must give you also the form of this spiritual contemplation,

on which you may always fix your gaze with the utmost steadiness, and both learn

to consider it to your profit in unbroken continuance, and also manage by practice

of it and by meditation to climb to a still loftier insight. This formula then shall be

proposed to you of this system, which you want, and of prayer, which every monk

in his progress towards continual recollection of God, is accustomed to ponder,

ceaselessly revolving it in his heart, having got rid of all kinds of other thoughts;

for he cannot possibly keep his hold over it unless he has freed himself from all

bodily cares and anxieties. And as this was delivered to us by a few of those who

were left of the oldest fathers, so it is only divulged to us by a very few and to

23 This is quite an approximation because some scholars date Hesychios as far as the Late Byzantine period. 24 See Chadwick, passim; Schaff, pgs. 860-862; and Bury, pg. 525; for studies of Cassian's interaction with the East. 25 Of course, any conception of watchfulness espoused by Benedict of Nursia, with properties shared by Hesychios' notion, are not necessarily due to Cassian, for they could be part of the organic tradition found in Benedict's Italy. See Benedict, Rule, pgs. 145, 229; for references to the importance of Cassian's writings in the Rule of St. Benedict. See the life of Samthann of Clonbroney in Medieval Hagiography, pgs. 97-110, for a reference to unceasing prayer within early medieval western Christianity. See Earle, pgs. 110-114 for the same. 26 Titled "Of the Method of Continual Prayer". 27 Titled "On Prayer".

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those who are really keen. And so for keeping up continual recollection of God

this pious formula is to be ever set before you. 'O God, make speed to save me: O

Lord, make haste to help me,'28

Three properties of this passage parallel those aspects of Hesychios' formulation of watchfulness

considered above. First, an exhortation to pray ceaselessly. Second, a concern for attending to

what thoughts enter the heart. Third, an admonition to fasten one's contemplation onto spiritual

realities29. While Cassian calls it a "system"30 and Hesychios calls it a "method"31 they both

describe the same conceptwatchfulness.

Benedict of Nursia, influenced by Cassian's thought32, evinces a consistent awareness of

the practice of watchfulness throughout his rule. Benedict's conception of watchfulness shares

the properties of continual prayer, attention to the interaction of thoughts with the heart, and

fixation upon spiritual realities of death, judgment, and so forth that Hesychios, Cassian and

many others espouse. While Benedict's espousal lacks the degree of refinement that the Late

Byzantine and Modern Eastern Orthodox ascetical writers profferespecially with respect to the

use of the Jesus Prayernevertheless, Benedict's rendering shares a fellow mindset with them.

Now we shall consider the individual manifestations of watchfulness in Benedict's Rule and

conclude by thinking through the implications of this study.

28 Cassian, "Conferences", pgs. 405. 29 Death, judgment, afterlife, etc. 30 "Disciplinae" in Latin. See Appendix II: Cassiani, "Opera Omnia", pg. 832. 31 "Methodus" in Migne's Latin. See Appendix I: Migne, Vol. 93, pg. 1479. 32 See Schaff, pgs. 216-226; Bury, pgs. 535-542; and Kardong, passim; for studies of Benedict and his Rule. See Helms, "Before the Dawn", pgs. 177-191, for a comparison of the different monastic milieus with regard to their order of services. This study gives light to many social, historical, and theological differences between the Egyptian, Cassian, and Benedictine ascetic communities.

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The strongest effluence of "" in the Regule Beati Benedicti happens in the Seventh

Chapter33. Benedict devotes this portion of his Rule to an elaboration of humility. This chapter

crowns an unofficial opening division of the Rule that is more concerned with the inner practice

of virtue than the remainder of the Rule which attends more to the external organization of the

brotherhood and the interactions of its individual members. Lines 62-66 of Chapter 7 read thus:

The twelfth step of humility is that a monk always show humility to those who

see him, not only in his heart but also with his body, that is, during the work of

God, in the oratory, in the monastery, in the garden, on the road, in the fields, or

anywhere, sitting, walking, or standing, his head should be down, his eyes fixed

on the ground, judging himself guilty of his sins at all times and believing he is

already being presented to the fearsome tribunal, always saying in his heart what

the publican in the Gospel said, eyes fixed on the ground, 'Lord, as a sinner I am

not worthy to lift my eyes to the heavens.' And again with the prophet, 'I am

bowed down and humbled at every moment.'34

This passage encompasses the three main properties of watchfulness shared by Hesychios,

Cassian, and Benedict: the activity of unceasing prayer, the activity of attending to the

movements of the heart and mind, and the activity of contemplating the spiritual realities of

death and judgment and afterlife.

Other strong references to continual prayer within Benedict's Rule occur in Chapter 35,

lines 15-1835; as well as Chapter 18, line 136. These two selections refer to the famous first line of

Psalm 69: "O God be attentive unto helping me, O Lord make haste to help me"a glaring 33 See Stewart, "Manifestations of Thoughts in the Rule of Benedict", for a study on this topic. 34 Benedict, Rule, pgs. 53-57. 35 Ibid, pg. 129. 36 Ibid, pg. 85.

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residue of Cassian's influence. Likewise, references to mindfulness of the spiritual realities of

death, judgment, and afterlife occur throughout the Rule: Chapter Four, lines 44-4937; and

Chapter Seven, lines 10-1338; among others. The references to attending to the thoughts of the

heart are quite extensive.

Several early ascetic authors, including Hesychios in his 27th Chapter On Watchfulness

and Holiness39 interpret Psalm 137:7-9 as a spiritual allegory for the monastic struggle against

sinful thoughts. The verses read:

Remember, O Lord, the children of Edom, in the day of Jerusalem: Who say:

Rase it, rase it, even to the foundation thereof. O daughter of Babylon, miserable:

blessed shall he be who shall repay thee thy payment which thou hast paid us.

Blessed be he that shall take and dash thy little ones against the rock40.

Benedict shares their exegetical sentiment, writing in the prologue to his rule:

It is he who, banishing from his heart's sight the wicked Devil who urges

something on him, has reduced them, along with his counsel, to nothing and has

seized Satan's petty plans and smashed them against Christ.41

Again, in the Fourth Chapter of his Rule:

When wicked thoughts come into your heart, quickly smash them against Christ

and reveal them to a spiritual elder.42

Here we see most clearly the continuity of the Eastern and Western ascetical views of

watchfulness which are spiritually tied to a shared allegorical reading of Psalm 137.

37 Ibid, pg. 35. 38 Ibid, pg. 47. 39 Hesychios, pg. 166. 40 Douay-Rheims. 41 Ibid, pgs. 5-7. 42 Benedict, Rule, pg. 35.

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clearly exists in Benedict's mindset43. With respect to this shared , Benedict is a neptic

father, in line with the authors of the texts included in the Philokalia44.

Having shown the underlying thread of watchfulness in Benedict's Rulethe

quintessential Western Early Medieval monastic workwe should ask: if this predominantly

Byzantine and Eastern monastic practice prevails in such a non-Byzantine and non-Eastern work

as Benedict's Rule, are there then other historically Byzantine and Eastern categories that we

should be reading Western works for? I think so. For example, "Theosis"45, the Eastern Christian

conception of sanctification, which has been seen as a dividing principle between the Eastern and

Western Churches since the Late Byzantine Hesychastic Controversy, is brought up in relation to

a thoroughly Western mysticJulian of Norwichby Justin Jackson at this year's congress in a

paper titled "Julian of Norwich as a Teacher of Deification" within the "Mysticism and

Materiality" Session #409. The medieval studies discipline demands more work like this so that

through the rubble of former east-west dichotomies a deeper understanding of the past might

emerge46.

43 . 44 Indeed, the only possible criticism of this claim is one of degree. Only degree might separate a Benedict from a Hesychios. Even this argument is tenuous because one might reason that Benedict here is toning down his nepsis for a cenobitic audience while someone like Hesychios may be emphasizing his nepsis for an anchoritic audience. 45 See Veniamin, The Orthodox Understanding of Salvation; Christensen, Partakers of the Divine Nature; and Russell, The Doctrine of Deification in the Greek Patristic Tradition. 46 See also Noble, "Ignatian and Hesychast Spirituality: Praying Together", St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Quarterly, pgs. 43-54; Stewart, "Re-thinking the History of Monasticism East and West".

