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Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b Narrative Theory – G325

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Adapted from various websites. Includes basics on Propp, Bordwell, Todorov, Barthes.Suitable for preparation for OCR A2 G325 Question 1b revision.I do not own the copyright for the 'Mighty Boosh' image.

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Mr Smith Narrative Question 1b

Narrative Theory – G325

A Journey Through Time And Space

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In the beginning...It’s important to realise that there is a distinction between a ‘story’ and a ‘narrative’. A "Story is the irreducible substance of a story (A meets B, something happens, order returns), while narrative is the way the story is related (Once upon a time there was a princess...)" (Key Concepts in Communication - Fiske et al (1983))

We tend to associate narrative with ‘books’, yet all texts have a narrative. What must be noted however is that these narratives are constructed differently; the most obvious difference is simply in the way we are told the story. Thus a book has a ‘storyteller’, be it a character in the novel or a narrator (the author?) who not only tells us of what is going on but who can also tell us why certain things happen. The reader very quickly adapts to and understands the way the story is told, and soon gets involved with the story and the characters within it. This process is an acceptable part of the nature of reading — we settle into a book. The first few chapters are frequently just setting the scene. We re-read sections we do not quite understand at first. We might even discuss the opening with someone who has already read the book.

Naturally we cannot do these things in the cinema —if we attempted to the audience would soon call for the manager. Thus the opening section of a film takes on considerable significance:

it must stimulate our curiosity, it must present us with characters we are interested, in it must start off a recognisable narrative.

It may seem obvious but the ‘reality’ of your media text is not ‘reality’, a meaning or moral/message is far easier to determine from a media text than ‘real life’. What the exam may ask you to do is evaluate ‘the way your narrative is related’ to an audience. This will require you to identify and evaluate the various narrative codes which are employed in your ‘text’.

When ‘reading’ a media text we have expectations of form, a foreknowledge of how that text will be constructed. Media texts can also be fictional constructs, with elements of prediction and fulfilment which are not present in reality. The basic elements of a narrative, according to Aristotle:

"...the most important is the plot, the ordering of the incidents; for tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life" (Poetics – Aristotle (Penguin Edition) p39-40 4th century BC )

Successful stories require actions which change the lives of the characters in the story. Traditionally they also contain some sort of resolution, where that change is registered, and which creates a new equilibrium for the characters involved. Remember that narratives are not just those we encounter in fiction. Even news stories, advertisements and documentaries also have a constructed narrative which must be interpreted.

Task 1

On the pages overleaf, create a timeline of your ‘narrative’; you will need to refer back to this constantly so make it large and neat. Try and structure it traditionally (beginning, middle,

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end) making sure to include all major ‘actions’. You may find it useful to use ‘screen grabs’ of your text

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Task 2

Below is a series of film pitches which I took to ‘Universal Studios’, for some reason they weren’t interested but told me to come back at the end of the week with alterations and they’d pay me $50m! In your pairs select one ‘narrative’ and make improvements to my narrative.

1. ‘Love Story’. A man meets a woman and they fall in love. They get married and have two children. Everybody lives happily ever after.

2. ‘Crime Story’. A gang of criminals rob a bank. They shoot a young woman and kill her during the robbery. Her husband is a policeman and starts to track them down. However, he fails and they escape, going on to live happily ever after.

3. ‘Murder Story’. A man says he is going to kill his enemy. He does, and he lives happily ever after.

4. ‘Action Story’. A young, beautiful woman is kidnapped by a criminal who holds her for ransom. Her handsome, brave husband tries to rescue her. However, it takes a long time and he gets bored. He gives up. Meanwhile, the criminal gang feels guilty and let her go. She decides to become a criminal and kills some people.

You need to create a PowerPoint or something similar which includes:

The film’s title

A Trailer (you can make this by splicing film stills or photo’s together on movie maker)

Actors (who will be staring in your/my film)

Settings/locations (where will the film be set, think countries, cities, buildings etc)

Examples from pre-existing texts (show examples of similar texts so I know the audience will have expectations of the narrative)

Named director (who will be directing this masterpiece)

Music (which artists and composers will be used in this project)

Release dates etc.

