myers’ psychology (6th ed) chapter 1 thinking critically with psychological science james a....
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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(6th Ed)
Chapter 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Critical Thinking thinking that does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusionsexamines assumptionsdiscerns hidden valuesevaluates evidence
Limits of Intuition and Common Sense
Hindsight Bias tendency to believe, after learning an
outcome, that one would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenonOverconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
The Scientific Attitude
Curiosity– a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being mislead
Skeptical, but not cynical (open, but not gullible Willing to question any truth claim, asking for
clarity in definition, consistency in logic, adequacy of evidence “Paul Kurtz”
Humility– ability to reject one’s own ideas
Smart Thinking=Critical Thinking
Research Strategies
Theory an explanation using an integrated
set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis a testable prediction often implied by a theory
Research Strategies
Operational Definition a statement of procedures
(operations) used to define research variables
Example-intelligence may be operationally
defined as what an intelligence test measures
Research Strategies
Replication repeating the essence of a research study to
see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances
usually with different subjects in different situations
Case Study an observation technique in which one
person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Research Strategies
Survey technique for ascertaining the self-
reported attitudes or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative,
random sample of themFalse Consensus Effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Research Strategies
Population all the cases in a group, from which
samples may be drawn for a studyRandom Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Research Strategies
If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them
Research Strategies
Naturalistic Observation observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Research StrategiesCorrelation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = +.37
Research Strategies
Scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables the slope of the points suggests the
direction of the relationship the amount of scatter suggests the
strength of the correlationlittle scatter indicates high correlation
also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
Research Strategies
Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00) Perfect negativecorrelation (-1.00)
Research Strategies
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
55 60 65 70 75 80 85
959085807570656055504540353025
Temperamentscores
Height in inches
Research StrategiesHeight and Temperament of 20 Men
123456789
10
11121314151617181920
80636179746962757760
64767166737063716870
75666090604242608139
48697257637530578439
SubjectHeight in
Inches Temperament SubjectHeight in
Inches Temperament
Research StrategiesThree Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)Distressing events
or biologicalpredisposition
could cause
could cause
could cause
or
or
and
Illusory Correlation
Illusory Correlation the
perception of a relationship where none exists
Conceive Do not conceive
Adopt
Do notadopt
disconfirming evidence
confirming evidence
disconfirming evidence
confirming evidence
Random Sequences
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
Research Strategies
Experiment the investigator manipulates one or more
factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects
by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
Research Strategies
Double-blind Procedure both the subject and the research staff are
ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studiesPlacebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
Research Strategies
Experimental Condition the condition of an experiment that
exposes subjects to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Condition the condition of an experiment that
contrasts with the experimental treatment serves as a comparison for evaluating the
effect of the treatment
Research Strategies
Random Assignment assigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
Research Strategies
Independent Variable the experimental factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable the experimental factor that may change in
response to manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
Research Strategies
Comparing Research MethodsResearch Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing occuring relationships; association, sometimes to assess how well among survey one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent and effect more factors and using variable(s)
random assignmentto eliminate preexistingdifferences among subjects
Research Strategies
Design of the subliminal tapes experiment
Subliminal tape content
Self-esteem Memory
Memory
Self-esteem
Tape label
Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand BrandBrand X Y Z
100%
99
98
97
96
95
Percentagestill functioningafter 10 years
Brand of truck
Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand Brand Brand X Y Z
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentagestill functioningafter 10 years
Brand of truck
Statistical ReasoningMode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mean the arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing
by the number of scoresMedian
the middle score in a distribution half the scores are above it and half are below it
Statistical ReasoningA Skewed Distribution
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 710
70
Mode Median Mean
One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars
Statistical ReasoningRange
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation a computed measure of how much scores
vary around the meanStatistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance