muslim students’ perceptions of prejudice and discrimination in american academia

Muslim Students’ Perceptions of Prejudice and Discrimination in American Academia:Challenges, Issues, and Obstacles and the Implications for Educators, Administrators, and

University Officials

By

Mohamed S. Omeish

B.S., 1989 George Washington UniversityM.A., 1991 George Washington University

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of

The Graduate School of Education and Human Development ofThe George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Education

January 30, 1999

Dissertation Directed by

Dr. Reynolds FerranteDissertation Committee Chairman

COPYRIGHT

BY

MOHAMED SALEM OMEISH

1998

ALL RIGHTS RESEREVED

DEDCATION

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the souls of men and women

who have died for their people’s just causes; to all freedom fighters who are seeking

better tomorrow for their people; to every caller for justice and equality; and to every

believing man and woman

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ABSTRACT

Muslim Students’ Perceptions of Prejudice and Discrimination in American Academia:Challenges, Issues, and Obstacles and the Implications for Educators, Administrators, and

University Officials

The purpose of this research was to (a) study the Muslim students, as a minority

group--a group that no longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of the

prevalent prejudice and discrimination found in the media and elsewhere; (b) investigate

their perceptions of prejudice and discrimination while attending colleges and

universities; (c) explore their satisfaction with their academic experience; (d) determine

the main concerns and issues of Muslim students in academia and the importance of such

issues to them; and (e) provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines

when dealing with this unique group of students.

The researcher selected three predominately white universities in the Washington

metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population (N=237) of the local

participants was drawn. Another sample (N=232) was selected from among the

participants of the MSA in national activities.

The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part consists of

basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous studies

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measuring perceptions of prejudice and discrimination. Parts III and IV, highlighting

issues of concern and importance to Muslim students, were developed by the researcher.

Descriptive statistics (including numbers, percentages, means, standard deviations) as

well as inferential statistics (including one- and two-way ANOVA, independent t-test,

and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were employed to report

demographic data and to answer research questions and hypotheses.

The findings indicate: (a) majority of Muslim students who participated in this

study perceive that prejudice and discrimination is a common phenomena in their

institutions of higher education; (b) majority of Muslim students who participated in the

study were satisfied with their academic and intellectual development at the schools they

attend; and (c) majority of Muslim students attach greater importance to matters of

religious obligations and commitments than to other matters; thus, it is suggested that

administrators, faculty, and university officials at institutions of higher education be

considerate and attentive to the needs and concerns of the growing numbers of Muslim

students in academia.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

B.S., 1989, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USAM.A., 1991 George Washington University, Washington, DC, USAInternational Relief Organization, 1992-1998, Falls Church, Virginia, USA

CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE:

Reynolds Ferrante, Professor of Education

Salvatore Rocco Paratore, Professor of Education

Walter Brown, Assistant Professor of Education

RESEARCH TOOL FIELD COMPLETED: Fall 1992

TIME IN PREPARATION: 1997-1998

COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION PASSED: Spring 1993

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to say that, I owe it first and for most to Allah (God) Almighty for

instilling in me the courage and patience to complete this dissertation. I then owe it to

my family, starting with my parents for their continuing encouragement and persistence

that I continue and complete what I have started. I am also grateful and indebted to my

loving wife, Haifa. Her patience over the past seven years had made the difference in my

persevering to continue the journey. I am also thankful to my brothers and sisters,

especially Samar, for their assistance and support.

I am also grateful to my advisor, Dr. Reynolds Ferrante, for his belief in me and

his continuous support and encouragement. I have enjoyed his advisorship and mentor in

my academic pursuit. I would like also to thank Dr. Parator for his time and willingness

to advise me and answer my questions. I am also thankful to Dr. Greenberg who

accompanied this dissertation up until his retirement from GWU in spring of 1998. I

would like also to thank Drs. Brown, Nyang and Nimer for their time and efforts in the

final oral defense. I would like also to thank the academic staff of the GSEHD at GWU.

I owe it also to the many friends who have help me with their advice, support and

efforts in completing the study, among them are: the team of the International Relief

Organization, Dr. Ahmed Yousef, Dr. Anisa Abdelfatah, Sara Al-Dahir, Dr. Fatima Al-

Maadadi, Muhammad Qadir, and Fakhry & Sabeha Barazangi.

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I also owe it to the many volunteers and officers of the Muslim Students’

Association of USA & Canada chapters and national officials who have helped with the

distribution and collection of the survey, especially at GWU, GMU, and GU.

Finally, I am grateful to those whom I have forgotten to mention their names or

missed to acknowledge their contributions toward the completion of this dissertation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... iv

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...............................................................................vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................vii

Table of Contents................................................................................................ ix

List of Tables.....................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................1Introduction .....................................................................................................1Background......................................................................................................4

Islam, the Faith of Muslims..........................................................................4The Pillars of Islam ......................................................................................5The Pillars of Faith in Islam .........................................................................8Muslims .......................................................................................................9Prejudice and Racism .................................................................................13Prejudice and Hostilities against American Muslims ..................................14

Statement of the Problem ...............................................................................15Purpose of Study............................................................................................18Need for the Study .........................................................................................19Research Questions........................................................................................21Research Hypotheses .....................................................................................21Assumptions ..................................................................................................23Limitations.....................................................................................................23Definitions of Terms ......................................................................................24

CHAPTER 2......................................................................................................29Literature Review...........................................................................................29

Muslims and Islam .....................................................................................30Where Are the Muslims?............................................................................32The American Muslims: The Immigrants ...................................................32The American Muslims: The Indigenous Muslims......................................33Demographics of American Muslims .........................................................35

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Prejudice and Discrimination .....................................................................37Basic Concepts and Definitions of Prejudice ..........................................37Historical Research on Prejudice and Discrimination..............................39Forms and Sources of Prejudice..............................................................42Religious Prejudice ................................................................................43Racial Prejudice .....................................................................................47Why Deal With Prejudice? .....................................................................50Why Muslims Face Prejudice? ...............................................................55The Media..............................................................................................56Reports of Prejudice and Discrimination.................................................58

Muslim Students' Experience in American Academia.................................60Muslim Students in Doctoral Research Studies...........................................66

Summary .......................................................................................................75

CHAPTER 3......................................................................................................77Methodology..................................................................................................77Population......................................................................................................78

Sample .......................................................................................................78Instrumentation ..............................................................................................80Reliability ......................................................................................................85Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................86Data Analysis.................................................................................................87Summary .......................................................................................................88

CHAPTER 4......................................................................................................90Findings.........................................................................................................90

Overview ...................................................................................................90Demographic Characteristics of Respondents .............................................91

Analysis of Data/ Presentation of Findings...................................................103Research Question 1.................................................................................103Research Question 1.2..............................................................................109Research Question 2.................................................................................112Research Question 2.1..............................................................................114Research Hypothesis 1 .............................................................................121Research Hypothesis 2 .............................................................................122Research Hypothesis 3 .............................................................................123Research Hypothesis 4 .............................................................................126Research Hypothesis 5 .............................................................................127Research Hypothesis 6 .............................................................................129Research Hypothesis 7 .............................................................................133

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Research Hypothesis 8 .............................................................................135Research Hypothesis 9 .............................................................................137Research Hypothesis 10 ...........................................................................140Research Hypothesis 12 ...........................................................................147Research Hypothesis 13 ...........................................................................150Research Hypothesis 14 ...........................................................................151

Summary .....................................................................................................153Summary of Demographics ......................................................................153Summary of Research Questions Findings................................................154Summary of Research Hypotheses Findings .............................................154

CHAPTER 5....................................................................................................157Discussion of the Research Findings ............................................................157

Overview of the Study..............................................................................157Conclusions .................................................................................................162

Research Questions ..................................................................................162Research Hypotheses................................................................................176Summary of Conclusions .........................................................................186

Implications .................................................................................................188Recommendations........................................................................................189Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................191

Appendix A .....................................................................................................193

References .......................................................................................................198

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LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

1 Groups Participating in the Study………………………….………… 79

2 Students’ Choice of Survey Format………………………………….. 86

3 Students’ Choice to Provide Contact Information …………………… 87

4 Participants' Gender by Groups…………………………….………… 91

5 Participants' Age Ranges by Groups…………………………………. 92

6 Participants' Educational Level by Groups…………………………… 93

7 Participants' GPA Ranges by Groups………………………………… 94

8 Participants' Place of Birth by Groups………………………………. 95

9 Participants' Nationality by Groups…………………………………. 96

10 Participants' Ethnicity by Groups…………………………………… 97

11 Participants' Graduation Status from High School………………….. 98

12 Participants' Housing Status…………………………………………. 99

13 Participants' Marital Status…………………………………………... 100

14 Participants' Contact Information Status…………………………….. 101

15 Participants' Choice of Survey Format………………………………. 102

16 Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants'Responses to Part II of Questionnaire, Dealingwith Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination…….………………… 107

17 Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants'Satisfaction with Their Academic Experience……………………….. 111

18 Local Participants' Choices of Issues of Importance/Concerns……… 113

19 Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants'Ranking of Issues of Importance/Concerns…………………………. 119

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List of Tables (continued) Page

20 Analysis of Variance of Dimensions that MeasureFeelings of Prejudice and Discrimination…………………………… 121

21 Local and National Participants' Mean ScoresComparison Regarding Feelings of Prejudice andDiscrimination………………………………………………………. 122

22 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 3)……………………… 124

23 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Place of BirthDependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 3)……………………….. 125

24 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: PrejudicedAttitudes of Faculty and Staff (Research Hypothesis 3)……………. 125

25 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Place of BirthDependent Variable: Prejudiced Attitudesof Faculty and Staff (Research Hypothesis 3)………………………. 126

26 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: In-ClassDiscriminatory Experiences (Research Hypothesis 5)………………. 128

27 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by EthnicityDependent Variable: In-Class DiscriminatoryExperiences (Research Hypothesis 5)………………………………… 129

28 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 6)………..………………. 130

29 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Educational LevelDependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 6)……………………….. 131

30 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: In-ClassDiscriminatory Experiences (Research Hypothesis 6)………………. 132

31 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Educational LevelDependent Variable: In-Class DiscriminatoryExperiences (Research Hypothesis 6)……………………………….. 132

32 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 7)……………………… 134

33 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Undergraduate LevelDependent Variable: Racial/EthnicClimate on Campus (Research Hypothesis 7)……………………….. 135

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34 Local and National Participants' Mean ScoresComparison Regarding Issues of Concerns and Importance………… 137

35 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Religious Dimension(Research Hypothesis 9)……………………………………………… 138

36 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Place of BirthDependent Variable: Religious Dimension(Research Hypothesis 9)……………………………………….…….. 139

37 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Social Dimension(Research Hypothesis 9)……………………………………………… 140

38 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Place of BirthDependent Variable: Social Dimension(Research Hypothesis 9)……………………………………….…….. 140

39 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Religious Dimension(Research Hypothesis 10)……………………………………………… 142

40 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by GenderDependent Variable: Religious Dimension(Research Hypothesis 10)……………………………………….…….. 143


42 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by GenderDependent Variable: Social Dimension(Research Hypothesis 10)……………………………………….…….. 144

43 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Academic Dimension(Research Hypothesis 10)……………………………………………… 145

44 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by GenderDependent Variable: Academic Dimension(Research Hypothesis 10)……………………………………….…….. 145


46 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by EthnicityDependent Variable: Social Dimension(Research Hypothesis 11)……………………………………….…….. 148


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48 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Educational LevelDependent Variable: Social Dimension(Research Hypothesis 12)……………………………………………… 149

49 Descriptive Statistics/Dependent Variable: Academic Dimension(Research Hypothesis 12)……………………………………………… 150

50 Two-Way ANOVA—Groups by Educational LevelDependent Variable: Academic Dimension(Research Hypothesis 12)…………………………………………….. 151

51 Descriptive Statistics (Research Hypothesis 14)……………………… 153

52 Correlations Test—Prejudice with respect to Satisfactionwith Academic Experience…………………………………………… 153

1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Diversity and tolerance are essential elements influencing modern higher

education institutions in accommodating and reconciling the hard issues surrounding race

relations. However, if one looks deeper into these issues, the findings show that there is

still a long way to go to attain the desired equal status for all races. Research studies

affirm that "Most administrators and faculty are not trained in an environment that

emphasizes cultural pluralism, and as well intentioned as they may be, they are likely to

be ethnocentric" (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998, p. 87). We are reminded by

scholars that we have a problem when, "Seeing White people only as a norm by which to

measure others is a narrow view that is acquired by living in a society that perpetuates

White norms and by believing that what differs from these norms is a deviation" (Dutton,

Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). These scholars point out that "Racial identity and

acceptance are important for all races, especially in this increasingly multicultural

society" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). Moreover, "Despite decades of legal

and educational reform, racism remains a serious social problem in the United States.

Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of the civil rights movement,

racism has not declined but has merely changed forms" (Maluso, 1995, p. 50).

2

According to Loo & Rolison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national

goal of providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher

education and opportunities for academic success has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58).

Siggelkow also concurs with Loo & Rolison when he emphasizes the role of

academia by saying that "Perhaps colleges and universities are no less racist than other

societal institutions and the commercial world, but the potential for irreparable harm is

far greater in higher education . . . Serious, unfinished business remains" (1991, p. 104).

The race issue is very serious and one that academia must deal with and resolve to

preserve the democratic values for which America stands. Dean Trueba, Dean of the

School of Education at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, argues that the American

society may lose its democratic values if it ignores the race issue or does not deal with it

properly (1993). Trueba views the university as an institution with a vital role in healing

the society's race and ethnic problems. Moreover, he says that "If the resolution of these

conflicts is crucial for the survival of our democracy, the role of universities in

maintaining democratic principles is also of paramount importance" (1993, p. 41). He

goes on to say, "Universities are the main instrument that democratic societies use to

generate and transmit new knowledge, and to inculcate democratic values and respect for

ethnic and racial differences" (1993, p. 41).

Trueba poses a critical question to educators and administrators a like, "What can

modern universities do to heal America's racial and educational crises?" (1993, p. 52).

He follows up his question with a reply that sums up the university's role. He says,

3

"academia has the potential, and the responsibility, to create a better

understanding of the nature of race and ethnicity, to help solve racial and ethnic

problems, and to develop the necessary knowledge and strategies to heal ethnic and racial

hatred in democratic societies" (Trueba, 1993, p. 5). And because one of the goals of

higher education institutions is to educate students and to promote their development,

socially and academically, it is vital for these institutions to design environments that will

provide opportunities, incentives, and reassurances for growth and development (Arnold

& King, 1997; Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner &

Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991;

Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).

It is with these concerns of Trueba and other scholars in mind, that this study was

originated. Research reveals that it is inevitable for minority students studying at

predominantly white institutions to face prejudice and discrimination (Cabrera,

Castaneda, Nora & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995;

Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995).

Therefore, this study is an attempt to enrich scholarly research in the area of the study of

Muslim students as a minority group within this truly diverse society--a society where

every member should be respected for who he/she is, where every member in the society

ought to enjoy the same rights and privileges.

This study focuses on Muslim students, as a minority group. A group that no

longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of all the prevalent prejudice and

4

discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998;

Kamalipour, 1997). This study included an investigation of Muslim students' perceptions

of prejudice and discrimination while attending colleges and universities and an

exploration of their satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through

the study the researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim

students and the importance of such issues to them as they make their way through

academia. This study was also intended to provide educators and administrators with

insights and guidelines to use when interacting with this unique group of students.

Background

Islam, the Faith of Muslims

The understanding of Islam and Muslims is critical to the understanding of this

study. To help the reader better understand the subjects of this study, the following

background is provided.