You have two lessons to complete this.

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Narrative Conventions

When unpacking a narrative in order to find its meaning, there are a series of codes and conventions that need to be considered. When we look at a narrative we examine the

conventions of

Genre Character Form Time

and use knowledge of these conventions to help us interpret the text. In particular, Time is something that we understand as a convention - narratives do not take place in real time but may telescope out (the slow motion shot which replays a winning goal) or in (an 80 year life can be condensed into a two hour biopic). Therefore we consider "the time of the thing told and the time of the telling." (Christian Metz Notes Towards A Phenomenology of Narrative).

It is only because we are used to reading narratives from a very early age, and are able to compare texts with others that we understand these conventions. A narrative in its most basic sense is a series of events, but in order to construct meaning from the narrative those events must be linked somehow.

Roland Barthes

Roland Barthes describes a text as

"a galaxy of signifiers, not a structure of signifieds; it has no beginning; it is reversible; we gain access to it by several entrances, none of which can be authoritatively declared to be the main one; the codes it mobilizes extend as far as the eye can read, they are indeterminable...the systems of meaning can take over this absolutely plural text, but their number is never closed, based as it is on the infinity of language..." (S/Z - 1974 translation)

We have already covered Barthes in the course. Use your notes from earlier lessons to complete the following definitions

An open text is one which...

A closed text is one which...

The text I have created is because

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Roland Barthes narrative codes.

The Enigma code is

The Action code is

These first codes are reliant on ‘time’, they only work if you read a book or view a film temporally from beginning to end. Barthes at one point aligns these two codes with "the same tonal determination that melody and harmony have in classical music". A traditional, "readerly" text tends to be especially "dependent on [these] two sequential codes: the revelation of truth and the coordination of the actions represented: there is the same constraint in the gradual order of melody and in the equally gradual order of the narrative sequence". The next three codes tend to work "outside the constraints of time" and are, therefore, more properly reversible, which is to say that there is no necessary reason to read the instances of these codes in chronological order to make sense of them in the narrative.

The cultural code is

The symbolic code is

The semantic code

Task 3

Using the timeline created for task 1, annotate your time line with examples of these codes.

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Tzvetan TodorovThe classical narrative

Read the definitions below and then label your timeline with the appropriate definitions

Equilibrium – The normal (norm) state at the beginning of the text. Any opposing forces are in balance.

Dis-equalibrium – An action or conflict introduced into the narrative.

New Equalibrium – The conflict is resolved and the narrative strands are tied together.

If you are struggling to do this then you need to consider what elements might be lacking from your text and what impact this might have on your audience.

Vladmir Propp – The Morphology of the Folk TalePropp believed that there were just 8 character roles in a narrative, in addition to this he believed there were 31 predictable functions within the narrative. Before you read and apply the following to your own text it is important to know some criticism of Propp. One of the major criticismsput forward by Barthes was that by simply focusing on the building blocks (denotation) of narrative he completely overlooks the meaning (connotation). David Bordwell focussed on the fact that a historical study of the Russian ‘oral’ folktale is unsuitable for the modern medium which is based on 19th century literature and theatre which is more interested in capitalism than passing on ‘wonder tales’.

Character Roles

1. The villain — struggles against the hero.

2. The donor — prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object.

3. The (magical) helper — helps the hero in the quest.

4. The princess and her father — gives the task to the hero, identifies the false hero,

marries the hero, often sought for during the narrative. Propp noted that functionally,

the princess and the father cannot be clearly distinguished.

5. The dispatcher — character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off.

6. The hero or victim/seeker hero — reacts to the donor, weds the princess.

7. [False hero] — takes credit for the hero’s actions or tries to marry the princess.

Task

Try where possible to apply these roles to elements of your narrative. By doing this you might notice some of the flaws in this theoretical approach.