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Appendix I. English, Greek, and Latin Versions of Hesychios' Definitions of Watchfulness

Hesychios the Priest47, in his "On Watchfulness and Holiness", offers three main definitions of watchfulness48. The first definition occurs in Chapter One49:

Watchfulness is a spiritual method which, if sedulously practised over a long period, completely frees us with God's help from impassioned thoughts, impassioned words and evil actions. It leads, in so far as this is possible, to a sure knowledge of the inapprehensible God, and helps us to penetrate the divine and hidden mysteries. It enables us to fulfil every divine commandment in the Old and New Testaments and bestows upon us every blessing of the age to come. It is, in the true sense, purity of heart...once established in us, it guides us to a true and holy way of life. It teaches us how to activate the three aspects of our soul correctly, and how to keep a firm guard over the senses. It promotes the daily growth of the four principal virtues, and is the basis of our contemplation50.

The Migne Greek text reads: , 51 , , , , , . , , , , , . , . , . , , , 52.

The Migne Latin text reads: Temperantia methodus est spiritalis : quae sive cunctetur, sive pergat alacriter, hominem a conceptibus et sermonibus affectionum plenis, ac praviw operibus, opitulante Deo, prorsus liberat. certam etiam de Deo incomprehensibili notitiam largitur, quantum assequi licet: necnon divinorum et occultorum mysteriorum secretam praebet solutionem: suppeditat vires implendi cuncta Dei mandata, tam Veteri quam Novo Testamento comprehensa: et tandem universa bona praestat futuri saeculi. Haec autem proprie est puritas cordis quae quidem propter excellentiam et bonitatem suam, vel (ut magis proprie loquar) ob ignaviam et

47 Abbot of Sinai. 48 "" in Greek or "Temperantia" in Latin. 49 Also known as the first text. 50 St Hesychios the Priest, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", Nikodimos, The Philokalia, Vol. 1, pg. 162. 51 For theological reasons I believe the "" may legitimately be translated as "reasoning" here. 52 , " ", Patrologia cursus completus Graeca, Ed. by J.P. Migne, Vol. 93, pgs. 1480-1481.

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negligentiam nostram, hodie profecto rara est in monachis: quam Christus beatam praedicat, his verbis, Beati mundo corde, quoniam ipsi Deum videbunt. Cum ergo sit ejusmodi, magno redimitur. Temperantia quae perdurat in homine, rectae Deoque placentis vitae dux efficitur: cujus progressus nos edocet, ut juste moveamus speculationem, et triplicem animae facultatem: sensus in tuto conservat: quatuor etiam generales virtutes participio sui auget quotidie53.

The second definition of watchfulness offered by Hesychios occurs in Chapter Six:

Watchfulness is a continual fixing and halting of thought at the entrance to the heart. In this way predatory and murderous thoughts are marked down as they approach and what they say and do is noted; and we can see in what specious and delusive form the demons are trying to deceive the intellect. If we are conscientious in this, we can gain much experience and knowledge of spiritual warfare54.

The Migne Greek text reads: , , , , , , . , , 55.

The Migne Latin text reads: Temperantia est perseverans cogitationum constantia : quando scilicet sistuntur ipsae pro foribus cordis, perspicit et audit illa quid dicant, quidve faciant furtim obrepentes cogitationes exitiales : quaenam etiam sit forma, quae a daemonibus insculpitur et imprimitur : ac per seipsam imaginationibus dissolvere nititur animum. Haec enim diligenter exculta, si velimus, admodum scite nos docent belli intellectualis experientiam56.

The third main definition of watchfulness is offered by Hesychios in Texts 13-18:

13. I shall now tell you in plain, straightforward language what I consider to be the types of watchfulness which gradually cleanse the intellect from impassioned thoughts. In these times of spiritual warfare I have no wish to conceal beneath words whatever in this treatise may be of use, especially to more simple people. As St Paul puts it 'Pay attention, my child Timothy, to what you read'. 14. One type of watchfulness consists in closely scrutinizing every mental image or provocation; for only by means of a mental image can Satan fabricate an evil thought and insinuate this into the intellect in order to lead it astray. 15. A second type of watchfulness consists in freeing the heart from all thoughts, keeping it profoundly silent and still, and in praying.