Islam is one of the three monotheistic religions. It emerged in the Arab peninsula,

which we know as Saudi Arabia in 622 AD Like the other two of the three monotheistic

faiths, Judaism and Christianity, Islam was revealed through a prophet who is known as

the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him [PBUH]). Judaism is believed to be based

on the teachings and laws of the Prophet Moses, while Christianity is said to take its

social and moral codes from the teachings of the Prophet Jesus. All three religions are

5

believed to have their roots in the teachings of the Prophet of God, the patriarch

Abraham.

In keeping with a promise made to Abraham by God, each prophet is believed to

be a blood descendant of Abraham. The Prophets Moses and Jesus are believed to have

descended from Abraham’s son Isaac, born through his first wife Sarah, while the

Prophet Muhammad is said to have descended from Abraham's son Ishmael, who was

born through Abraham's wife Hajar. Ishmael is also believed to be the first member of the

Arab nation since he and his mother Hajar settled in a previously uninhabited desert that

became Mecca, and subsequently the site of the Kaba. Mecca is a place of Arab (and

now Muslim) pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia (Gen.16 and 17, The Holy Qur'an, 2:124-130).

In Arabic, the word Islam means "to submit," or "to surrender and obey." The

Qur'an, the Muslim Holy Book, never uses the word Islam as we do, but says, "Al-Islam,"

or "The Islam," referring to a way of life that follows a distinct code of moral, social, and

legal behaviors that were revealed by God through His various Prophets with a specific

purpose or intention. This intention is understood in Al-Islam as God's desire to guide

mankind to the best in this life and the next life (or afterlife) (Emerick, 1997; Rahman,

1988).

The Pillars of Islam

Islam as mentioned above is considered by Muslims to be a comprehensive way

of life, affecting every aspect of human existence. The "Pillars" of Islam are actions

6

which serve as the foundations of the faith and cover aspects of both belief and

ritual worship.

The first of these Pillars is the belief in the oneness of God. In Islam this oneness

is called Tawhid, an Arabic word that means "One." It means that God is eternal and

absolute, that He has no beginning and no end. That everything other than God was

created by God and that God is without equals, rivals, sons, daughters, or fleshly

manifestation. It is this belief about God that is central to the Muslim's faith and actions.

Obedience to God emanates from this basic belief that is obligatory upon adherents of

Islam. Muslims believe that God's laws take precedence over any cultural or habitual

affectations that one might acquire in life. When habits or cultural behaviors are in

conflict with God's guidance, they are not accepted as acts of faith (CIE, 1995; Emerick,

1997; Furuqi, 1979).

The Holy Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) through

inspiration, or rather Wahi which means "communication with God." It is said that this

revelation began in the form of dreams and later came while the Prophet was awake. It

was brought to the Prophet by an angel named Jibril, whom we know in English as

Gabriel. This religious view is important to the understanding of the Pillars of faith

because part of the belief in God's oneness is also the belief in His Prophets, whose exact

names and numbers are unknown.

Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was the last of these

Prophets. A Muslim must accept the prophecies of Muhammad (PBUH) and follow their

7

guidance. Muslims must also obey the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) teachings

and explanations of the Qur'an by following what is called the Sunnah of the Prophet, or

"His way." John Esposito in Islam: The Straight Path (1991, p. 89) explains Tauhid, the

first Pillar of Islam, as "acknowledgment of and commitment to Allah and His Prophet."

The second Pillar of Islam is prayer. Five times a day Muslims turn towards the

Kaba in Mecca and perform ritual prayers. The method or technique of prayer is based on

the example of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) given during his lifetime. The Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) used to lead the congregation of Muslims in Mecca and Medina in

prayer, thus demonstrating to them the way in which prayer should be performed.

The prayer consists of reciting the first Surah of the Qur'an, Al-Fatihah, referred

to as "the seven often repeated verses," followed by the recitation of a chosen verse or

verses of the Qur'an and various praises to God. For each segment of the prayer, a

Muslim adopts a distinguishing bodily position, beginning with standing and placing

hands across the heart, and then bowing and kneeling. Muslims repeat these positions a

prescribed number of times depending on which prayer is being performed. The five

daily prayers are the morning prayer, Fajr, the noon prayer, Dhur, the afternoon prayer,

Asr, the evening prayer, Maghrib, and the night prayer, Ishaa. To pray five times a day is

an obligation that every Muslim must adhere to except those exempted by Islamic law

(Zeno, 1996, p. 93-118).

The third Pillar of Islam is Zakat, or the mandatory tax levied annually upon the

Muslim's possessions. This tax is distributed to the poor (Holy Qur'an, 2: 43). It

8

provides a source of revenue for the Muslim State in the form of an income tax.

It is seen as an act of worship where the rich and able is providing for the poor and the

needy. The Islamic law provides others details for on how and what is subject to this

taxation.

The fourth Pillar is the Fast of Ramadhan. This obligatory fast commemorates

the revelation of the Holy Qur'an. Muslims fast approximately 29 to 30 days of

Ramadhan. The month of Ramadhan is determined by the lunar calendar. From the time

of dawn to the end of daylight, Muslims not only abstain from water and food, but also

from sexual intercourse, slander, profane speech, and other actions considered

uncharacteristic of pious behavior or righteousness (Holy Qur'an, 2:185).

The fifth Pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage, or Hajj. This is a journey that the

Muslim is obliged to take to the site of the Kaba and to other religious sites in and around

Mecca. There Muslims perform certain religious rituals and prayers as they were first

performed by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his followers. This Pillar is only

obligatory upon those who are able to afford the cost effort involved (Holy Qur'an, 2:196-

203).

The Pillars of Faith in Islam

The Pillars of faith in Islam are distinguished from the pillars of religion because

they focus on the system of belief rather than ritual worship and laws that govern these

9

actions, even though one cannot express true faith without submission to the law.

The Pillars of Faith are:

• To believe in Allah (God) in His Existence, His right to be worshipped, His Oneness,

His Attributes, and His right to legislate

• To believe in angels

• To believe in the Holy Qur'an and the other Holy Books, (Torah, the Gospel of Jesus,

the Psalms of David)

• To believe in God's Messengers, of whom Adam was the first and the Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) was the last

• To believe in the Resurrection and the Day of Judgment

• To believe in Divine Preordainment

Many scholars have written various explanations of these pillars, and this list of

the Pillars of Faith are accepted as basic to belief in Islam by every sect and school of

thought (Surty, 1996; Zeno, 1996).

Muslims

Every court of Islam is bound to recognize as a Muslim in good standing every

adult male and female who consciously and solemnly witnesses that , "there is no God

but God and Muhammad is the Prophet of God." That person is entitled to all privileges

and rights of a Muslim and bound by all the duties and obligations of Islamic law (CIE,

1995; Emerick, 1997; Faruqi,1979; Surty, 1996; Zeno, 1996).

10

When translated into Modern English, the word Muslim simply means

"servant". From the meanings of this term we are able to understand that the Muslim

perceives himself or herself as a person living in submission to a set of divinely revealed

laws upon which social and moral codes that govern everyday life are established.

Muslims come from various backgrounds, ethnicity, and socio-economic classes.

Over 1.2 billion of the world's people are Muslims. Twenty-three percent are said to

come from south Asia, 16.7% from Africa, 15% from Arab countries, 14.2% from

southeast Asia, 4.2% from central Asia, 4.2% from China, 4.2% from Iran, 4.2% from

Turkey, 1.7% from Europe, 1.3% from Afghanistan, 0.5% from North America, 0.25%

from South America and 0.008% from Australia (CIE, 1995).

The American Muslim community is also a diverse community. Forty-two

percent are African American, 24.4% are south Asian, 12.4% are Arab, 5.2% are African,

3.6% are Iranian, 2.4% are Turk, 2.0% are southeast Asian, 1.6% are Caucasian, and

5.6% are undetermined. According to the most recent data, approximately 1 million

Muslims live in California; 800,000 in New York; 420,000 in Illinois; 200,000 in New

Jersey; 180,000 in Indiana; 170,000 in Michigan; 150,000 in Virginia; 140,000 in Texas;

130,000 in Ohio; and 70,000 in Maryland. Smaller Muslim communities are believed to

exist that are not represented here, and whose numbers are not documented in any census

to date (Nu'man, 1992).

Texts of various slave documents support a theory that the first Muslims to come

to America's shores came as slaves from Africa in 1717. Reports of Muslims in North

11

America prior to this are based on the history of a Muslim known as "Estevanico" who

accompanied the Spanish explorer Marcos de Niza in 1539 in his exploration of what is

now known as Arizona (Lovell, 1983; Muhammad, 1998). Although data on Muslims in

the Americas in the days of European exploration are rare, if at all, there is greater

evidence of Muslim presence during the colonization period when African Muslims were

part of the captured slaves from the African continent (Austin, 1997; Muhammad, 1998;

Poston, 1992).

Just how many slaves were Muslims is unknown. The documents referred to here

are unique in that they bear lists that include Muslim names such as Omar Ibn Said, Job

bin Solomon, and Prince Omar. It is possible that many of the slave's names were

misunderstood by their captors and may have been misspelled, or not written at all. In

1864 an amateur ethnologist by the name of Theodore Dwight wrote in the Methodist

Quarterly Review of 1864, "Among the victims of the slave trade among us have been

men of learning and pure and exalted characters, who have been treated like beast of

burden by those amongst us who claim a purer religion." He is believed to have spoken

of a Black slave named Ayub ibn Sulayman Diallo. He was an African Muslim Prince

who became a victim of the slave trade in 1731 (Austin, 1997; Muhammad, 1998; Nyang,

1981).

The first voluntary migration of Muslims to America spanned 37 years from 1875

to 1912. The majority of these immigrants were Arabs who were either fleeing

12

uncomfortable political situations, or seeking economic opportunities. These

were primarily single males from the rural areas of Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Lebanon.

They were mostly unskilled and so they worked as peddlers, in mines, and in factories.

Most of these men settled permanently in the United States, thus establishing Muslim

communities in urban America.

Another wave of Muslim immigration occurred from 1930-1938, but these

immigrants were mostly the family members of the previous wave of Arab Muslim

immigrants. It was not until after the Second World War, in response to the immense

political upheavals that followed the war, that the United States saw an immigrant wave

of Muslims from the Asian continent. Unlike the African slaves, or the previous Arab

immigrants, these immigrants were mostly from the elite of their societies. They were

well educated, and they avoided excessive absorption into the western culture.

Additional waves continued to bring more and more Muslims to this land; the latest of

which included refugees from Bosnia, Iraq, and Somalia (Ahmed, 1994; Albanese, 1981;

Ba-Yunus; 1979; CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Emerick, 1997; Gaustad, 1993; Haddad,

1986; Kettani, 1986; Lindley, 1996; Mehdi, 1978; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989;

Miller, 1976; Naff, 1980; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981; Nyang & Ahmad, 1985; Nyang,

1986; Philipp, 1980; Poston, 1992; Roof, 1993; Shulman, 1981; Winters, 1977).

13

Prejudice and Racism

Prejudice, discrimination, and racism are ills that undermine the society's social

fabric. These ills stem from attitudes people harbor. Scientists have found that attitudes

"can influence a broad range of cognitive processes such as social inference, reasoning,

perception, and interpretation, and can thereby influence behavior. In general people

favor, approach, praise, and cherish those things they like, and disfavor, avoid, blame

those things they dislike" (Pratkanis & Turner, 1993, p. 326). Pettigrew stated that

prejudice can be seen as " 'an opinion for or against something without adequate basis.'

Notice that this conception includes both irrationality ("an opinion ... without adequate

basis") and emotional evaluation ("for or against something")"(1980, p. 820).

Furthermore, Pratkanis and Turner discussed sources that influence the formation of

attitudes. Among these sources are the "mass media, parental influence, socializing

agents such as schools and religious organizations, important reference groups, total

institutions such as prisons and cults, and observation of one's own behavior and direct

experience with the attitude object" (1993, p. 326).

In 1993 Wolford illustrated that "the effects of prejudice in American society, and

throughout the world, are generally considered devastating, not only to the individuals

who suffer injustice, humiliation, and violence as a result of discrimination based on

prejudice but also to the integrity of society as a whole" (p. 1849). She also reported that

"Newspapers and television news frequently report acts inspired by prejudice, such as

'hate crimes' against minorities. Violations of the civil rights of minorities sill occur,

14

leading to public outcries for examination and correction of the racial

inequalities in American institutions and society" (1993, p. 1853-1854). She concluded

with a very important note that "much more progress is clearly needed in studying ways

to reduce prejudice and its devastating effects" (p. 1854).

On another dimension, researchers further add that minority students at

predominately white institutions find themselves in racial climates that may be intolerant

to their ethnic background. This usually leads them to feelings of prejudice and

alienation. And when students feel alienated, they will either resort to their subculture

groups, if any exist, or they will leave their institutions (Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora, &

Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Nora & Cabrera, 1996;

Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Stabb, Harris & Talley, 1995). In either case, the minority

students are at a disadvantage that may hinder their development and growth. Thus,

according to research studies, creating and promoting environments that encourage

tolerance and inclusiveness are best for students in general and minorities in particular

(Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner

& Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991;

Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).

Prejudice and Hostilities against American Muslims

American Muslims, as a community, have been through a history of

misunderstanding and hostilities. Researchers trace the roots of these unfortunate

15

situations to a variety of categories. These categories include history, politics,

education, and social standing (Faruqi, 1980; Faruqi, 1983; Fredrickson & Knobel, 1980;

Glazer & Ueda, 1980; Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour, 1997; Sarna, 1992;

Mehden, 1983). Reports of prejudice and racism against Muslims in this country are on

the rise. Organizations such as the Arab-American Anti-Discrimination Committee

(ADC), the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), and the American Muslim

Council (AMC) report increased hostility and acts of discrimination against individuals

of Arab/Muslim decent. These acts of hostility are found to increase around hostile times

in the Middle East or home (Gulf War, Oklahoma Bombing, World Trade Center, and the

crash of TWA Flight 800). These acts of hostility range from verbal assault to physical

harm against individuals, communities, and places of worship (ADC, 1995; ADC, 1997,

CAIR, 1995; CAIR 1996; CAIR 1997).

CAIR along with other organizations, reported more than 300 incidents of various

hate crimes toward Muslim residents in the United States after the Oklahoma Bombing,

Gulf War, and the crash of TWA flight 800 (Abou El Fadl, 1986; ADC, 1996; ADC,

1997; AMC, 1993; CAIR, 1996; CAIR, 1997; Antoun, 1994; Zogby, 1993).

Statement of the Problem

The Muslim community in the United States has grown in numbers in the past

several years reaching about 6-8 million. It is projected that Islam will be the second

largest faith by the beginning of the 21st century in the United States.

16

Muslims face a number of challenges living as a minority. They are

faced with classical questions such as how to live an Islamic life while living in a non-

Islamic society? And to what extent one can become involved? Furthermore, Muslims

also face, with other religious groups in America, the challenges presented by the

emergence of post-industrial society and its impact on culture and faith (Abd-al Ati,

1974; Albanese, 1981; Abugideiri, 1977; Ba-Yunus, 1974; Ba-Yunus, 1979; Idris, 1993;

Lindley, 1996; Moore, 1994; Nasr, 1986; Nyang, 1986; Parker-Jenkins, 1992; Poston,

1992; Renard, 1979; Voll, 1991).

Furthermore, Muslims in North America and specifically in the United States are

faced with prejudice and discrimination at times hostilities. This makes Muslims, as a

non-Muslim scholar describes it "feel they are living in a country that is hostile not only

to their ethnic origins, but increasingly to Islam and Muslims in general. Their situation

has been likened to being on a roller coaster on which they are forced to experience new

heights of distortion and vilification" (Haddad, 1991, p. 223).

Haddad goes on to say the "awareness that the truth about the Arab world, Islam,

and Muslims is being distorted for political expediency by those in office" (p. 224). An

example of this is when President Reagan, the night Libya was bombed by the U.S., said

that there is a need to "respond to Qaddafi, terrorism, and the worldwide Muslim

fundamentalist movement" (Esposito, 1996, p. 10). Similarly, other Administration

officials spoke of the threat in the 20-century in which they include Islamic

17

fundamentalism as a major threat (Drinan, 1991; Esposito, 1996; Khan, 1998;

Lovell, 1983; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Mehden, 1983).

In addition, the media is reinforcing the "stereotyping of Islam and Arabs and

their equation with radicalism and terrorism . . . The negative image of the Arab world

and of Islam has been further distorted by those Western commentators who have in

recent years portrayed Islam as a triple threat: a political, cultural, and demographic

threat" (Esposito, 1996, p. 11). These dilemmas and challenges are causing Muslims to

"wonder what the next chapter in their life in America will be as they struggle to define

their future in an atmosphere of apparent continuing hostility towards Islam"(Haddad,

1991, p. 230).

Thus, it is imperative for institutions of higher education to participate in

preserving the democratic values of the society, among which are pluralism and diversity

of the American society at large and in particular the campus environment. This task

requires the understanding of the new developments, such as the make up of the

American society, the changes in demographics and ethnic representation, and the

different needs of the different students (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998; Huebner &

Lawson, 1990; Trueba, 1993). To date, little or no research has been written about the

problems, issues, and challenges that Muslim students face while attending higher-

education institutions.

One of the few examples, however, is an account of an Arab student's experience

in Houston, Texas. "In 1989 a professor at Texas Southern pointed to the foreign

18

students in the class including Zayd and said, 'You come here to get an

education which we taxpayers pay for.'..." (Antoun, 1994, p. 184). A second example of

prejudice against Muslim students can be found in a study conducted at the University of

Maryland at College Park. This study measured the attitudes of freshman students

toward Arab students. The findings were statistically significant in showing the

magnitude of prejudice held against Arabs in general and students in particular (Sergent,

Woods, & Sedlacek, 1989). A third example is an article published in New Directions for

Teaching and Learning, titled "Respect for Religious Differences: the Case of Muslim

Students." In it the author identifies four areas of concerns to Muslim students that were

expressed during interviews with four Muslim students, 2 males and 2 females of which 2

were undergraduates and the other 2 were graduates. These areas of concern were (a)

misrepresentation of Islam by instructors, (b) instructional material offensive to Muslim

students, (c) lack of respect to their own religion and/or religions in general, and (d) the

failure on the part of the professors to accommodate students’ religious practices. (Speck,

1997).

Purpose of Study

Social psychologists define prejudice as "the expression of negative attitudes

toward certain groups and members of groups, gender, races, and religions" (Wolford,

1993, p. 1848). Among its effects are: "low self-esteem, demoralization, racial self-

hatred, helplessness and lack of control, social ostracism, social avoidance, lack of

19

opportunities, and political under-representation" (Wolford, 1993, p. 1848).

All of those effects are detrimental to the development and growth of a healthy campus

environment conducive to learning and exchange of knowledge among students.








when dealing with this unique group of students.

Need for the Study

Research and studies regarding minority students always refers to such groups as

African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian students. Little research has

been conducted with reference to Muslim students' experience in higher-education

institutions. This fact is acknowledged by scholars who consider the Islamic Student

voice as one missing, yet one voice that needs to be recognized and studied (Evans,

Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998, p. 286). Muslim students in research studies are almost

always treated as foreign students and the focus of these studies is almost always on

adjustment problems. These studies never classified Muslim students as a minority nor

20

as an indigenous group of students who are as American as every one else.

Furthermore, little or no research studies have been conducted to examining Muslim

students' perception of prejudice and discrimination in higher-education institutions.

The lack of such studies could be explained in light of the fact that the word

"Muslim" is a description of an adherent to the religion of Islam and not to an ethnic

community or race. Although the above explanation might be true on one aspect; it falls

short of recognizing that, to Muslims, Islam is an identity that surpasses race and color.

Therefore, Islam has created what can be called or defined as "Islamic People." These

people have the same belief system, share the same concerns, and aspire to a similar

future but may be of different races or ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, as Lovell

(1983, p. 97) said, "Muslims in America are best defined as the type of minority that

wants to maintain its group identity based on religion but that also wants to give full

allegiance to society." Thus, when one speaks about Muslim students, one is referring to

a group of students with a similar cultural and moral heritage, in spite of their diverse

ethnic backgrounds.

Therefore, the need for this study lies in the fact that (a) the number of Muslim

students in academia is growing; (b) higher-education administrators, faculty, and staff

need information based on scientific research about Muslim students' perceptions of

prejudice and discrimination and their main needs and concerns in American academia;

and (c) Muslim students have not been studied as an indigenous population, as other

minorities have been.

21

Research Questions

1. Do Muslim Students perceive that they face prejudice and discrimination

while attending college/university?

1.2 If perceptions of prejudice and discrimination are present, to what extent

do they affect the Muslim students' satisfaction with their academic

experience?

2. What are the perceived main issues/needs of Muslim students while

attending college?

2.1 How important are these issues/needs to Muslim students?

Research Hypotheses

1. Muslim students, in different institutions, have similar feelings regarding

perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

2. Muslim students, locally and nationally, have similar feelings regarding


3. Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America

at each institution and nationally, have similar feelings regarding perceptions

of prejudice and discrimination.

4. Muslim students, both males and females in each institution and nationally,

have similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

22

5. Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and

nationally, have similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice and

discrimination.

6. Muslim students, undergraduate and graduate at each institution and

nationally, similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice and

discrimination.

7. Muslim students, among the undergraduates at each institution and nationally,


8. Muslim students, locally and nationally, rank issues of concern and

importance similarly.

9. Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America

at each institution and nationally, rank issues of concern and importance

similarly.

10. Muslim students, both males and females at each institution and nationally,

rank issues of concern and importance similarly.

11. Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally,


12. Muslim students, undergraduate and graduate at each institution and

nationally, rank issues of concern and importance similarly.

13. Muslim students, among the undergraduates at each institution and nationally,


23

14. There is no relationship between feelings of prejudice and

discrimination and students’ satisfaction with their academic experience.

Assumptions

1. The issues of concern to the sample Muslim students should be

representative of what other Muslim students on other campuses

face, since the sample of Muslim students itself is of a diverse

group.

2. The students should not have a problem answering the survey

honestly, because the matter pursued is of importance to them.

3. Arabs and Muslims may be used interchangeably in the study

when speaking about cases of prejudice, discrimination or racism.

4. Predominately white institutions are assumed for the national

sample.

5. Muslim students are considered a minority group.

Limitations

1. The study will only concentrate on Muslim Students who are studying in

the Washington Metropolitan area as the local sample.

24

2. The students who will be surveyed are participants in the Muslim

Students' Association Chapter's activities at a given university.

3. The local sample will be selected from 3 pre-dominantly white four-year

higher-education institutions in the Washington metropolitan area.

4. The results regarding prejudice and discrimination will be institution

specific and time specific (i.e., if perception of feelings of prejudice exists

it could be specific to that institution at that particular time). And if at one

point there were no perceptions of prejudice or discrimination, that does

not mean that it could not exist in the future.

Definitions of Terms

Satisfaction with Academic Experience Dimension. A measure of students'

satisfaction with their academic experience is usually an outcome of the absence of

feelings of alienation.

Alienation Dimension. A measure of feeling of alienation is usually an outcome of

feelings of prejudice and discriminations

Allah: Literally, "The God". Muslims use this Arabic term as the proper name for

God. Muslims view Allah as the Creator and Sustainer of everything in the universe,

Who is transcendent, has no physical form, and has no associates who share in His

25

divinity. In the Qur’an, God is described as having at least ninety-nine Divine

Names, which describe His attributes.

Black Muslims. African-Americans who adhere to the teachings of the organization

known as the Nation of Islam. So-called "Black Muslims" are not to be confused with

Muslims (followers of universal Islam) of African-American or African origin.

Likewise, the Nation of Islam, a nationalistic organization, is not to be confused with the

mainstream, universal world religion Islam.

Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate Dimension. A measure of the sense of global

perception of prejudice and discrimination as observed by students based on race and

ethnicity.

Discrimination. The behavioral acceptance of rejection of a person based on his or her

belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group.

Eid. An Arabic term meaning "festivity" or "celebration." Muslims celebrate two major

religious holidays, known as Eid al-Fitr (which takes place after Ramadhan), and Eid al-

Adha (which occurs at the time of the Hajj).

Ethnocentrism. An attitude of uncritically assuming the superiority of the in-group

culture.

Halal. An Arabic term designating that, which is deemed lawful, or permissible. When

describing food, it means that the food is prepared in Islamic manner.

Halaqa. Literally means circle. It refers to a study circle where an individual learns

about Islam.

26

In-Class Discriminatory Experiences Dimension. A measure of experiences

and accounts of prejudice and discrimination inside the classroom.

In-Group. The select group with which one identifies and in favor of which one is

generally biased.

Jihad. An Arabic word which is derived from the three-letter root j-h-d, and means "to

exert oneself" or "to strive". Other meanings include endeavor, strain, effort, diligence,

struggle. Usually understood in terms of personal betterment, jihad may also mean

fighting to defend one's (or another's) life, property, and faith. Because jihad is highly

nuance concept, it should not be understood to mean "holy war", a common

misrepresentation.

Muhammad. The prophet and righteous person believed by Muslims to be the final

messenger of God, whose predecessors are believed to include the Prophets Adam, Noah,

Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and other. Born in 570 CE, Muhammad grew up to

become a well-respected member of Maccean society. In 610 CE, he received the first of

many revelations that would eventually form the content of the Qur’an. Soon after this

initial event, he was conferred prophethood and began calling people to righteousness

and belief in One God. Muhammad died in 632 CE, after successfully (re)establishing

the religion known as Islam and providing Muslims with a model for ideal human

behavior.

Muslim. Literally (and in the broadest sense), the term means "one who submits to

God." More commonly, the term describes any person who accepts the creed and the

27

teachings of Islam. The word "Muhammadan" is a pejorative and offensive

misnomer, as it violates Muslims' most basic understanding of their creed--Muslims do

not worship Muhammad, nor do they view him as the founder of the religion. The word

"Moslem" is also incorrect, since it is a corruption of the word "Muslim."

Out-Group. A group with which one does not identify and against which one is

generally biased.

Prejudice. An attitude toward members of some out-group (in this case the Muslims) in

which the evaluative tendencies are predominately negative.

Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension. A measure of students’

perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority students.

Qur'an. "The recitation" or "the reading", and refers to the divinely revealed scripture of

Islam. It consists of 114 surahs (chapters) revealed by God to Muhammad over a period

of 23 years. The Qur'an continues to be recited by Muslims throughout the world in the

language of its revelation, Arabic, exactly as it was recited by Prophet Muhammad nearly

fourteen hundred years ago. The Qur'an is viewed as the authoritative guide for human

beings, along with the Sunnah of Muhammad. Translations of the Qur'an are considered

explanations of the meaning of the Qur'an, but not the Qur'an itself. The spelling

"Koran" is phonetically incorrect, the more accurate Qur'an should be used.

Stereotype. A set of beliefs, often rigidly held, about the characteristics of an entire

racial or ethnic group.

28

Sunnah. Literally, a habit, practice, customary procedure, action, norm, or

usage sanctioned by tradition. More specifically, Sunnah refers to Prophet Muhammad's

sayings, practices, and habits. The Hadith of the Prophet constitute a written record of

his Sunnah.

Tarbiyyah. It encompasses a number of meanings such as, education, nurturing, up

bringing. It refers to the holistic education of a Muslim in reference to his or her faith

and other aspect of life.

29

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

The review of literature begins with an introduction to Muslims. It covers the

basic concept of who Muslims are; where these Muslims are to be found; Muslims of

America, both immigrants and indigenous; and their demographics. Information on

above concepts in this chapter will build on concepts introduced in the first chapter that

discuss the faith of Muslims, pillars of Islam, and faith and its history. In addition, the

review covers the concept of prejudice and discrimination. It provides an overview of the

concept and its definition. An outline of historical development in the field of the study

of prejudice and discrimination is followed by a discussion of forms and sources of

prejudice with a focus on religious and racial prejudices. Also illustrated is, in order to

preserve this society's democratic ideals, the need to address the issue of prejudice and

discrimination. The reasons Muslims face prejudice and discrimination is explored. The

media's negative depiction of Islam and Muslims is highlighted and reports on the status

of the civil rights of Muslims in this country are cited.

The final section of the review starts with an overview of the theoretical

framework of the study. It outlines the three major student developmental theories and

focuses on the person-environment school of thought theory, which suggests that the

establishment of healthy educational and social environments on campuses leads to a

30

better developed and satisfied students. The review goes further to include research

found about the study of students' perception of prejudice and discrimination. It is clear

from research studies that there is a deficiency in the study of Muslim students'.

Research also confirms that minority students at a predominately white institutions are

more prone to face prejudice and discrimination. It then provides a survey of searches

conducted using Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), Chronicle of higher

education, and Dissertation Abstract databases on the topic of Muslim students'

experience in academia.

Muslims and Islam

In order to speak about Muslims, one should give some background about who

are the Muslims? Muslims get their name from the Religion they follow, Islam. Islam is

an Arabic word defined in the New Dictionary of Religions as "the Name of the faith

means 'submission [to God]', the adherent or Muslim being therefore 'one who submits

himself to God' (Allah), i.e. surrenders himself unconditionally to the divine will."

One becomes a Muslim simply by declaring the "Shahadah", the confession that

there is no god worthy of Worship except the true God (Allah) and that Muhammad is

His Messenger. This declaration then entitles a Muslim to the prescribed obligations and

duties in Islam.

31

The simplicity on becoming a Muslim is beautifully described by Dr.

Faruqi in his book Islam. He says “The reason why Islamicity is so simple to define, so

simple to attain, an so simple to establish, is that Islam is neither an ethnocentric nor a

sacramental religion. One does not have to be born a Muslim; nor does one have to have

any Muslim parent, guardian, family or people. Every person in the world may become a

Muslim if he or she chooses, by a personal decision alone. Initiation into Islam needs no

sacramental ceremony, no participation by any clergy, and no confirmation by any

organized body. Therefore, all people are absolutely equal in that the house of Islam may

be entered by everyone after satisfying the simplest of requirements" (Faruqi, 1995, p. 5).

God, in Islam, judges people by their actions and deeds, and the declaration of

faith does not guarantee one salvation. The scale of virtue and righteousness is an infinite

one and the Muslim should be always striving to attain the highest possible status.

Furthermore, it is God alone who should be the judge of how good or evil one's actions

were and it is He who will reward people accordingly (Albanese, 1981; CIE, 1995;

Emerick, 1997; Faruqi, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989; Shulman, 1981).

Muslims, like Christians and Jews, “are the Children of Abraham, since all trace

their communities back to him. Islam’s historic religious and political relationship to

Christendom and Judaism has remained strong throughout history. This interaction has

been the source of mutual benefit and borrowing as well as misunderstanding and

conflict” (Esposito, 1991, 3-4).

32

Where Are the Muslims?

Muslims make up one-fifth of the World population today and they can be found

on all of the continents. The original homeland of Islam is Arabia.

Islam, since its revelation, spread to Asia, Africa, Europe, North and South

America, and Australia. There are more than forty-four Muslim countries and significant

Muslim minorities can be found in many parts of the World, such as the former Soviet

Union, China, India, England, France, and United States. This makes Islam the second

largest religion in the world (Ba-Yunus, 1979; CIE, 1995; Emerick, 1997; Esposito,

1991; Mead, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton; 1989, Philipp, 1980).

The American Muslims: The Immigrants

Accounts of when Islam came to America differ. The earliest account goes back

as far as 1717. Most of those slaves brought to the New World did not survive the

encounter and those who did were most likely forced to abandon their faiths. Muslims

from the Middle East first came in 1875. They were from what used to be Syria, which

combines Syria of today, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. They came as uneducated,

unskilled laborers. This wave ended by the First World War.

The second wave peaked in the 1930s and was halted due to the Second World

War. Immigration laws of that era were discriminatory and "were designed to keep out

people like Muslims" (Marty, 1986, p. 347).

33

The third wave of immigration was between 1947 and mid 1960’s. But

this time the new influx of immigrants was different from their predecessors. The

political situation in the homeland was not stable and persecution in some countries

forced people to flee.

The fourth wave started in 1967 and continues to the present time. The

immigrants of this wave have been mainly educated, fluent in English, and Westernized.

They were from a variety of nations, beyond the Middle East. They came to settle,

establish communities and, participate in American affluence, and acquire higher

education and superior technical training for specialized work opportunities (Ahmed,

1994; Albanese, 1981; Ba-Yunus; 1979; CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Emerick, 1997;

Gaustad, 1993; Haddad, 1986; Kettani, 1986; Lindley, 1996; Mehdi, 1978; Meir &

Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989; Miller, 1976; Naff, 1980; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981;

Nyang & Ahmad, 1985; Nyang, 1986; Philipp, 1980; Poston, 1992; Roof, 1993;

Shulman, 1981; Winters, 1977).

The American Muslims: The Indigenous Muslims

The largest single contingent of Muslims in America is African American . . . As

indigenous Americans and ex-slaves, their move into the Islamic worldview has

often been challenged as inauthentic. There remains an ongoing suspicion that

these choices for Islam by up to four generations of African Americans continue

to be protest against the abuses of Christianity. While this may have been a

34

primary impetus decades ago, it has long ceased to hold weight in

current spiritual understandings and experience. African American Muslims,

alongside their brothers and sisters from the Muslim world, have developed the

necessary institutions and businesses for community in America (McCloud, 1993,

p. 73).

The indigenous movement is composed mostly of the Black Muslims. It has

taken different shapes and turns. Some Black Muslim groups have disappeared or

declined. Examples are the Moorish Science Temple, the Hanafi Muslims, and Darul

Islam. Others have survived until this day. Examples are the American Muslim Mission

(recently changed to the American Muslim Society), the Nation of Islam, and Ansarullah.

For the most part Black Muslim movements have been seen as separatist and

militant ones. They call for black salvation and freedom from "white man" domination.

At times they have resorted to violence. The killing of Malcolm X is one example.

The most influential among the Black Muslim movements has been the Nation of

Islam, an organization that has undergone major transformations. These transformations

took place after the death of its founder, the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, in 1975. It

was under the leadership of Warith Deen Muhammad, Elijah’s Son, that the Nation of

Islam changed its name to the World Community of Al-Islam in the West, then to the

American Muslim Mission, and recently to American Muslim Society.

Warith Deen also was instrumental in bringing the former Nation of Islam to

orthodoxy. He abandoned the beliefs that his father taught. Some of these beliefs were

35

that Elijah is the Messenger of God and that God came to him in the form of a

man called Fard Muhammad, who later disappeared mysteriously. The Nation of Islam

ceased to view the white man as a devil and has agreed to pledge allegiance to the

Constitution of the United States. The transformation that Warith Deen institutionalized

has resulted in establishing him in a highly recognized position in the world of Islam.

However, a loyal minister to Elijah Muhammad refused to give in to the new

changes that were brought by Warith Deen Muhammad. This minister is Minister Louis

Farrakhan. He continues to promote the teachings of Elijah about Black Nationalism,

with its tone of racism (Flick, 1981; Jones, 1983; Kyle, 1993; Lincoln, 1983; Lovell,

1983; Mamiya, 1983; Mamiya, 1996; Mead, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton,

1989; Moore, 1994; Muhammad, 1998; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981; Waines; 1995;

Williams, 1989).

Demographics of American Muslims

There has been no systematic, statistically valid survey of Muslims in America, as

Stone (1991) noted. The two most recent studies available were done ten years apart.

Stone did the first study in the year 1980. At that time the Muslims were estimated to be

about 3.3 millions. The number represented 1.5% of the United States population of the

Year 1980 (Stone, 1991).

The second study, done by Nu’man (1992) in 1991, reported the numbers of

Muslims in America to be 5.2 million. Furthermore, the author says that the most

36

acceptable estimates for Muslim social scientists and researchers are between 5

million to 8 million. The difficulties of providing accurate estimates of the numbers of

Muslims in the United States is caused by a number of factors. One factor is that

religious affiliation of American has never been a subject studied in the United States

Census of Population. And another is that when major surveys are conducted, they

usually do not include Islam as a choice for religious preference. Therefore, the burden

to provide such statistics falls upon the Muslim institutions (Nu’man, 1992). A number

of authors and researchers other than Stone and Nu'man have provided other statistics

about the Muslim population in the United States (CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Kettani,

1986; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Nu’man, 1994).

37

Prejudice and Discrimination

Basic Concepts and Definitions of Prejudice

In reviewing the literature on the issues of prejudice and discrimination, we

observe that these issues are not unique to any one society, group, or historical period in

time. Throughout the recorded history of mankind the challenge to understand and

overcome a tendency towards prejudicial behaviors such as stereotyping and

discrimination has been present (Allport, 1979; Brown 1995; Young-Bruehl, 1996).

Whether we are examining historical conflicts between people of diverse cultural

and religious beliefs, or between groups that share similar cultures, values, and beliefs;

researchers on these subjects have found that people generally judge others by group

association, and then treat others according to their assessment of the groups

characteristics. A synthesis of various definitions proposed by social psychologists is

that a stereotype is "a set of beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people."

Thus stereotyping is the application of beliefs about the attributes of a group to judge an

individual member of that group (Banagi & Greenwald, 1994).

Even when stereotypical characteristics are only perceived and are not based on

reality, actual experience, or knowledge; stereotypes are traditionally used to distinguish

"in-groups" from "out-groups." In-groups are characterized as possessing valuable traits

and characteristics, while out groups are burdened by the assumed possession of traits or

38

characteristics that supposedly lack value, and may be assumed to be

detrimental and even threatening to the dominating or popular ideals of a society (Young-

Bruehl, 1996).

Allport suggests that prejudice be defined as "an aversive or hostile attitude

toward a person who belongs to a group, simply because he, or she, belongs to that group,

and is therefore presumed to have the objectionable qualities ascribed to the group"

(1979, p. 7). This concept of prejudice which is categorized as a "motivational theory" is

shared by others, (Bernard, 1957; Coser, 1956; Levine & Campbell, 1972). Research of

the seventies and eighties that focus on cognitive processes in intergroup relations

(Hamilton, 1981) emphasize the cognitive and perceptual processes and assume that

"otherwise functional thought processes exacerbate intergroup conflict by illusorily

generating the perception of differences between groups" (Rothbart, 1988, p. 93).

Realistic conflict theories assume that competition is at the root of intergroup strife and

that real differences between groups are generally the cause of dislike, more because we

value our own characteristics rather than we do those of others (Sherif, Harvey, White,

Hood, & Sherif, 1961).

Many discussions of prejudice and discrimination are centered on characteristics

of targeted groups that do not result from individual choice, i.e., skin color, race,

ethnicity, or physical attributes such as handicaps and disabilities. These discussions are

facilitated by a growing social repulsion toward biases that are based purely on what are

39

seen as coincidental acts of nature, or divinely ordained phenomena. This

natural aversion is referred to as the norms of human heartedness, and rationality:

There are fewer voices raised to defend a hierarchy of races. It has become almost

an insult to say to someone, 'You are prejudiced.' There is a growing awareness of

the harm that prejudice does both to the minority and the majority, and an

increasingly troubled conscience regarding what remains to be done. We are

moving toward a society in which the prejudiced person will be the non-

conformist (Young-Bruehl,1996, p. 88).

Discussions of prejudice and discrimination as they pertain to religious or other

ideological groups are complicated by the issue of choice, and the fear that an out-group

ideology may pose a threat to the continued dominance of an in-group ideal, or tradition.

The use of the word "dominance" here is not intended to imply that dominating ideals are

always dominant because they are the ideals that are shared by a majority of people in a

given society. It has been shown that one ideal can dominate another simply because it

reflects the sentiments of a perceived authority. Thus authority that is established

through power of position as well as power in numbers can influence group attitude

development (Asch, 1956).

Historical Research on Prejudice and Discrimination

Academic research on prejudice began in the 1920s. According to Werner

Bergman (1994) this research focused on three central issues: whether prejudices are

40

actually the result of an insufficient exertion of the abilities to understand;

whether there is a correspondence between judgment and reality--expressed otherwise as

the question of the defectiveness of prejudice; and whether prejudice results from the

assertion of certain interests.

Psychological research on prejudice and discrimination between 1920 and the late

1940s was almost exclusively preoccupied with direct and indirect measurements of

attitudes. It was during this period that Emory Bogardus introduced the social distance

scale, Harry C. Triandis and Leigh M. Triandis devised a 7-point behavioral distance

scale, and H.H. Grace and H.H. Rimmer developed an 11-point behavioral distance scale.

It was during this same period that Daniel Katz and Kenneth Braly developed the

adjective checklist, Theodore W. Adorno devised fascism, anti-Semitism and

ethnocentrism scales and Daniel J. Levinson and R. Nevitt Sanford introduced an anti-

Semitic scale. These scales represented approximately five different methods of attitude

measurement:

1. Self-report measures where the test person is asked for oral or written

agreement or disagreement with certain items using attitude scales or standardized

questionnaires.

2. Techniques which measure attitude with reference to actual behavior, whereby

the willingness to act or actual behavior can be measured.

3. Techniques that reveal attitudes through reaction to, or interpretation of semi-

structured stimulus situations.

41

4. Techniques that require the test person to solve objective problems.

5. Physiological techniques that measure involuntary physical reactions such as

pupil reactions, or other reflexes that reveal positive or negative feelings toward certain

statements (Bergmann, 1994).

Criticism of these methods highlights the difficulty in measuring individual

responses that can predict a certain behavior that is motivated by a distinguished attitude

toward a specific target group. Specific criticisms question the reliability of result

interpretation since test persons respond in socially desired directions and test situations

deviate from real situations and refer to non-existent attitudes. The primary objection that

touches nearly every method of measuring prejudice is centered on the reactive character

of these methods. Test persons respond in a defined test situation and can adjust their

behavior.

Beginning in the late 1930s the focus of academic research on prejudice shifted

from the measurement of attitudes to the development of theories on prejudice that are

based on individual psychology, or personality theories. These theories sought to speak to

the effective components of prejudice, seeking to clarify their function in the psychic

stability of the individual. These theories are mostly built on the general assumption that

prejudices are both the result and resolution of internal psychic conflict and are not

dependent on close relations with targets of prejudice.

There are two historical periods that impact the character of these theories. The

period 1930 through the 1950s was preoccupied with the individual personality in

42

conflict, while the period 1950 through the 1960s saw the advent of group

psychological theories. The theories from these two historical periods traced prejudice

from specific forms of relations between the in group and the out-group.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift in the interpretation of concepts of prejudice.

Where previous theories assumed that prejudice was a psychological dysfunction born of

internal conflict, through research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s assumed that

prejudice should be seen as the normal cognitive processing of social perceptions

(Bergmann, 1994; Brown 1995; Young-Bruehl, 1996).

Forms and Sources of Prejudice

"Despite decades of legal and educational reform, racism remains a serious social

problem in the United States. Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of

the civil rights movement, racism has not declined but has merely changed forms"

(Maluso, 1995, p. 50). Therefore, in any discussion of prejudice it is important to

identify the various forms and sources of prejudice as they have been identified through

research in the field of social psychology, specifically in the area of attitude development.

Gordon Allport (1979) among others, recognized and emphasized the importance of

distinguishing between the various forms of prejudice in the course of research, saying,

"without knowledge of the roots of hostility, we cannot hope to employ our intelligence

effectively in controlling destructiveness" (1979, p. 17). Distinguishing one form of

prejudice from another aids us in our search to understand the development of various

43

types of prejudiced attitudes, thereby facilitating our further development of

methods through which these attitudes can be changed, prevented, or even eliminated.

In reference to the specific discussion of Muslim student perceptions of prejudice

in American academia, we are assisted in this discussion by the identification of various

distinct forms of prejudice and their sources. Through this discussion it will be shown

that various different forms of prejudice could impact Muslim students, even though they

represent a single out-group.

The various forms of prejudice that have been selected for this discussion are

religious prejudice, and racial prejudice. This selection is not intended to represent all

existing forms of prejudice. It is rather a selection of those forms of prejudice that appear

to be relevant to the discussion of Muslim student-- perceptions of prejudice, keeping in

mind that individual Muslim students depending on their age, weight, cultural habits,

modes of dress, etc.--may be affected by more varied types of prejudices than are

represented here.

Religious Prejudice

Probably the oldest form of prejudice is religious prejudice. Before there was

interaction between groups of various colors or races, there was internecine conflict

within groups that shared a common racial ancestry. These conflicts were mostly the

result of religious prejudices (Kung, 1986). Even the persecution of Jews which is

commonly held to be the result of racial prejudice is believed by some to have originated

44

as religious prejudice. The enslavement of African Blacks by American slave

owners was justified as being the fulfillment of a biblical scripture that says that Noah

cursed his son Ham, condemning him and his descendants to forever be "servants of

servants" (Allport, 1979, p. 17). It is generally, though not widely, believed that African

people are the direct descendants of Ham, implying that Ham himself was black. There

are historians and theologians who believe that black people are more likely the

descendants of Noah's grandson Kush who was one of the sons of Ham, and the father of

Nimrod the Hunter who ruled Babylon and Assyria and whose descendants inhabited

North Africa, specifically Egypt (Genesis, 9:12). We read in the Bible in the Book of

Psalms that during the plagues inflicted upon Egypt, God struck down the first born of

the Kushites, "the beginning of their generative powers in Ham," (Psalms, 78:51).

Nevertheless, this biblical justification clearly gives some indication of a religiously

prejudiced attitude that seriously and negatively affected the fate of a large number of

African Blacks, since it was the Bible, a religious book and an authoritative source, that

supposedly identified African Blacks as the "cursed" children of Ham. We can assume

that if this biblical scripture had been interpreted otherwise, or if it had not existed, the

history of Blacks in America and the rest of the world might have been quite different.

Other examples of religious prejudice include practices in the Crusades, the Inquisition,

witch hunts, Western colonialism, Northern Ireland, the Middle East, and at times in

places characterized by the total obliteration of native cultures (Batson & Burris, 1994).

45

In the Draft Platform for Action, the working document of the United

Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, religious traditions and dogma were

targeted more often than other factors as "barriers" to women's full and equal

participation in society (Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration, UNDPI, 1996).

Yet gender prejudice is usually discussed outside of the context of religion. This is

perhaps due to the general belief that psychology and religion in both the popular and

scientific mind are at odds with each other and that neither is able to describe the other

(Hood, 1994).