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31 Narrative Functions

After the initial situation is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions:[3]

1. ABSENTATION: A member of a family leaves the security of the home environment for some

reason. This may be the hero or perhaps it’s some other member of the family that the hero

will later need to rescue. This division of the cohesive family injects initial tension into the

storyline. The hero may also be introduced here, often being shown as an ordinary person.

This allows the reader of the story to associate with the hero as being 'like me'.

2. INTERDICTION: An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'don't do this')The

hero is warned against some action (given an 'interdiction'). A warning to the hero is also a

warning to the reader about the dangers of life. Will the hero heed the warning? Would the

reader? Perhaps the reader hopes the hero will ignore the warning, giving a vicarious

adventure without the danger.

3. VIOLATION of INTERDICTION: The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale). The hero

ignores the interdiction (warning not to do something) and goes ahead. This generally proves

to be a bad move and the villain enters the story, although not necessarily confronting the

hero. Perhaps they are just a lurking presence or perhaps they attack the family whilst the

hero is away. This acts to further increase tension. We may want to shout at the hero 'don't

do it!' But the hero cannot hear us and does it anyway.

4. RECONNAISSANCE: The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to

find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim questions the villain). The villain (often in

disguise) makes an active attempt at seeking information, for example searching for

something valuable or trying to actively capture someone. They may speak with a member of

the family who innocently divulges information. They may also seek to meet the hero,

perhaps knowing already the hero is special in some way. The introduction of the villain adds

early tension to the story, particularly when they are found close to the previously-supposedly

safe family or community environment. The eloquence or power of the villain may also add

tension and we may want to shout at their targets to take care.

5. DELIVERY: The villain gains information about the victim. The villain's seeking now pays off

and he or she now acquires some form of information, often about the hero or victim. Other

information can be gained, for example about a map or treasure location or the intent of the

'good guys'. This is a down point in the story as the pendulum of luck swings towards the

villain, creating fear and anticipation that the villain will overcome the hero and the story will

end in tragedy.

6. TRICKERY: The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's

belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim). The villain now

presses further, often using the information gained in seeking to deceive the hero or victim in

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some way, perhaps appearing in disguise. This may include capture of the victim, getting the

hero to give the villain something or persuading them that the villain is actually a friend and

thereby gaining collaboration. Deception and the betrayal of trust is one of the worst social

crimes, short of physical abuse. This action cements the position of the villain as clearly bad.

It also raises the tension further as we fear for the hero or victim who is being deceived.

7. COMPLICITY: Victim taken in by deception, unwittingly helping the enemy. The trickery of the

villain now works and the hero or victim naively acts in a way that helps the villain in some

way. This may range from providing the villain with something (perhaps a map or magical

weapon) to actively working against good people (perhaps the villain has persuaded the hero

that these other people are actually bad). We now despair as the hero or victim acts in a way

that may be seen as villainous. Perhaps we worry that the hero will fall permanently into the

thrall of the villain. Perhaps they will become corrupted and evil also. We also fear for the

reputation of the hero who may be perceived as evil and thus never find the true treasure or

win the hand of the princess.

8. VILLAINY and LACK: Villain causes harm/injury to family member (by abduction, theft of

magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels

someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, comits murder, imprisons/detains

someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of

family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc). There are two parts to this

stage, either or both of which may appear in the story. In the first stage, the villain causes

some kind of harm, for example carrying away a victim or the desired magical object (which

must be then be retrieved). In the second stage, a sense of lack is identified, for example in

the hero's family or within a community, whereby something is identified as lost or something

becomes desirable for some reason, for example a magical object that will save people in

some way. 'Lack' is a deep psychoanalytic principle which we first experience when we

realize our individual separation from the world. Lack leads to desire and deep longing and

we look to heroes to satisfy this aching emptiness.

9. MEDIATION: Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/

alternative is that victimized hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment). The hero now

discovers the act of villainy or lack, perhaps finding their family or community devastated or

caught up in a state of anguish and woe. This creates a defining moment in the story as we

wonder what will happen now. Perhaps we do not realize that the hero is the hero, as they

may not yet have demonstrated heroic qualities. We feel the lack in sympathy for the act of

villainy, but the hero may just have arrived on the scene or may be undistinguished from

other grieving family members.

10. BEGINNING COUNTER-ACTION: Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action. The

hero now decides to act in a way that will resolve the lack, for example finding a needed

magical item, rescuing those who are captured or otherwise defeating the villain. This is a

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defining moment for the hero as this is the decision that sets the course of future actions and

by which a previously ordinary person takes on the mantle of heroism. Having made this

decision, acting with integrity means that there is no turning back, for to do so would be to

remove the mantle of heroism and be left only with shame.

11. DEPARTURE: Hero leaves home;

12. FIRST FUNCTION OF THE DONOR: Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the

way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);

13. HERO'S REACTION: Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees

captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against him);

14. RECEIPT OF A MAGICAL AGENT: Hero acquires use of a magical agent (directly

transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, eaten/drunk, help offered

by other characters);

15. GUIDANCE: Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;

16. STRUGGLE: Hero and villain join in direct combat;

17. BRANDING: Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);

18. VICTORY: Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep,

banished);

19. LIQUIDATION: Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken,

slain person revived, captive freed);

20. RETURN: Hero returns;

21. PURSUIT: Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);

22. RESCUE: Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden,

hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);

23. UNRECOGNIZED ARRIVAL: Hero unrecognized, arrives home or in another country;

24. UNFOUNDED CLAIMS: False hero presents unfounded claims;

25. DIFFICULT TASK: Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of

strength/endurance, other tasks);

26. SOLUTION: Task is resolved;

27. RECOGNITION: Hero is recognized (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);

28. EXPOSURE: False hero or villain is exposed;

29. TRANSFIGURATION: Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new

garments etc);

30. PUNISHMENT: Villain is punished;

31. WEDDING: Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).Task

Whilst I do not expect you to memorise all 31functions you MUST identify key functions within your text. Add these to your timeline and explain how these help your narrative to function.

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David Bordwell – Neo-Formalism.Neo-Formalism is a scientific approach to analysing film. Like Propp he believes there are building blocks to narrative, and that there is a profound difference between the story and the narrative.  For example, in a detective story, the murder comes at the beginning of the chain of events, but we find out the details about the murder at the end of the film, not the beginning. Much of neoformalism deals with the idea of 'defamiliarization' which is the general neoformalist term for the basic purpose of art in our lives: to show us familiar objects or concepts in a manner that encourages us to look at them in a new way.

‘We can, in short, study narrative as a process, the activity of selecting, arranging and rendering story material in order to achieve specific time-bound effects on a perceiver. I argue that filmic narration involves two principal formal systems, syuzhet (plot) and style, which cue the spectator to frame hypotheses and draw inferences.”

This scientific approach is based on ‘schemata’ – sorting sensory information into patterns. David Bordwell discusses narrative film with terms borrowed from the Russian Formalists (like Propp). He uses the terms "fabula" and "syuzhet" heavily. The fabula, according to Bordwell, is a pattern which perceivers of narratives create through assumptions and inferences. It is the developing result of picking up narrative cues, applying schemata, framing and testing hypotheses. Ideally, the fabula can be embodied in a verbal synopsis, as general or as detailed as circumstances require. [Bordwell1985].

In other words, fabula comprises the cues and perceptions the viewer receives from the film or story. Fabula can change from viewer to viewer if the work is complex. For instance, your text probably provokes a different fabula for each viewer to a lesser or greater degree depending on the genre.

Syuzhet refers to:

The actual arrangement and presentation of the fabula in the film. It is not the text in total. It is a more abstract construct, the patterning of the story as a blow-by-blow recounting of the film could render it. The syuzhet is a system because it arranges components--the story events and states of affairs--according to specific principles.

Syuzhet, then, is plot--the arrangement of story for the viewer.