53 Ibid, 1479-1482. 54 St Hesychios the Priest, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", Nikodimos, The Philokalia, Vol. 1, pg. 163. 55 , " ", Patrologia cursus completus Graeca, Ed. by J.P. Migne, Vol. 93, pgs. 1481-1484. 56 , " ", Patrologia cursus completus Graeca, Ed. by J.P. Migne, Vol. 93, pgs. 1482-1483.

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16. A third type consists in continually and humbly calling upon the Lord Jesus Christ for help. 17. A fourth type is always to have the thought of death in one's mind. 18. These types of watchfulness, my child, act like doorkeepers and bar entry to evil thoughts. Elsewhere, if God gives me words, I shall deal more fully with a further type which, along with the others, is also effective: this is to fix one's gaze on heaven and to pay no attention to anything material57.

The Migne Greek text reads: 13. , , , , , . , , 14. , , , , . 15. , , . 16. , . 17. , , . 18. , , . , , , 58.

The Migne Latin text reads: 13. Quot autem, mea sententia, sint modi mentis expurgandae paulatim cogitationibus affectuum plenis, ut perveniatur ad temperantiam, jam indicare tibi non dubitabo, sermone haudquamquam ornato aut vario. Non enim, ut in historia bellica, statui hac oratione sub verborum lenociniis utilitatem occultare, et maxime simplicioribus. Tu vero, fili Theodule, attende animum his quae legis. 14. Unus ergo modus temperantiae comparandae est, ut imaginationem crebro perpendamus, objectionem videlicet : eo quod absque imaginatione Satanas nequeat moliri cogitationes, aut fallendi gratia, menti proponere mendacia. 15. Alter vero, ut in profundo per omnia silentio, et quiete omni sermone vacua, demersum habeamus animum, ac precemur. 16. Alius, ut cum humilitate Jesum in auxilium centinenter invocemus. 17. Quartus autem modus est, ut continuam in animo habeamus mortis memoriam. 18. Universae operationes ejusmodi, charissime, more janitorum arcere solent pravas conceptiones. Quanti vero sit momenti, coelum intueri, et nihili facere

57 St Hesychios the Priest, "On Watchfulness and Holiness", Nikodimos, The Philokalia, Vol. 1, pg. 164-165. 58 , " ", Patrologia cursus completus Graeca, Ed. by J.P. Migne, Vol. 93, pg. 1485.

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terram, una cum reliquis, Deo donante facultatem dicendi, alio loco plenius exponam59.

59 , " ", Patrologia cursus completus Graeca, Ed. by J.P. Migne, Vol. 93, pgs. 1486.

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Appendix II. Classical Uses of "" and "Temperantia" , , : "sobriety".

First example, from Polybius' Histories, Book 16, Section 21, sentence 4: o "but as for dealing with complicated questions of policy a thing which requires

application and sobriety and as for the charge of money and in general all that concerned financial profit no one was more poorly endowed;"

o , , , ."

Second example, from Strabo's Geography, Book 7, chapter 3, section 11: o "Boerebistas a Getan, on setting himself in authority over the tribe, restored the

people, who had been reduced to an evil plight by numerous wars, and raised them to such a height through training, sobriety, and obedience to his commands that within only a few years he had established a great empire and subordinated to the Getae most of the neighboring peoples."

o , , , :

temperantia, temperantiae, f. "moderateness, moderation, sobriety, discreetness, temperateness".

First example, M. Tullius Cicero De Partitione Oratoria, chapter 22, section 76: o Quae vero moderandis cupiditatibus regendisque animi motibus laudatur, eius est

munus in agendo; cui temperantiae nomen est. Second example, Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, chapter 45:

o "But I am assured that Metellus, in these difficult circumstances, no less than in his operations against the enemy, proved himself a great and wise man; so just a medium did he observe between an affectation of popularity and an excessive enforcement of discipline."

o sed in ea difficultate Metellum non minus quam in rebus hostilibus magnum et sapientem virum fuisse comperior: tanta temperantia inter ambitionem saevitiamque moderatum.