If Hood's assumption is correct that religion and science are incapable of

describing one another, how do we then come to understand the role that religion plays in

the development of group prejudices and individual attitude development within the

context of secular scholarship and outside of theology? This is an important question

because we may find clues to the elimination of other prejudices through our further

understanding of religion and the way that religious values and beliefs influence human

personality development and behaviors. Most of the world's religions have doctrines of

universal peace and brotherhood that condemn prejudice and discrimination. These

doctrines shaped the attitudes of the world's great contemporary humanitarians, such as

Gandi, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, and others. Yet, often people who uphold

religious beliefs act in violation of religious ideals (Batson & Burris, 1994).

According to Evans (1980), Gordon Allport did extensive research on religious

attitude development. He traced the evolution of religious attitudes from childhood,

46

through adolescence, and then to adulthood and presented discussions his

findings in a series of lectures that were published in 1950 in a book The Individual and

His Religion. Allport observed that children are totally incapable of understanding the

abstraction of theology, and so take family religion as a matter of course, like learning to

speak English, or brush teeth, etc. Then, according to Allport, there is a period of

questioning. The questioning is not of religion, but rather of what his or her parents have

taught, and the way that he or she understood them. The child begins to question his or

her own approach to the information, and Allport believes that this questioning process is

an essential element of normal personality development. Allport finds that 60 percent of

college students reported having very acute adolescent rebellion. Beyond adolescence

the development of religious attitudes becomes very individualized and subject to any

number of different influences (Evans, 1980).

From other studies there emerged a distinction between two aspects of religion

that appeared to impact the individual personality differently. One aspect reflects

humanitarian concerns, while another reflects a more selfish aspect. Seeking to define

this seeming contradiction Allport tested these dimensions using a scale for extrinsicness

and one for intrinsicness. Allport defined extrinsic as something that the person uses for

his or her own purposes: to make friends, influence people, sell insurance, develop

prestige in the community, or signify wish fulfillment. Intrinsic attitude refers to the

view that the individual serves religion. In extrinsic approach religion is used the same as

memberships to clubs, sororities, fraternities, and lodges. When religion is used in this

47

manner an exclusionary point of view is adopted that can lead to prejudice

because it is part of the fact that religion is perceived to be solely for his or her benefit.

This is the religion of the majority according to Allport. The minority attitude is the

intrinsic view. Allport says of those people holding the intrinsic view: "They have

decided that the creeds and doctrines, including the doctrine of human brotherhood, are

necessary for their value system, and they adopt for themselves the entire religious

system, then live by it" (Evans, 1980, p. 36). Allport's tests indicated that the extrinsic

attitude is correlated with prejudice, and the intrinsic with very low prejudice.

Racial Prejudice

In the 1940s when academic research on the subject of prejudice was still in its

infancy, a great deal of research was focused on racial prejudice. This may be due in part

to the fact that racial prejudice as it has been experienced in America has been at times a

very painful catalyst of historic events and changes both positive and negative, within the

development of America as a nation. The reluctance to respond to the Holocaust in

Europe is one example, and the enslavement of African Blacks is another.

Allport (1979) suggests that the race concept of prejudice became popular

because it had "the stamps of biological finality, and spared people the pains of

examining the complex economic, cultural, political, and psychological conditions that

enter into group relations" (1979, p. xvii).

48

Yet one might argue that the psychological, economic, cultural, and

political conditions that result from discrimination against targeted groups are phenomena

that are the result, rather than the cause, of racial prejudice. It would be difficult at any

given time to conduct an analysis of American economic and political conditions without

taking into consideration the fact that racial prejudice has played a significant role in the

establishment of most American institutions (Handlin, 1957). These institutions exact a

certain amount of control over the lives of both majority and minority group members

and often dictate economic and social outcomes on society.

Racial prejudice in America resulted from the ethnocentrism of American whites.

Ethnocentrism may be defined as "the unquestioned belief in the superiority of one's own

ethnic group and the consequent inferiority of other groups" (Pettigrew, 1980, p. 821).

This feeling of superiority among American whites grew from the attitudes of the

English towards Black African peoples, from as early as the 16th century. The English

saw Africa itself as a savage place where cannibalism, pagan rituals, and sexual

promiscuity and immorality flourished. Therefore in this view Africans were considered

to be "uncivilized." The black color of the African's skin is said to have conjured up all

of the associations that blackness had with evil and filth that were already firmly

established in European culture and society (Fredrickson & Dale, 1980).

The English colonist of the New World in the early 17th century held similar

views about Native American Indians. They were considered "savages" and "wild

beasts." Their humanity also came into question. These stereotypes are believed to have

49

begun with the tall tales of European voyagers and explorers. Prior even to the

settlement of Europeans in the New World, before there was any competition for food,

water, wealth, or power, European whites held prejudiced attitudes against native

American Indians that were based on negative stereotypes (Fredrickson & Dale, 1980).

Anti-Semitism, which is considered a form of racial prejudice, seems to meet the

observation of Allport that was mentioned earlier. It has been suggested that Jewish

entrepreneurial talents threatened American whites because they symbolized competition

that might result in the collapse of an already established socioeconomic and political

order. To distance themselves socially from this newly arrived and seemingly aggressive

group, "old stock" citizens began to close ranks under the banner of Anglo-Saxon

superiority. Europeans who were not of Anglo Saxon origin were considered members of

"sub-cultures."

In this discussion of racial prejudice we must mention Darwinism since it was

Charles Darwin's theory of "natural selection" and "survival of the fittest" that served the

ethnocentric claims of American whites. Many believed that European immigrants

represented the weak and failed of their own societies, and so these ignorant individuals

were biologically inferior to the more successful American Anglo-Saxon whites

(Fredrickson & Dale, 1980).

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Why Deal With Prejudice?

According to Loo and Ralison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national goal

of providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher learning

has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58). Some might argue that this is not a question of

prejudice, but rather one of economy and test scores. The ongoing affirmative action

debate is indicative of the sentiments that are circulating on the role that America's

government and private institutions should play in the race/ethnic issue, particularly as it

affects higher education. There are those who feel that affirmative action is itself a

discriminatory practice that penalizes white students for being members of the white race

(McGinnis, 1996). Others argue that only affirmative action can level the historic

imbalances of racism (Franklin, 1993).

Affirmative action may or may not be a solution to the problem of minority

equality in academia, but as Dean Henry Trueba of the School of Education at the

University of Wisconsin Madison argues, "America may lose its democratic values if it

ignores the minority issue, or if it is not dealt with properly" (1993). It is Trueba's

opinion that universities have a vital role to play in healing our society's racial and ethnic

problems.

Dean Trueba raises the issue of "properly" in his quote. It is the question of proper

way or methodology that is at the core of academic research on prejudice and

discrimination. As Allport says, "Without knowledge of the roots of hostility we cannot

hope to employ our intelligence effectively in controlling destructiveness" (1979, p. 17).

51

Social psychologists have contributed a tremendous amount of

information on how and why people develop prejudiced attitudes and behaviors. We have

moved within this century from little or no understanding of prejudiced behavior to

developing many new theories about it. Along with this progress, certain problems have

evolved that are only now being observed and that must be resolved if academia is to play

the important role in American social development that Dean Trueba foresees.

Elisabeth Young-Bruehl presents an interesting analysis of psychological and

sociological research on prejudice and discrimination. She writes:

There is a one and many problem-an assumption that prejudice is one thing, a

generalized attitude, even though it may have many causes, and the opposite

assumption that prejudices can be defined by the group or kind of group they

target. And there is a tendency to approach prejudice either psychologically or

sociologically without consideration for the interplay of psychological and

sociological factors (1996, p. 23).

Young-Bruehl goes on to say, "In the broader social and political context where

both academic and non-academic studies have appeared, this additional layer of

complexity has turned studying prejudice into a matter of competition for scarce

resources of public attention and concern" (1996, p. 23).

In her first statement Young-Breuhl appears to be saying that there is still a lot of

research and study to be done on the issues of prejudice and discrimination. In her second

52

statement she seems to be concerned that the integrity of academic research is

threatened by a growing politicization of the issue.

If we have understood Young-Bruehl correctly, and if she is correct in her

assertion that the study of prejudice has become a matter of competition for public

attention and concern, then the possibility exists that only those proposed studies that

satisfy the popular or political sentiments that are deemed favorable at any given time

will succeed in receiving funding or publicity. Should this happen, efforts to develop

methods and policies that affect solutions to the race/ethnic issue will be limited and the

discourse reduced to a single politicized voice.

In his earlier statement Dean Trueba seemed to agree that the national discourse

on prejudice and discrimination is at the core of America's democratic value system.

Perhaps Trueba spoke not only to the possibility that academic life in America will

become sterile and deprived of the contributions of our minorities, but also to the

possibility that the academic processes themselves will become captured by an

overwhelming political force that will control future research studies and their

conclusions on any number of issues.

The possibility that politicization of the race/ethnic issue could pose a problem for

American academia is supported by at least one study that focuses on power differentials.

A study was conducted that involved dominant and subordinate groups within a stable

intergroup situation. Middle-class English Canadian undergraduates participated in a

decision making study that asked how to distribute an extra course credit for taking part

53

in an experiment. The students were told that the study was being used to

determine how individuals reach decisions in situations where they have little

information on which to base such decisions. The undergraduates were randomly

categorized into groups Z and W, using a coin toss. The students were then told that they

would receive one credit for taking part in the study, but they had the chance to give and

receive a second course credit that would exempt them from writing an essay for their

introductory psychology course. In this way, the students were making decisions that

involved the distribution of a valued resource (Bourhis, 1994).

According to Bourhis (1994), individuals in the dominant group position used

their power to discriminate against subordinate out-group members. Individuals in the

equal-power group (50%) position also discriminated. Group members who were

subordinate, but who had some power (30%), used the little power that they had to

discriminate against out-group members. Only the "no" power group members refused to

discriminate at all against out-group members. Bourhis states further that taken together

these results suggest that usable "power is a necessary condition for effective intergroup

discrimination" (1994, p. 200).

If we apply the findings of Bourhis to the scenario previously suggested, where

research and matriculation in American universities come under the control of one

political or ideological group that lacks accurate or objective and scholarly information,

we can assume that minority issues will be neglected. We can make this assumption

since minority groups represent an out-group in the academic setting, while politicians

54

represent not only an in-group, but also a powerful authority. Politicization of

the race/ethnic issue could possibly lead to a regression to past discriminatory practices,

or to a too aggressive affirmative action program that might result in at least a perception

of discrimination against majority white students. Neither of these situations presents a

satisfactory answer to America's race/ethnic problem.

The findings of the Bourhis study also seem to imply that usable power differs

from non-usable power in its impact on decision making. Even groups that had very little

usable power employed the little power that they had to discriminate. The study also

implies that when information is restricted or limited, decision-makers make decisions

based on the usable power variable only. In other words, they discriminate simply

because they can. If we refer to the Sherif studies on intergroup conflict, we might say

that they move to limit any threat of competition from outside groups by refusing to

empower them. (Granberg & Sarup, 1992).

Politicians certainly have usable power, and as a rule politicians and policymakers

seldom are objective in their analysis or use of information. For these reasons academia

must continue to deal with prejudice, advocate independence in research, and develop

alternative sources of funding for research that will ensure credible studies and projects,

and the integrity of information. Along with this, academia must advocate for diversity in

education and work to develop programs that will ensure a continuous minority presence

and contribution to American academia and the society overall.

55

Why Muslims Face Prejudice?

Young-Breuhl in the Anatomy of Prejudice observes that "the last century has an

internal coherence as an epoch of prejudices. It is the period in which ideologies of desire

completely overshadowed ethnocentrisms and often mingled with ethnocentrisms,

making them peculiarly deadly--as the ethnic conflict in the former Yugoslavia has

become genocidal by being mingled with an anti-Muslimism that is horrifyingly similar

to antisemitism" (1996, p. 30).

Antisemitism is defined by Young-Breuhl as an "obsessive-prejudice," the sort of

prejudice that people of rigid, super ego-dominated characters often display and the sort

of prejudice that societies organized and functioning obsessively are riddled with.

Obsessional prejudices are the prejudices toward which people who are given to fixed

ideas and ritualistic acts gravitate and through which they can behave sadistically without

being conscious of their victims. People in such a mind-set behave as though they are in

a trance, and act ruthlessly. The obsessional prejudices feature conspiracies of demonic

enemies everywhere, who are omnipresent social pollutants and filthy people and who

must be eliminated, washed away, flushed away, fumigated, and demolished (Young-

Breuhl, 1996).

The literature to date on prejudice and discrimination meets Young-Breuhl's

observation that Muslims in America are experiencing the same type of prejudice that

Jews did in America after the Second World War. As with Judaism, Americans are

confused as to whether Muslims are a religion or a race. Often Arabs who are both

56

Muslim and Christian are targeted for hate crimes against Muslims by those

who believe that Islam and Muslims are a race. The American people know very little

about the religion of Muslims and Islam and have been victimized by a media driven

(Mehden, 1983), much the same way as Hitler did when he directed propaganda against

the Jews. Today the media create images of terror, desires and conspiracies for world

conquest, and sly and sophisticated monetary schemes that will cripple America like the

oil crisis of the 1970s. All of the familiar Nazi techniques and methods that were used to

poison the minds of the world against Jews, are now being used to poison the world's

minds against Islam and Muslims.

The Media

From its coverage of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

to the oil crisis and to the Iranian Revolution in the 1970s to the Oklahoma City bombing

of 1995, the American media have played a significant role in the development of

prejudiced American attitudes towards Islam and Muslims. The negative images

perpetuated by the media have mostly focused on Arab Muslims, although most

Americans are not able to distinguish between Arab Muslims and other Muslims.

In his analysis of American newspaper editorials from the year 1966 through

1974, Robert Trice observes that Arab issues were almost always connected to the issue

of Israel, and that in this connection the Arab was usually vilified. In 1980 liberal

57

journalist Nicholas Von Hoffman exclaimed that "no religious, national, or

cultural group has been so massively and consistently vilified [as the Arabs]" (Mehden,

1983, p. 27).

So what made the media decide to target Muslims? There are several theories.

There is of course the theory that because the media are liberal and pro-Israeli they tend

to promote Israel over the Arabs. In so doing they vilify the Arabs and Islam, often

portraying Arabs as terrorists (Lilienthal, 1978). The Iranian Revolution, which was a

revolution that centered on the overthrow of an abusive and hated Iranian dictator,

angered Americans because American hostages where taken. The visual imagery of the

hostage situation was so vivid that the television show (Nightline) came into being that

was dedicated solely to projecting images of the revolution into the American home.

Little information was given as to how and why the events of the Iranian Revolution

transpired as they did. Few people, especially television media people, knew anything

about Iranian politics. There was no one who could put this powerful imagery into

perspective for the average American, who was angry and frightened by the revolution,

as we then understood it (Kamalipour, 1997).

In a special report published by the Council on American Islamic Relations

(CAIR) following the Oklahoma City bombing of the Murrah building, the Council

documented the worst instances of biased media reporting. They included quotes linking

Muslims and Arabs to the bombing on all of the major networks including PBS (CAIR,

1995).

58

There are many examples of biased media reporting: In a report by

Anthony Mason on CBS Evening News, Steven Emerson said: "Oklahoma City, I can tell

you, is probably considered as one of the largest centers of Islamic radical activity

outside of the Middle East." Again on CBS News Steven Emerson is quoted as saying,

"This was done with the intent to inflict as many casualties as possible. This is a Middle

Eastern trait." Larry Johnson, a supposed security expert said on the PBS McNeil Lehrer

Report, "This strike in the heart of America is probably the Pearl Harbor of terrorism."

Several days later a white male suspect, who was not a Muslim, was arrested for the

bombing, and has now been tried and convicted for the crime (CAIR, 1995).