Bordwell discusses the relationship of fabula, syuzhet, and style in narrative film. He defines style as the "systematic use of cinematic devices." Bordwell also discusses three principles relating the syuzhet to the fabula: narrative "logic," time and space. Each of these principles, in narrative film, serve to connect the plot (syuzhet) with the viewer's internal perceptions of the diegetic world he or she is forming (fabula). These viewing perceptions function through the film's form (or style).

Task

Using this more complex and scientific vocabulary analyse and explain the syuzhet and fabula of your text. Also make sure to explain the logic, time and space of your narrative.

If you require more space than the page overleaf then use the spare pages at the back of this booklet.

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Criticisms of BordwellAside from the fact that neoformalism is a somewhat ‘cold’ approach to film, your knowledge of ‘postmodernism’ should also have equipped you with the critical capabilities to identify the flaws and gaps in Bordwell’s approach.

Art Cinema requires the viewer to interpret the text, and to interpret it so as to increase ambiguity (enigma codes).

Bill Nichols, a leading academic, raised the following questions.

Do all viewers form the same ‘fabula’?

What about historical, cultural, ideological and class interpretations? Can interpretation remain scientific under these clearly subjective hallmarks?

Narrative style – Composition key termsSubjective treatment. The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the movement is not gradual or smooth.

Objective treatment. The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view' which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.

Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting. An intercut sequence of shots in which the camera; shifts back and forth between one scene and another. Two distinct but related events seem to be happening at approximately the same time. A chase is a good example. Each scene serves as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to dramatic action.

'Invisible editing'. This is the omniscient style of the realist feature films developed in Hollywood. The vast majority of narrative films are now edited in this way. The cuts are intended to be unobtrusive except for special dramatic shots. It supports rather than dominates the narrative: the story and the behaviour of its characters are the centre of attention. The technique gives the impression that the edits are always required are motivated by the events in the 'reality' that the camera is recording rather than the result of a desire to tell a story in a particular way. The 'seamlessness' convinces us of its 'realism', but its devices include:

o the use of matched cuts (rather than jump cuts);o motivated cuts;o changes of shot through camera movement;o long takes;

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o the use of the sound bridge;o parallel development.

The editing isn't really 'invisible', but the conventions have become so familiar to visual literates that they no longer consciously notice them.

Mise-en-scene. (Contrast montage). This is seen as a 'realistic' technique whereby meaning is conveyed through the relationship of things visible within a single shot (rather than, as with montage, the relationship between shots). An attempt is preserve space and time as much as possible; editing or fragmenting of scenes is minimised. Composition is therefore extremely important. The way people stand and move in relation to each other is important. Long shots and long takes are characteristic.

Montage/montage editing. In its broadest meaning, it’s the process of cutting up film and editing it into the screened sequence. However, it may also be used to mean intellectual montage - the juxtaposition of short shots to represent action or ideas - or (especially in Hollywood), simply cutting between shots to condense a series of events. Intellectual montage is used to consciously convey subjective messages through the juxtaposition of shots which are related in composition or movement, through repetition of images, through cutting rhythm, detail or metaphor. Montage editing, unlike invisible editing, uses conspicuous techniques which may include: use of close- ups, relatively frequent cuts, dissolves, superimposition, fades and jump cuts. Such editing should suggest a particular meaning.

Talk to camera. The sight of a person looking ('full face') and talking directly at the camera establishes their authority or 'expert' status with the audience. Only certain people are normally allowed to do this, such as announcers, presenters, newsreaders, weather forecasters, interviewers, anchor-persons, and, on special occasions (e.g. ministerial broadcasts), key public figures. The words of 'ordinary' people are normally mediated by an interviewer. In a play or film talking to camera clearly breaks out of naturalistic conventions (the speaker may seem like an obtrusive narrator). A short sequence of this kind in a 'factual' programme is called a 'piece to camera'.

Tone. The mood or atmosphere of a programme (e.g. ironic, comic, nostalgic, romantic).

Final TaskUse your timeline once again, this time adding in details on when and why you make use of any of the above techniques. Remember to consider the way these elements will impact the ‘fabula’ the audience experiences.