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Appendix III. Full Text of Selection of John Cassian on Psalm 69:260

In Chapter X61 of Cassian's The Second Conference of Abbot Isaac62 we find this reference to watchfulness:

Wherefore in accordance with that system, which you admirably compared to teaching children (who can only take in the first lessons on the alphabet and recognize the shapes of the letters, and trace out their characters with a steady hand if they have, by means of some copies and shapes carefully impressed on wax, got accustomed to express their figures, by constantly looking at them and imitating them daily), we must give you also the form of this spiritual contemplation, on which you may always fix your gaze with the utmost steadiness, and both learn to consider it to your profit in unbroken continuance, and also manage by practice of it and by meditation to climb to a still loftier insight. This formula then shall be proposed to you of this system, which you want, and of prayer, which every monk in his progress towards continual recollection of God, is accustomed to ponder, ceaselessly revolving it in his heart, having got rid of all kinds of other thoughts; for he cannot possibly keep his hold over it unless he has freed himself from all bodily cares and anxieties. And as this was delivered to us by a few of those who were left of the oldest fathers, so it is only divulged to us by a very few and to those who are really keen. And so for keeping up continual recollection of God this pious formula is to be ever set before you. 'O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me,' [Translator's note: "Ps. lxix (lxx.) 2. It is not improbable that this chapter suggested to S. Benedict the use of these words as the opening versicle of the hour services, a position which it has ever since occupied in the West. See the Rule of Benedict, cc. ix, xvii., and xviii."] for this verse has not unreasonably been picked out from the whole of Scripture for this purpose. For it embraces all the feelings which can be implanted in human nature, and can be fitly and satisfactorily adapted to every condition and all assaults. Since it contains an invocation of God against every danger, it contains humble and pious confession, it contains the watchfulness of anxiety and continual fear, it contains the thought of one's own weakness, confidence in the answer, and the assurance of a present and ever ready help.63

The Migne Latin of the middle paragraph given above: Haec igitur vobis hujus quam disciplinae atque orationis formula proponitur, quam unusquisque monachus ad jugem Dei memoriam tendens incessabili cordis volutatione meditari, expulsa omnium cogitationum varietate, consuescat, quia nec alias eam ullo modo poterit retentarie, nisi ab omnibus fuerit corporalibus curis ac sollicitudinibus absolutus. Quae sicut nobis a paucis, qui antiquissimorum patrum residui erant, tradita est, ita a nobis quoque non nisi rarissimis ac vere sitientibus intimatur. Erit itaque ad perpetuam Dei memoriam possidendam, haec

60 According to the Septuagint numbering. 61 Titled "Of the Method of Continual Prayer". 62 Titled "On Prayer". 63 Cassian, "Conferences", pgs. 405.

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inseparabiliter proposita vobis formula pietatis: Deus, in adjutorium meum intende; Domine, ad adjuvandum me festina.64

64 Cassiani, "Opera Omnia", pg. 832.

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Appendix IV. Selections Concerning Watchfulness from Benedict's Rule. First Passage English65:

But let us ask the Lord, along with the prophet, saying to him, 'Lord, who will live in your dwelling place and who rests on your holy mountain?' After this question, brothers, let us hear the Lord in reply, showing us the way to his dwelling place, saying, 'It is he who goes along without fault and works for justice, who speaks the truth in his heart and has practiced no deceit with his tongue, who has done his neighbor no harm and has believed no slander against his neighbor.' It is he who, banishing from his heart's sight the wicked Devil who urges something on him, has reduced them, along with his counsel, to nothing and has seized Satan's petty plans and smashed them against Christ.