Reports of Prejudice and Discrimination

The Council on American Islamic Relations, a Muslim civil-rights group,

annually documents the number of reported cases of prejudice and discrimination

directed toward Muslims. After the Oklahoma City bombing, a study was conducted that

sought to identify trends in discrimination and prejudice against Muslims. The finding

showed that about two-thirds of all anti-Muslim incidents in the United States took the

forms of bias, harassment, and intimidation. Victims came from various backgrounds,

and seventy percent of these incidents occurred in a mosque. The perpetrators actually

went to the Mosque to commit acts of hatred. The report goes on to say that Muslims

were pursued by their attackers into the privacy of their homes and places of worship,

rather than being attacked in random encounters or attacks. The majority of these acts

59

occurred in four States--California, New York, Texas, and Oklahoma. Most

occurred within forty-eight hours of the Oklahoma City bombing (CAIR, 1995).

As mentioned previously, regardless of their religious affiliation Arabs are

subjected to prejudice, discrimination, and hate crimes in America. It is not clear whether

Arabs are targeted because they are assumed to be Muslim, or whether Muslims are

targeted because people generally believe that all Muslims are Arabs.

In a report published by the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee

(ADC) in the section entitled "The Political and Cultural Context of Anti-Arab

Discrimination," we find:

Many Arab American problems are tied to major U.S. policy issues−i.e., U.S.

Middle East policy, the Arab-Israeli conflict, concerns about international

terrorism and current immigration debates. A direct correlation can be found

between times of national crisis and the incidences of anti-Arab hate crimes and

discrimination. Indeed, there was a significant surge in anti-Arab hate crimes

following the U.S. bombing of Libya in the 1980's, as well as during the 1991

Gulf War and in the immediate aftermath of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

Although these crises were not Arab related, Arab Americans find themselves

convenient scapegoats in the rush to pass legislation designed to allay the public's

fears, regardless of the fact that such legislation essentially discriminates (ADC,

1997, p. 3).

60

Where Muslims may be affected by religious prejudices, Arabs are

affected by racial prejudices and are often used as scapegoats to facilitate any number of

political initiatives. Muslim students, who may or may not be Arab, are affected by both

the prejudices held against Muslims due to their religion, as well the prejudices that are

directed toward Arabs since Americans generally believe that Arabs are Muslims, even

though there are Arab Christians and Jews who live in Arab countries.

Muslim Students' Experience in American Academia

Institutions of higher education are concerned with the development of students,

as they make their way through academia. Scholars group theories of student

development into at least three major theoretical schools of thought. These schools of

thought are: "(1) the cognitive-structural theories concerned with intellectual and moral

development, (2) the psychosocial theories concerned with personal and life cycle

development, and (3) the person-environment interaction theories that focus attention

upon the ecology of student life" (Miller & Winston, 1991, p. 12).

The cognitive-structural theories focus on process rather content. They are

concerned with how people learn, think, reason, make decisions, take positions on ethical

issues, and reach conclusions based on available information. These theories are

concerned with how students learn and not what they learn. They seek to describe the

process of change and focuses on cognitive structures that the individual constructs to

61

make sense of environments and the surrounding world. Major contributors to

this field are Piaget, Perry, and Kohlberg.

The psychosocial theories on the other hand are concerned with the content of

what is learned. They consider individual development as a process in which one has to

complete a developmental task that correlates to a chronological age in order to move to

the next stage or phase. A deficiency in any of the developmental stages may hinder the

individual's ability to develop and advance into the next phase or stage. Major

contributors to this school of thought are Erikson, Havighurst, Chickering, Sanford, and

Axelrod.

The person-environment theories focus on behavior as a function of the

interaction between the individual and the environment. They emphasize the importance

of establishing a healthy environment for students' growth and development. They

consist of a number of models, such as physical, human aggregate, perceptual and

structural organizational models. The main components/factors of these models are

heterogeneity/homogeneity, support/challenge balance, social support, social climate, and

the physical environment. The concept central to all of the above factors is congruency.

Researchers have found that for student development to progress in a normal and healthy

manner, congruency must be present between the individual and his/her environment.

Major contributors to this school of thought are Moos, Holland, Pace, Banning, King,

Stern, and Lewin. Furthermore, even though these schools of thought approach

development from a different angle, all of them are needed to approach development in a

62

holistic manner (Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998;

Huebner, 1989; Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard & Associates, 1996;

Miller & Winston, 1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).

Another body of research as equally important to the study of Muslim students'

experience in American academia, is the study of minority students at predominately

white institutions. The research body in this area focuses on the experiences of minority

students of African American, Hispanic, Asian Americans, and Native American origin.

The major concern of these research studies is the role of the perceptions of prejudice and

discrimination on students' retention, adjustment, and feelings of alienation in institutions

of higher education. Researchers are in agreement that minority students are more prone

to face prejudice and discrimination at predominately white institutions. They are also in

agreement that different minority students have different needs and concerns (Cabrera,

Castaneda, Nora, & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995;

Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995).

Furthermore, little or no research has been written about the problems and

concerns of Muslim students while attending American higher education institutions. A

number of searches were conducted to identify relevant literature. The ERIC database

was searched using different keywords. The words "Muslim students" and "prejudice,

discrimination or stereotype" when combined, did not yield any references. However,

when the keyword "Muslim student" alone was used one relevant reference was found.

The reference is an article that was published in New Directions for Teaching and

63

Learning, titled "Respect for Religious Differences: The Case of Muslim

Students." In this article the author identifies four areas of importance to Muslim

students. The article is based on an interview of four Muslim students--two males and

two females of whom two were undergraduates and the other two were graduates. These

areas of concern were identified to be: 1) misrepresentation of Islam by instructors, 2)

instructional material offensive to Muslim students, 3) lack of respect to their own

religion and/or religions in general, and 4) the failure on the part of the professors to

accommodate students' religious practices. (Speck, 1997). Although this study is a brief

one, it is among the first to deal with such issues of concern to Muslim students. It

presents concerns as evaluated by Muslim students themselves. It also provides some

strategies to professors to deal with these issues in a manner acceptable and

accommodating to Muslim students' needs.

Another study was identified by using the keywords "Arab student." The study

found deals with prejudice against Arab students. The study was conducted at the

University of Maryland at College Park and dealt with measuring attitudes of freshman

students regarding Arab students. The results indicated that students held more negative

attitudes in response to situations involving an Arab individual than in response to

identical situations involving a neutrally identified person. The researchers attributed

prejudiced attitudes towards Arabs to ignorance, saying, "In general it is felt that most of

the stereotypes that people in the U.S. have toward Arabs are derived from ignorance of

Arab culture." (Sergent, Woods, & Sedlacek, 1989, p. 7). This study confirms other

64

studies that describe the challenges that face Muslims and Arabs in general. J.

W. Wright (1994-95), in the Journal of Intergroup Relations, reported one such study. In

that study the author speaks of the social distance, discrimination and political conflict in

regard to Arabs. He cites an example by another researcher who notes that "antagonism

toward Arabs in America is manifest in unfounded attitudes about Islamic states and

Arab countries" and that people "persistently asserted that they did not like Arabs because

they were 'barbaric, treacherous,' and 'Muslim.'" (Wright,1994-95).

In another account, Antoun (1994) reports an incident about an Arab student’s

experience in Houston, Texas. He writes: "In 1989 a professor at Texas Southern pointed

to the foreign students in the class including Zayd and said, 'You come here to get an

education which we taxpayers pay for.' " (Antoun, 1994).

Furthermore, a search in The Chronicle of Higher Education database yielded a

number of articles that have a relevance to the subject studied. The first of these articles

is by Jack G. Shaheen, a professor of mass communications at Southern Illinois

University at Edwardsville. He is also an author of a book called TV Arab. In his article

he emphasized the role of the academicians by saying, "Members of the academic

community often play an important role in producing and critically analyzing portraits of

various groups. But most have ignored the harm done by the Arab stereotypes." (1990, p.

B1). However, he warns those who critically analyze portraits of various groups that they

might "risk being accused of being prejudiced themselves or of promoting some hidden

agenda. While researching the image, for example, I was characterized by some

65

academics as an 'anti-Israeli Arab lover' who engages in 'Arab propaganda.' "

(Shaheen, 1990, B1).

Understanding Shaheen's message and that of others like Esposito (1993), who

wrote an article discussing the secular bias of scholars in reference to Islam and Muslims

in which he tries to uncover such biases, Esposito warns:

The less we know, the more we apparently tend to generalize and stereotype.

Moreover, many scholars who analyze Islamic movements have had little or no

actual contact with them. Islam is portrayed as a monolithic political and social

force, just as Communism was depicted as monolithic by scholars, policy makers,

and the news media during the cold war (1993, p. A44).

More specific references that discuss incidents of prejudice and discrimination

against Muslim students found that Muslim students' religious needs are overlooked or

ignored (Leatherman, 1990) or that they were attacked and/or harassed as individuals or

groups ("Assailants Beat," 1991; Heller, 1991; Leatherman, 1996; Shea, 1993; Wilson,

1991).

These articles have one issue in common and that is: These students were attacked

or harassed because they were thought to be either Arabs or Muslims. They also

highlighted the prejudicial attitudes harbored by others towards these students, a situation

that requires the attention of the academic community to intervene and put an end to such

behavior.

66

Muslim Students in Doctoral Research Studies

Previous research on the issues of concern to Muslim students and their

encountering of prejudice and discrimination on the university campus has been limited

to either: 1) the experience of the international student adjustment to a U.S. university

campus or 2) the attitudes of non-Muslim students toward Islam, Muslims, and/or Arabs.

Little research has been devoted to the particular needs of Muslim students in the areas of

academic services, social services, and religious accommodations. Furthermore, a review

of the literature shows that it is clear that no research has been performed on the subject

of if and how Muslim students perceive prejudice and discrimination in academia or in

the general college life atmosphere.

A study focusing on the problems faced by Muslim students while studying on

university campuses was conducted among the members of the Muslim Students

Association of the San Francisco Bay Area. The Michigan International Student Problem

Inventory was used to measure the concerns of the 79 Muslim student participants. Luna

(1993) explores the question: What problems are perceived by Muslim students in

adjusting to life in the United States in the areas of social adjustment, financial

adjustment, academic adjustment and language adjustment? The second part of the

survey attempts to ascertain whether or not Muslim students change their attitude toward

the United States after enrolling in U.S. universities.

67

The researcher's findings reveal that the areas of concern among

Muslim students did not correlate with previous studies carried out among the general

university population. For instance, financial aid and academic achievement were ranked

high among the general population where as religious services, social adjustment and

then financial aid were the three areas of greatest concern for Muslim students.

Analysis of individual responses reveal that the Muslim students often find

themselves in uncomfortable social situations in which their peers immediately

presuppose their feelings and beliefs based upon their religion. One student expressed

the desire not to be labeled or considered an "ideologue." Furthermore, the media were

identified as particularly biased. Finally, many students revealed that forums, such as the

Muslim Students' Association, were among the very few public venues were they felt

safe to express their views, get involved in larger university politics, and interact within

the mores of Islamic dictates (Luna, 1993).

Luna concludes that the necessary cultural orientation of Muslim students has not

been met on University campuses. To this, she recommends that satisfactory orientation

programs be offered to incoming college freshman. Also, trained counselors and

academic advisors must offer special social services for their Muslim student population.

Though the researcher demonstrates that social adjustment ranks high among the

concerns of Muslim students, her research does not reveal the causes of the problems of

adjustment. Furthermore, the area of greatest concern for the subjects is lack of religious

services. Religious facilities to accommodate the unique needs of the Muslim student

68

remain absent from the majority of universities. However, it is unclear from

the research conducted that a lack of services, whether unavailable or unattainable, may

be due to lack of responsiveness on the part of the university administration.

The conclusions of Luna's studies are supported by a more specific study carried

out among Arab male students in 1989. Ibrahim Addou conducted research among 400

Arab male students in the Washington, D.C. area to see whether educational difficulties

were related to selected factors, such as marriage, length of stay in the United States, and

area of study. The instruments used were the Personal Data Inventory (PDI) and the

Educational Difficulty Checklist (EDC). Addou's purpose was to determine the extent of

difficulty of the subjects in the areas of English language proficiency, academic

performance, and educational resources. The research reveals that difficulty did correlate

with age, marital status, area of study and length of stay in the United States. Though not

directly concerned with the issue of prejudice, the study reveals that the university

administration did not provide programs that made the transition between foreign

universities to the American system an easy one. Nor did there exist an adequate social

atmosphere that enabled the new Arab male student to easily cope with American life,

particularly for the unmarried students. Thus, social adjustment and academic facilities

ranked high as areas of problem and difficulty for the international Muslim Arab student

(Addou, 1989).

Muslim students are particularly concerned with maintaining their identity in the

often-hostile environment of university life. Universities, though incorporating aspects of

69

ethnic, racial and religious tolerance in curricula and administration, still

remain largely secular and ambivalent to religious sentiment. A questionnaire designed

to measure the extent of religiosity of Muslim students in universities and other factors,

such as academic status, field of study, number of social science courses taken, length of

stay in the United States, and sect of Islam, was distributed by Pouryousseffi (1984) to

182 Muslim students in Western Michigan University. Similar research had been

conducted among Christian and Jewish students which suggest that the extent of religious

attachment is diminished by these selected factors (other than the influence of sect). The

highly secular state university environment, compounded with peer group influence to

modify behavior to acceptable norms, causes many students to question their religion. In

an environment in which rational and scientific deduction prevails, religious sentiment

would be considered counteractive to the usual growth of awareness and reason that a

university student would experience. Pouryousseffi proposes that the Muslim student

would fall under these pressures and thus exhibit less religious affinity in the university

atmosphere.

His research reveals the contrary, however. Muslim students maintained a high

index of religiosity in the belief dimension, but the ritual dimension of religion remained

rather low. The overall decline of religiosity of Muslim students remained low,

especially in comparison with research carried out among Christian and Jewish students.

Of course, the main drawback of this study was that the research model was based upon

studies for Christian and Jewish students. Islam, though an Abrahamic faith, starkly

70

contrasts with these two religions in the historical attitude toward reason and

the methods of cultural expression, thus making the research method less applicable to

the subjects.

Very pertinent to this study is that although belief remained high, exercising this

belief remained low. Unlike Jews and Christians, Muslims are required to pray five times

a day. This multiple reaffirmation of faith is a key tenet of Islam. The Muslims,

although expressing belief in God and Islam, were not exercising the Islamic rituals,

which confirm this belief. Previous research already confirmed that social adjustment

and religious facilities ranked high among concerns of Muslim students. Pouryousseffi

(1984) does not suggest that lack of religious expression might be tied to lack of religious

facilities provided by the university. Furthermore, his research does not discuss any of

the factors that affect religiosity as they pertain specifically to the Muslim student. Within

the theoretical framework of his discussion, issues of peer group pressure, the secular

university environment, and change in attitude are all discussed. Yet for the Muslim

student, the dimensions of prejudice, American ignorance of Islam, and conflict of

cultures must be added. If taken from those perspectives, the issue of why religiosity is

affected would be made clear.

Furthermore, a study conducted by Hala El-Refaei (1993) at the University of

Houston addressed the problem: What is the relationship between selected nonacademic

factors and the social adjustment of Arab and non-Arab Muslim students attending an

American university? A sample of 113 Muslim students was administered a

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questionnaire concerned with demographic information, language proficiency,

perception of American culture, satisfaction with the United States, and social

adjustment. In regard to perceptions of American culture, 69% disagreed or strongly

disagreed that Americans think highly of their (the Muslim student's) culture. Eighty

percent felt that Americans do not know about their (the Muslim's) culture. Twenty-five

percent felt that they had been discriminated against because of nationality. Ninety-five

percent disagreed or strongly disagreed that American culture was like their own culture.

Regarding social adjustment, homesickness, making personal friends with Americans,

getting involved with social activities with Americans, discrimination, and finances were

listed as the five most troublesome areas. Additional findings revealed that one of the

most important concerns of the Muslim students was preserving their faith.

El-Refaie (1993) recommends that the university administration become more

literate about the foreign students in their universities. The international student should

be educated on the extent of cultural diversity and cultural relativism in the United States.

Ultimately, there must be some kind of adjustment in the teacher's education programs to

promote multiculturalism.

El-Refaie (1993) comes very close to discussing the issues of prejudice. Most

students, though not directly experiencing prejudice, definitely feel ill-adjusted in

American society. The reasons may be cultural isolation, ignorance of other cultures, or

a sense of cultural superiority on the part of the majority population. It is unclear from

the study if any of this sentiment resulted from specific instances of prejudice. Whether

72

the sentiment is a general view stemming from feeling out of place on the part

of the Muslim student or lack of outreach on the part of the majority population is

unclear. Research focusing on the non-Muslim student and Islam may provide some

insight into this subject.

The intellectual development and academic achievement of university students

are intimately tied to the classroom environment and the type and quantity of interaction

with the faculty. Ibtesam Halaweh (1996) conducted research on the perceptions of

Muslim students toward social and faculty interaction, intellectual development, and

personal growth in 1996 among 135 international Muslim students at Ohio University in

Athens. Halaweh argues that formal and informal student-faculty interaction strongly

correlate to the academic success of students. The atmosphere established by faculty, and

peer group attitudes and interaction establish the classroom atmosphere, which enables or

hinders student intellectual growth. Halaweh's purpose was to test these hypotheses on

Muslim students.

The instrument used covered the areas of: 1) personal information, 2) dependent

variables (intellectual development and personal growth), and 3) independent variables

(academic integration, peer relations, social integration, informal faculty relations, faculty

concern, and student commitment). The results of the survey indicate that social and

faculty interaction have an impact on student intellectual development and personal

growth of the Muslim student. Halaweh recommends that "the university and the students

should be responsible for the increase of these [student-faculty] interactions and facilitate

73

them." (1996, p. 67) It is unclear as to whether the research demonstrates

unique methods of interaction needed by the Muslim student, usually within the context

of cross-cultural communication. Also, the attitude of faculty members was not explored

at all; only how the Muslim students "perceived" them was a research interest.

Furthermore, two studies deal with the attitudes of non-Muslim students toward

Islam, Arabs and Muslims. It was these attitudes, measured in a classroom setting, which

contribute to the classroom atmosphere in which a Muslim student is to function and

succeed.

Belkeis Al-Tareb (1997) of Ball State University conducted research on

"Attitudes Toward Muslims: Initial Scale Development." She developed the Attitude

Toward Muslims Scale (ATMS) to ascertain the perception of non-Muslim students

toward Middle Eastern Muslim students. Five focus groups were selected, three with

college student members and two from community churches, totaling 35 people. The

survey revealed that most participants were familiar with Malcolm X and Muslim

athletes. Muslims were also seen as non-Caucasians, and no distinction was made

between Arabs and Muslims. Muslims were seen as individuals who wore robes, had

distinct names, were devout, and consisted of dominant males and subordinate females.

Most groups saw Muslims as culturally different, foreign, and a group to be feared. The

sources of information were movies, Nation of Islam, the oil crisis, and sports figures.

This research, when linked with the following research, gives an insight into the attitudes

that Muslim students encounter in university and non-university environments.

74

Awatef Siam (1993) of the University of Southern California distributed

a questionnaire to students in (a) an Islam course through the Department of Religion and

(b) a course on Muslim societies in the Department of Anthropology. She devised the

questionnaire to deduce American students' perception of Islam and the Arab world, to

detect reasons for their views, and to determine the effect of teaching on the perception of

cultural differences. The findings of the student case studies indicate that the most

negative perceptions of Islam and the Muslims came from the media. Those who

indicated the media (television, radio, newspapers and magazines) as their source of

information had a very negative image. Islam was described as hostile to the West and is

a religion of violence. When history texts served as the source of Islamic education, the

students carried a similar negative perception. This negative perception is due to the

inaccuracy of reporting events in the Muslim world and the general ignorance about

Islam and Muslims. Yet students who had personal contacts with Muslims had a more

accurate view of Islam and the Arab world.

The description of Islam provided by the media focused on (a) stereotyping and

dehumanizing Arabs and Muslims and (b) inaccurate and distorted information. Siam

(1993) then provided a thorough review of newspaper reports, articles, television

programs, and educational literature to provide proof of her theory.

Her research calls for a more balanced understanding of Islam and Muslim to be

presented at universities. The teachers must realize that distorted images exist and must

strive toward providing positive images within a realistic approach. Furthermore, for the

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Muslim student, establishing an atmosphere where social inhibition can

decrease so that positive interaction may occur will naturally diminish the majority of

negative stereotypes. Non-Muslim students who had personal relationships with Muslim

students reported a balanced view of Islam. If the university environment can facilitate

such an atmosphere, by ensuring correct educational instruction and a relaxed social

atmosphere where prejudice is not tolerated, then the Muslim student could easily adjust

to the university setting. At present, as is evidenced by Siam's (1993) research, this

environment does not exist.

Summary

Academicians have a very important role to play in the shaping of the future of

the democratic society in which we live. The literature reviewed clearly outlines the

dangers of prejudice and discrimination. It highlights the fact that Muslims in general

and American Muslims in specific are facing prejudice and discrimination inside and

outside of academia.

As educators we must strive to eradicate the genocidal campaign to defame and

undermine the Muslim presence in North America; a campaign that is lead primarily by a

bias media and ignorant individuals. Academia's role in the effort to halt prejudice and

discrimination is inherent in its promotion of the entertainment and free exchange of

ideas, and a peaceful and civilized exchange of information away from politics.

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This society comprises of people of diverse and multicultural

backgrounds and will remain this way. The challenge, however is to determine how a

real and genuine progress can be made and maintained. This challenge remains to be met

by everyone and especially educators, for they are the teachers of future generations of

Americans!

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CHAPTER 3

Methodology

This chapter describes the methodology of the study. It is divided into sections

describing the general research approach, the sample, and the instrumentation. A

discussion of specific data collection procedures, statistical analysis, and a summary

concludes the chapter.

The study's focus is on Muslim students, as a minority group--a group that no


discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour,

1997). This study included an investigation of Muslim students' perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination while attending colleges and universities and an exploration of their

satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through the study the

researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim students and the

importance of such issues to them as they make their way through academia. This study

was also intended to provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines to

use when interacting with this unique group of students.

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Population

Muslim students who are attending institutions of higher education are the

subjects of this study. No statistics regarding the numbers of Muslim students in higher

education exist due primarily to two factors. First, not all the schools require students to

declare a religious preference; and second, if students make such declarations, not all

Muslim students declare theirs.

However, according to unofficial estimates of the Muslim Students’ Association

of United States & Canada’s (MSA), there are about 300 MSA chapters across the United

States. On the average, these chapters have in their membership 30 students at small

schools, and about 500 students at big schools. Unofficial estimates put the total number

of Muslim Students in the United States at 30,000 to 40,000.

Sample

The study focuses on Muslim students in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan

area. These three institutions are designated as the local sample and they will be referred

to as Grp 1, Grp 2, and Grp 3.

The three schools have active MSA chapters and hold weekly Friday prayers

service in addition to other activities. These schools also represent a variety of four-year

higher education institutions. Grp 1 is a private, predominately white, non-religious

school with an active Muslim population of about 200 students. Grp 2 is a private,

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predominately white, religious school with an active Muslim population of

about 50 students. Grp 3 is a public, predominately white school with an active Muslim

population of about 200 students.

An additional sample in this study is drawn from among the 600 students

attending the MSA's 1997 annual national conference and from the 200 subscribers to the

MSA chapters’ leadership e-mail list (MSA-ORG). The additional sample was used for

comparison and validation purposes with the local sample. (See Table 1 for groups

participating in the study.)

The sample type is what is known as "availability sampling" or "convenience

sample" as defined by McMillan and Schumacher. According to these scholars, "this

form of sampling is the most common type in educational research [and] involves using

whatever subjects are available to researcher. This may, for example be a class of

students or a group of subjects gathered for a meeting" (1989, p. 161). McMillan &

Schumacher list two major limitations with the above sample type. These limitations are:

Table 1: Groups Participating In the Study

95 20.3 20.3 20.3

98 20.9 20.9 41.2

44 9.4 9.4 50.5

232 49.5 49.5 100.0

469 100.0 100.0

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

Groups

Number ofParticipants Percent Valid Percent

CumulativePercent

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1) the sample may not be representative of the larger population, and 2) there

may be a bias to the available sample (i.e., volunteers vs. non-volunteers) (1989).

The study should avoid such limitations, first, by the fact that the surveyed

students come from both local and national samples, which in turn are representative of

the population. Second, although the sample is a volunteer sample, in the case of Muslim

students, those who participate in MSA activities are by default a volunteer group of

students because not all Muslim students at a university are members of MSA. Thus, this

should minimize the effect of the above-mentioned limitations.

Instrumentation

The survey research method is employed to collect data. A questionnaire was

developed by the researcher (see Appendix A). An optional incentive of a chance to win

free software was offered for the completion of the questionnaire. The questionnaire

consists of four parts.

Part I

The first part contains demographic data, such as gender, school, year in school,

grade point average (GPA), age, martial status, ethnic background, nationality, etc. The

participants were required to check the appropriate items.

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Part II

The second part consists of 13 items. The first 8 items measure perceptions of

prejudices, item 9 and 10 measure feelings of alienation, and items 11 through 13

measure satisfaction with academic experience. All items were measured using a five-

point Likert scaling technique. The scale ranges are "strongly agree" as 1, "agree" as 2,

"undecided" as 3, "disagree" as 4, and "strongly disagree" as 5.

For content and construct validity, items in Part II are based on a series of studies

done at Arizona State University that measure perceptions of prejudice and

discrimination. These measures are divided into three dimensions: (a) Racial/Ethnic

Climate on Campus, (b) Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff, and (c) In-Class

Discriminatory Experiences. Researchers used a fourth dimension as a measure of

Feelings of Alienation. They hypothesized that if students experience prejudice and

discrimination, students then would feel alienated and do not belong in their institutions.

Moreover, researchers also included a fifth dimension that measures students' satisfaction

with their academic experience (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate Dimension. This dimension measures the

students' sense of global (the general atmosphere on a university campus) perception of

prejudice and discrimination based on race and ethnicity. It is concerned with whether

students have observed discriminatory words or gestures. The four indicators designated

are: (a) I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors or gestures directed at minority

students at this institution, (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among

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students, (c) I have encountered racism while attending this institution, and (d)

I have heard negative words about people of my own race or ethnicity while attending

classes (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension. This dimension deals with

students’ perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority

students. The two indicators designated are: (a) I feel there is a general atmosphere of

prejudice among faculty at this institution, and (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of

prejudice among academic staff at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

In-Class Discriminatory Experiences Dimension. This dimension uncovers

experiences and accounts of prejudice and discrimination inside the classroom. The two

indicators designated are: (a) I have been discouraged from participating in class

discussions, and (b) I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other

students (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

Alienation Dimension. Feeling of alienation is usually an outcome of feelings of

prejudice and discriminations. The two indicators designated to measure feelings of

alienation are: (a) Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience, and (b) I feel

I belong at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994 & 1996).

Satisfaction with Academic Experience Dimension. Satisfaction with students'

academic experience was measured with three items on the questionnaire. These items

are: (a) I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since attending this

institution, (b) My academic experience has had a positive influence on my intellectual

83

growth and interest in ideas, and (c) I am satisfied with my academic

experience at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1996). The results are also compared with

student’s GPA to determine whether any relationship exists between feelings of prejudice

and discrimination on the one hand and satisfaction level regarding academic experience,

on the other hand.

Part III

The Literature review suggests that a number of issues concern Muslim students.

These issues can be grouped into three dimensions: (a) Religious Dimension, (b) Social

Dimension, and (c) Academic Dimension. (Abdul-Rauf, 1993; Addou, 1989; Barazangi,

1991; El-Refaie, 1993; Haddad & Lummis 1987; Luna, 1993; Speck, 1997).

The third part consists of 19 items. For content validity, these items were

developed, in addition to the review of the literature and feedback by a panel of experts,

by conducting a survey of more than 200 college students across the United States and

Canada. These students were asked to list the 3 most important issues/concerns that they

consider important while attending college.

Issues that are of concern/importance to Muslim students.

1. Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer (s) on campus

2. Halal meals served on campus

3. Availability of scholarship fund

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4. Interest free loans

5. No classes on Eid Holidays

6. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in class/campus

7. Social/peer support group on campus

8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus

9. Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa

10. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus

11. Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community

12. Academic achievement

13. Having a Muslim student association on campus

14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity

15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims

16. Muslim room-mate

17. Unity of Muslim students on campus

18. Observing Islamic dress code

19. Adjustment to college/university life

These issues then were grouped and combined by the researcher as follows:

Religious Dimension items (1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18), Social Dimension

items (7, 8, 13, and 16), and Academic Dimension items (3, 4, 6, 12, and 19).

85

Students participating in this study were asked to choose the 5 most

important issues in their opinion. They were given the chance to write-in any issue that

they might feel left out by the researcher. There were no write-in issues that were added.

Part IV

In Part IV, students were asked to rank all of the 19 issues in accordance to their

importance, as they perceive them. A five-point Likert scale ranges were used as follows:

"extremely important" as 1, "very important" as 2, "important" as 3, "less important" as 4,

and "not important" as 5. In this section students were given the choice to rank issues, as

they perceive their importance.

Reliability

Reliability is the level of internal consistency of a measuring device. The

Cronbach Alpha is usually used to assess the reliability of a questionnaire. It is the most

appropriate technique for survey research in which ranges of answers are possible for

each item (McMillan & Schumacher, 1989, p. 248). The reliability coefficient for Part II

of the questionnaire, which measure feelings of prejudice and discrimination, alienation

and satisfaction with academic experience, is (α = .87). It should be noted that items 9 to

13 in Part II were re-coded to be consistent with the rest of the items. Moreover, the

reliability coefficient for Part IV of the questionnaire, which record the importance level

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of the different issues of concerns and importance, is (α = .89). Both levels of

reliability indicate a high level of internal reliability.

Data Collection Procedures

MSA chapters at Grp 1, Grp 2, and Grp 3 were contacted to arrange for survey

distribution during each chapter's main events, such as the Friday prayer service and

general body meetings. The researcher went to these events and made brief presentations

about the study's purpose and significance. The actual data collection took place during

the fall of 1997. Data entry and coding took place during the 1998 Spring semester.

Data analysis was conducted and completed during the month of June 1998.

Students were given the choice to fill an actual printed form or send in an e-mail

version (See Table 2). They were also given the choice to include their contact

information for drawing purposes (See Table 3).

Table 2: Students' Choices of Survey Format

365 77.8 77.8 77.8

104 22.2 22.2 100.0

469 100.0 100.0

Written Format

E-mail Format

Total

Choice

Number ofParticipants Percent

ValidPercent

CumulativePercent

87

Table 3: Students' Choice to Provide Contact Information

345 73.6 73.6 73.6

124 26.4 26.4 100.0

469 100.0 100.0

Yes

No

Total

Choice

Number ofParticipants Percent

ValidPercent

CumulativePercent

Data Analysis

The data analysis generated by the responses were performed using the SPSS/PC

for Windows, version 8.0, statistical package software. Demographic information was

analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as frequencies. Research Questions 1, 1.2, 2,

and 2.2, measuring perceptions of prejudice and discrimination and issues of concerns

and importance to Muslim students, were analyzed by using descriptive statistics--

including frequencies of numbers and percentages, means, and standard deviation--for

responses assigned to each item by participating students.