Latin66: Sed interrogemus cum prophaeta Dominum dicentes ei: Domine, quis habitavit in tavernaculo tuo aut quis requiescit in monte sancto tuo [Ps. 14/15:1]? Post hanc interrogationem, fratres, audiamus Dominum respondentem et ostendentem nobis viam ipsius tabernaculi, dicens, Qui ingreditur sine macula et operatur iustitiam, qui loquitur veritatem in corde suo, qui non egit dolum in lingua sua, qui non fecit proximo suum [Ps. 14/15:2-3], qui malignum diabolum aliqua suadentem sibi cum ipsa suasione sua a conspectibus cordis sui respuens, deduxit ad nihilum et parvulos cogitatos eius tenuit et adlisit ad Christum;

Second Passage English67:

It is clear there are four kinds of monks. First are the cenobites, those in a monastery serving under a rule and an abbot. The second kind are anchorites, this is, hermits, those no longer fresh in the fervor of monastic life but long tested in a monastery, who have learned, by now schooled with the help of many, to fight against the Devil. Well trained among a band of brothers for single combat in the desert, by now confident even without another's encouragement, they are ready, with God's help, to fight the vices of body and mind with hand and arm alone.

Latin68: Monachorum quattuor esse genera manifestum est. Primum coenovitarum, hoc est monasteriale militans sub regula vel abbate. Deinde secundum genus est anachoritarum, id est heremitarum, horum qui non conversationis fervore novicio sed monasterii probatione diuturna, qui didicerunt contra diabolum multorum solacio iam docti pugnare. Et bene extructi fraterna ex acie ad singularem pugnam heremi, securi iam sine consolatione alterius, sola manu vel brachio contra vitia carnis vel cogitationum, Deo auxiliante, pugnare sufficiunt.

Third Passage 65 Benedict, Rule, pg. 5, 7. 66 Ibid, pg. 4, 6. 67 Ibid, pg. 17. 68 Ibid, pg. 16.

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English69: Do not give in to anger, or waste time holding a grudge. Keep no deceit in your heart, nor give false peace, nor abandon charity.

Latin70: Iram non perficere, iracundiae tempus non reservare. Dolum in corde non tenere, pacem falsam non dare.

Fourth Passage English71:

Fear the Day of Judgment, dread hell, crave eternal life with every spiritual desire. Keep the prospect of death before your eyes every day. Keep watch over everything you do, all the time, in the certain knowledge that God watches everywhere. When wicked thoughts come into your heart, quickly smash them against Christ and reveal them to a spiritual elder... Listen to holy readings gladly, incline to prayer often, confess past sins to God in prayer daily, with tears and sighing, and amend those sins in the future.

Latin72: Diem iudicii timere, gehennam expavescere, vitame aeternam omni concupiscentia spiritali desiderare. Mortem cottidiae ante oculos suspectam habere. Actus vitae suae omni hor custodire, in omni loco Deum se respicere pro certo scire. Cogitationes malas cordi suo advenientes mox ad Christum allidere et seniori spiritali patefacere... Lectiones sanctas liventer audire, orationi frequenter incumbere, mala sua praeterita cum lacrimis vel gemitu cottidiae in oratione Deo confiteri, de ipsis malis de cetero aemendare.

Fifth Passage English73:

For if a disciple obeys in bad spirit and grumbles not only in words but even in his heart, although he carries out the order, then it will nevertheless not be acceptable to God, who sees his grumbling heart. And for such a deed the disciple will get no thanks, but instead incur the punishment for grumblers if he does not make amends satisfactorily.

Latin74: Nam cum malo animo si oboedit discipulus et non solum ore sed etiam in corde si murmuraverit, etiam si impleat iussionem, tamen acceptum iam non erit Deo qui cor eius respicit murmurantem. Et pro tali facto nullam consequitur gratiam, immo poenam murmurantium incurrit, si non cum satisfactione emendaverit.

Sixth Passage 69 Ibid, pg. 33. 70 Ibid, pg. 32. 71 Ibid, pg. 35. 72 Ibid, pg. 34. 73 Ibid, pg. 41. 74 Ibid, pg. 40.

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English75: The first step of humility, therefore, is that, placing the fear of God before his eyes at all times, one should altogether shun forgetfulness and always remember everything God commanded so that he always turns over in his mind both how hell burns those who scorn God for their sins and the eternal life prepared for those who fear God. Guarding himself at all times from sins and vices, those of thought, the tongue, the hands, the feet, and of his own will, but also the desires of the flesh, let him consider that he is always observed by God from heaven at all times and that his actions everywhere are seen by the divine gaze and reported by angels at all times. Pointing this out to us when he shows that God is always innards' and again, 'God knows men's thoughts' and again he says, 'You knew my thoughts from afar,' and 'the thought of man will profess you.' In order to be vigilant about his own bad thoughts, the good brother should always say in his heart, 'Then I will be pure before him, if I keep myself from my own wickedness.'

Latin76: Primus itaque humilitatis gradus est, si timorem Dei sibi ante oculos semper ponens, oblivionem omnino fugiat et semper sit memor omnia quae praecepit Deus ut qualiter et contemnentes Deum gehenna de peccatis incendat et vita aeterna quae timentibus Deum praeparata est animo suo semper evolbat. Et custodiens se omni hora a peccatis et vitiis, id est cogitationum, linguae, manuum, pedum vel voluntatis propriae, sed et desideria carnis, aestimet se homo de caelis a Deo semper respici omni hora et facta sua omni loco ab aspectu divinitatis videri et ab angelis omni hor renuntiari. Demonstrans nobis hoc propheta, cum in cogitationibus nostris ita Deum semper praesentem ostendit, dicens: Scrutans corda et renes Deus [Ps. 7:10] et item: Dominus novit cogitationes hominum [Ps. 93/94:11] et item dicit: Intellexisti cogitationes meas a longe [Ps. 138/139:3] et quia cogitatio hominis confitebitur tibi [Ps. 75/76:11]. Nam ut sollicitus sit circa cogitationes suas perversas, dicat semper utilis frater in corde suo: Tunc ero inmaculatus coram eo si observavero me ab iniquitate mea [Ps. 17/18:24].

Seventh Passage English77:

The fifth step of humility is that in humble confession one reveals to his abbot any wicked thoughts entering into his heart and any wickedness done in secret. Scripture exhorts us in this matter, saying, 'Show the Lord your path and hope in him.' And again, 'Confess to the Lord, for he is good and his mercy is forever.' And again the prophet: 'I made my sin known to you and I did not conceal my unjust deeds. I said, I will accuse myself of my unjust deeds before the Lord and you forgave the sin of my heart.'

Latin78: Quintus humilitatis gradus est si omnes cogitationes malas cordi suo advenientes vel mala a se absconse conmissa per humilem confessionem abbatem non

75 Ibid, pg. 47. 76 Ibid, pg. 46. 77 Ibid, pg. 51. 78 Ibid, pg. 50.

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celaverit suum. Hortans nos de hac re scriptura dicens: Revela ad Dominum viam tuam et spera in eum [Ps. 36/37:5]. Et item dicit: Confitemini Domino quoniam bonus, quoniam in saeculum misericordia eius [Ps. 105/106:1]. Et item propheta: Delictum meum cognitum tibi feci et iniustias meas non operui. Dixi, Pronuntiabo adversum me iniustitias meas Domino et tu remisisti impietatem cordis mei [Ps. 31/32:5].

Eighth Passage English79:

The seventh step of humility is that he should not only accuse himself with his own tongue of being lower and more worthless than all others, but also believe it from the bottom of his heart, humbling himself and saying with the prophet, 'I am a worm, not a man, a disgrace to men and despicable to the people.'... The twelfth step of humility is that a monk always show humility to those who see him, not only in his heart but also with his body, that is, during the work of God, in the oratory, in the monastery, in the garden, on the road, in the fields, or anywhere, sitting, walking, or standing, his head should be bowed down, his eyes fixed on the ground, judging himself guilty of his sins at all times and believing he is already being presented to the fearsome tribunal, always saying in his heart what the publican in the Gospel said, eyes fixed on the ground, 'Lord, as a sinner I am not worthy to lift my eyes to the heavens.'

Latin80: Septimus humilitatis gradus est si omnibus se inferiorem et viliorem non solum sua lingua pronuntiet sed etiam intimo cordis credat affectu, humilians se et dicens cum propheta: Ego autem sum vermis et non homo, obprobrium hominum et abiectio plebis [Ps. 21/22:7]... Duodecimus humilitatis gradus est si non solum corde monachus sed etiam ipso corpore humilitatem videntibus se semper indicet, id est in opere Dei, in oratorio, in monasterio, in horto, in via, in agro, vel ubicumque; sedens, ambulans, vel stans, inclinato sit semper capite, defixis in terram aspectibus, reum se omnia hora de peccatis suis aestimans, iam se tremendo iudicio representari aestimet, dicens sibi in corde semper illud quod publicanus ille evangelicus fixis in terram oculis dixit, Domine, non sum dignus, ego peccator, lebare oculos meos ad caelos.

Ninth Passage

English81: [Chapter 18: The Order in Which Psalms Should Be Said] First should be said the verse Deus, in adiutorium meum intende; Domine, ad adiubandum me festina [O God be attentive unto helping me; O Lord make haste to help me.], the Gloria, and then the hymn for each hour.

Latin82: 79 Ibid, pg. 53. 80 Ibid, pg. 52. 81 Ibid, pg. 85. 82 Ibid, pg. 84.

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XVIII Quo Ordine Ipsi Psalmi Dicendi Sunt In primis dicatur versu Deus, in adiutorium meum intende; Domine, ad adiubandum me festina, Gloria, inde hymnum uniuscuiusque horae.

Tenth Passage English83:

Those starting and ending weekly service should prostrate themselves at the knees of all the brothers, in the oratory, as soon as Sunday Matins is finished, asking for their prayers. The one ending his week's duty should say this verse: 'You are blessed, Lord God, who aided me and comforted me,' and when this has been said three times, he should receive a blessing when departing; the one entering into service should immediately say, 'God, come to my aid; Lord, hasten to help me' and this verse too should be repeated three times by everyone, and he should begin his duties after receiving a blessing.

Latin84: Intrantes et exeuntes ebdomadarii in oratorio mox matutinis finitis dominica omnibus genibus provolbantur postulantes pro se orari. Egrediens autem de septimana dicat hunc versum: Benedictus es, Domine Deus, qui adiubasti me et consolatus es me [Dan 3:52; Ps. 85/86:17], quo dicto tertio accepta benedictione egrediens, subsequatur ingrediens et dicat: Deus in adiutorium meum intende; Domine ad adiubandum me festina [Ps. 69/70:2] et hoc idem tertio repetatur ab omnibus et accepta benedictione ingrediatur.

83 Ibid, pg. 129. 84 Ibid, pg. 128.

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Appendix V. John McGuckin on Modern Orthodox Polarized Theological Views of

Ecclesiology85 Another criticism one might raise is the extent of the flaws in the implicit ecumenical apologetic Vladimir Lossky is stating in this seminal book. Put crudely, this condenses into how the falling away of the personalist trinitarianism of the western church is eventually manifested in its divorce between the ecclesial dogmatic tradition (formalist) and its separate mystical tradition (more personalist but becoming excessively individualistic). This happens, he argues, because the dogmatic tradition is not a merely formalist thing among Christians, but inevitably manifests the core spiritual tendencies of a person. Only Orthodoxy, Lossky argued, can sustain an authentic personalism which is not individualistic but communal in so far as it is a mystical ecclesial communion. Now this, in many ways, makes sense as an ide maitresse; but it depends for it sustenance as a cognitive thesis on a rather blanket view of the western mystics as being excessively personalistic. If one did make a global review (which Lossky does not) of the mystical tradition of the West, would it be all that divergent in spiritual ethos? Were the western mystics (distinctive personalities though they surely were) all that individualistic and un-ecclesial? In setting out this thesis has not Lossky unconsciously fallen into that very type of Bergsonian polarization that he attacks in his opening pages? For surely the Western church was able enough to receive or dismiss any theological voice from its larger sense of the Tradition: knowing well enough the significant differentiae between a St. John of the Cross and a Nicholas of Cusa. Lossky argues that the western mystical tradition is almost exclusively Christocentric and neglectful of the Trinitarian reality of God. But the mystics of the West, so it seems to me, are a long way removed from solipsism in their spirituality. There are undoubtedly different foci and stresses to the Orthodox ascetical fathers: but throughout the spirituality of the West runs a profound focus on the Cross and its redemptive power: and that cannot be simply reduced to a Christological focus deprived of Trinitarian perspective.

85 McGuckin, "On the Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church".

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