Inferential statistics, including one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and

Sheffe-post-hoc comparisons, were used to answer research hypothesis 1. An

independent t-test was used to answer research questions 2 and 8, comparing both local

and national samples. Two-way analysis of variance was employed to answer research

hypotheses 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. It compared each of the different institutions

with the national sample, using the independent variables, gender, place of birth,

88

educational level, and ethnicity in reference to the dependent variables,

perceptions of prejudice and discrimination dimensions and issues of importance

dimensions. Research hypothesis 14 was answered using the Pearson Product Moment

correlation coefficient test to uncover any relationship between feelings of prejudice and

discrimination and satisfaction with academic experience. The 0.05 level of significance,

unless otherwise indicated, was used in hypothesis testing as the level accepted and

commonly used for statistical analysis in the social sciences.

Summary


metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population of the local participants

were drawn. Another sample was selected from among participants in national activities

of the national MSA. The purpose was to measure Muslim students' perceptions of

prejudice and discrimination and also to determine the important issues and concerns to

Muslim students.

The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part consists of

basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous studies

measuring students' perceptions of prejudice and discrimination, feelings of alienation,

and satisfaction with academic experience. Parts III and IV, highlighting issues of

concern and importance to Muslim students, were developed by the researcher, utilizing

89

information collected from prior literature review, panel of experts, and

empirical research conducted by the researcher.

Descriptive statistics (including numbers, percentages, means, standard

deviations) as well as inferential statistics (including one- and two-way ANOVA,

independent t-test, and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were

employed to report demographic data and to answer research questions and hypotheses.

90

CHAPTER 4

Findings

Overview








when dealing with this unique group of students. This chapter presents demographic

characteristics of respondents, analysis of the data and presentation of findings, and a

summary.

91

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The following section presents demographic characteristics of students who

participated in the study:

Gender

The total number of local and national participants were 469. The breakdown of

these numbers is as follows (N=466): Locally, male participants were 131 (55.5%), and

female participants were of 105 (44.5%). Nationally, male participants were 142 (61.7%)

and female participants were 88 (38.3%). The total of local male participants were 273

(58.6%). The total of female participants were females 193 (41.4%). For a breakdown

by each school, see Table 4.

Table 4

Participants' Gender by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalGender

N % N % N % N % N %Male

64 27.1 48 20.3 19 8.1 131 55.5 142 61.7

Female30 12.7 50 21.1 25 10.6 105 44.5 88 38.3

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Age:

Ages of participants are grouped into three ranges. The first range is 20 years of

age or younger, the second is 21 years of age to 24 years, and the third range is 25 years

of age or older.

The age ranges of the participants are: The first range is 110 (47.4%) locally and

82 (37.1%) nationally; the second range is 67 (28.9%) locally and 90 (40.7%) nationally;

and the third range is 55 (23.7%) locally and 49 (22.2%) nationally. The total age ranges

are: the first age range is 192 (42.4%); the second age range is 157 (34.7%); and the third

age range is 104 (23%). For a breakdown by each school, see Table 5.

Table 5

Participants' Age Ranges by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNational

Age Range

N % N % N % N % N %

Under20 yrs 38 16.4 56 24.1 16 7 110 47.4 82 37.1

Between21-24 26 11.2 25 10.8 16 7 67 28.9 90 40.7

25 & Older29 12.5 16 7 10 4.3 55 23.7 49 22.2

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Educational Level

Participants' educational level is as follows: 173 (74.6%) local undergraduates and

59 (25.4%) local graduates; 150 (66.1%) national undergraduates and 77 (33.9%)

national graduates. In addition, there are 323 (70.4%) local and national undergraduates

and 136 (29.6%) local and national graduates. For breakdown by each school, see Table

6.

Table 6

Participants' Educational Level by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalEducational

LevelN % N % N % N % N %

Under-graduate 61 26.3 82 35.3 30 12.9 173 74.6 150 66.1

Graduate31 13.4 14 6 14 6 59 25.4 77 33.9

GPA

The GPA is reported in a range format: The first range is below 2.0, the second

range is between 2.0 and 2.5; the third range is between 2.6 and 3.0; the fourth range is

between 3.1 and 3.5; and the fifth range is above 3.5. Participants' GPA ranges are as

follows: The first range is none for local participants and only 4 (1.9%) from national

participants; the second range is 17 (7.5%) local and 19 (9%) national; the third range is

94

32 (14.1%) local 28 (13.3%) national; the fourth range is 88 (38.8%) local and

70 (33.2%) national; and the fifth range 90 (39.6%) local and 90 (42.7%) national.

The overall totals are as follows: The first range 4 (0.9%), the second range 36

(8.2%), the third range 60 (13.7%), the fourth range 158 (36.1%), and the fifth range 180

(41.1%). For a breakdown by each school, see Table 7.

Table 7

Participants' GPA Ranges by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalGPA

N % N % N % N % N %

Below 2.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1.9

Between2.0 - 2.5 7 3.1 10 4.4 0 0 17 7.5 19 9

Between2.6 - 3.0 10 4.4 22 9.7 0 0 32 14.1 28 13.3

Between3.1 - 3.5 34 14.98 39 17.2 15 6.6 88 38.8 70 33.2

Above 3.5 39 17.2 22 9.7 29 12.8 90 39.6 90 42.7

Born In North America

Participants were asked about whether they were born in North America or not

born in North America. Eighty-one (34.5%) of local participants were born in North

America, and 154 (65.5%) were not. And 104 (46%) of national participants were born

in North America, and 122 (54%) were not. The overall totals are 185 (40.1%) were born

95

in North America and 276 (59.9%) were not. For a breakdown by each school,

see Table 8.

Table 8

Participants' Place of Birth by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalPlace of

BirthN % N % N % N % N %

Born InNorth

America28 11.9 27 11.5 26 11.1 81 34.5 104 46

Not Born InNorth

America66 28.1 71 30.2 17 7.2 154 65.5 122 54

Nationality

Participants were asked about their nationality, whether they are American,

Canadian, or other. One hundred thirty (55.6%) local participants were American and

134 (58.5%) national participants were American. None of the local participants were

Canadian and 39 (17%) of the national participants were Canadian. One hundred four

(44.4%) local participants and 56 (24.4%) national participants were neither American

nor Canadian.

The total numbers of participants who were American citizens were 264 (57%).

The total number of Canadian participants was 39 (8.4%), and the total number of other

participants was 160 (34.5%). For a breakdown by each school, see Table 9.

96

Table 9

Participants' Nationality by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalNationality

N % N % N % N % N %

USCitizen 35 15 59 25.2 36 15.4 130 55.6 134 58.5

CanadianCitizen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 17

None of theAbove 59 25.2 37 15.8 8 3.4 104 44.4 56 24.4

Ethnicity of Participants

Participants were asked about their ethnicity. Three (1.3%) local participants and

5 (2.2%) national participants were African American. Seventy (29.7%) local

participants and 124 (54.1%) national participants were from Indian or Pakistani origin

(Indo-Pak). One hundred-seven (45.3%) local participants and 77 (33.6%) national

participants were Arabs. Nineteen (8.1%) local participants and 8 (3.5%) national

participants were Asian. Ten (4.2%) local participants and 6 (2.6%) national participants

were White American. Twenty-seven (11.4%) local participants and 9 (3.9%) national

participants were other ethnicity. For a breakdown by each school, see Table 10.

97

Table 10

Participants' Ethnicity by Groups

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalEthnicity

N % N % N % N % N %

AfricanAmerican 0 0 1 .4 2 .9 3 1.3 5 2.2

Indo-Pak 24 10.2 27 11.4 19 8.1 70 29.7 124 54.1

Arab 54 22.9 41 17.4 12 5.1 107 45.3 77 33.6

Asian 12 5.1 5 2.1 2 .9 19 8.1 8 3.5

WhiteAmerican 2 .9 5 2.1 3 1.3 10 4.2 6 2.6

Other 3 1.3 18 7.6 6 2.5 27 11.4 9 3.9

Graduated from High School in North America

Participants were asked whether they graduated from high school in North

America or not. One hundred thirty seven (62.3%) local participants and 148 (68.8%)

national participant graduated from high school in North America. Eighty-three (37.7%)

local participants and 67 (31.2%) national participants on the other hand did not graduate

from high school in North America.

The overall totals are as follows: 285 (65.5%) who graduated from high school in

North America vs. 150 (34.5%) who did not. For a breakdown by each school, see Table

11.

98

Table 11

Participants' Graduation Status from High School

Local


Grad.H.S.

In NorthAmerica N % N % N % N % N %

Did 40 18.2 65 29.6 32 14.6 137 62.3 148 68.8

DidNot 49 22.3 25 11.4 9 4.1 83 37.7 67 31.2

Live on Campus

Participants were asked whether they lived on campus. Forty-two (18.7%) of

local participants lived on campus, and 183 (81.3%) did not. Fifty-six (25.1%) of

national participants lived on campus, and 167 (74.9%) did not. The overall totals are as

follows: 98 (21.9%) lived on campus, and 350 (78.1%) did not. For a breakdown by each

school, see Table 12.

99

Table 12

Participants' Housing Status

Local


LiveOn

CampusN % N % N % N % N %

Yes 18 8 3 1.3 21 9.3 42 18.7 56 25.1

No 73 32.4 89 39.6 21 9.3 183 81.3 167 74.9

Marital Status

Participants were asked about their marital status. Participants were asked to

choose one of the following options: single, married, or other. Two hundred seven

(87.7%) local participants were single, 28 (11.9%) were married, and 1 (0.4%) was other.

On the other hand, 175 (77.8%) national participants were single, 44 (19.6%) were

married, and 6 (2.7%) were other.

The overall totals are as follows: 382 (82.9%) were singles, 72 (15.6%) were

married, and 7 (1.5%) were other. For breakdown by each school, see Table 13.

100

Table 13

Participants' Marital Status

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalMarital

StatusN % N % N % N % N %

Single 80 33.9 88 37.3 39 16.5 207 87.7 175 77.8

Married 14 5.9 10 4.2 4 1.7 28 11.9 44 19.6

Other 0 0 0 0 1 0.4 1 0.4 6 2.7

Provided Contact Information on Survey

Participants were given the choice to provide their contact information since a

drawing was offered. One hundred sixty five (69.6%) local participants did leave some

sort of contact information, and 72 (30.4%) local participants chose not to do so. One

hundred seventy nine (77.5%) national participants chose to provide contact information,

and 52 (22.5%) national participants chose not to do so.

The overall totals were, 344 (73.5%) participants chose to leave contact

information and 124 (26.5%) chose not to do so. For a breakdown by each school, see

Table 14.

101

Table 14

Participants' Contact Information Status

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalContact

InformationN % N % N % N % N %

Provide 58 24.8 78 32.9 29 12.2 165 69.6 179 77.5

DidNot 37 15.6 20 8.4 15 6.3 72 30.4 52 22.5

Survey Format

Participants were given the choice to either fill surveys manually or to submit

them electronically via e-mail. There were 185 (78.1%) local participants who filled the

survey manually, and 52 (21.9%) who submitted it electronically. On the other hand, 180

(77.9%) national participants filled the survey manually, and 51 (22.1%) who submitted

it electronically.

The overall participants who filled the survey manually were 344 (73.5%) vs. 124

(26.5%) who submitted it electronically. For a breakdown by each school, see Table 15.

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Table 15

Participants' Choice of Survey Format

Local

GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 TotalNationalSurvey

FormatN % N % N % N % N %

Written 67 28.3 75 31.7 43 18.1 185 78.1 180 77.9

E-mail 28 11.8 23 9.7 1 .4 52 21.9 51 22.1

103

Analysis of Data/ Presentation of Findings

This section presents an analysis of data, provides answers to research questions,

and tests the hypotheses.

Research Question 1

Do Muslim Students perceive that they face prejudice and discrimination while

attending college/university?

Findings

Part II, items 1 to 10, of the questionnaire provides answers to research question

one of the study (See Table 16.) There are four dimensions by which the respondents

give their opinion about their perception of prejudice and discrimination (Part II of the

questionnaire). These four dimensions are, Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate (Part II, items

1-4), Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff (Part II, items 5-6), In-Class

Discriminatory Experiences (Part II, items 7-8), and Feelings of Alienation (Part II, items

9-10).

Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate

Statement 1: (I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors, or gestures

directed at minority students at my college/university.) Forty-eight percent of students

from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they have observed

discriminatory words, behaviors, or gestures directed at minority students at their

104

colleges/universities, and 37.3% either disagreed or strongly disagreed with

the statement.

Statement 2: (I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among students.)

Thirty-eight percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed

that they feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among students, and 38% either

disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement.

Statement 3: (I have encountered racism while attending my college/university.)

Thirty-seven percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed

that they have encountered racism while attending college/university, and 40.1% either


Statement 4: (I have heard negative words about people of my own race or

ethnicity while attending classes.) Forty-seven percent of students from all the local

institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they have heard negative words about people

of their own race or ethnicity while attending classes, and 38.1% either disagreed or

strongly disagreed with the statement.

Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff

Statement 5: (I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among faculty at

my college/university.) Twenty-eight percent of students from all the local institutions

agreed or strongly agreed that they feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among

faculty at their college/university, and 43.3% either disagreed or strongly disagreed with

the statement.

105

Statement 6: (I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among

academic staff at my college/university.) Twenty-six percent of students from all the

local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they feel there is a general atmosphere of

prejudice among academic staff at their college/university, and 43.8% either disagreed or


In-Class Discriminatory Experiences

Statement 7: (I have been discouraged from participating in class discussions.)

Twelve percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that

they have been discouraged from participating in class discussion, and 74.5% either


Statement 8: (I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other

students.) Fifteen percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly

agreed that they have been singled out in class and treated differently than other students,

and 73% either disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement.

Feelings of Alienation

Statement 9: (Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience.) Sixty-

seven percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that

being a student at their institution is a pleasant experience, and 12.9% either disagreed or


Statement 10: (I feel I belong at my college/university.) Sixty-four percent of

students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they feel they belong

106

at their college/university, and 12.7% who either disagreed or strongly

disagreed with the statement.

107

Table 16

Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Responses to Part II of Questionnaire, Dealing with Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination

StronglyAgree

Agree Undecided Disagree StronglyDisagree x SD

StatementN % N % N % N % N %

1. I have observed discriminatory words,behaviors or gestures directed at minoritystudents at my college/university.

32 13.6 82 34.7 34 14.4 58 24.6 30 12.7 2.9 1.3

2. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among students. 19 8.1 70 29.9 56 23.9 67 28.6 22 9.4 3.0 1.1

3. I have encountered racism while attendingmy college/university. 24 10.3 62 26.5 54 23.1 63 26.9 31 13.2 3.1 1.2

4. I have heard negative words about peopleof my own race or ethnicity while attendingclasses.

27 11.4 83 35.2 36 15.3 63 26.7 27 11.4 2.9 1.2

5. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among faculty at mycollege/university.

19 8.2 47 20.2 66 28.3 72 30.9 29 12.4 3.2 1.1

6. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among academic staff at mycollege/university.

16 6.8 45 19.1 71 30.2 78 33.2 25 10.6 3.2 1.1

7. I have been discouraged fromparticipating in class discussions. 13 5.5 15 6.4 32 13.6 77 32.6 99 41.9 4.0 1.1

(table continues...)

108

Table 16

Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Responses to Part II of Questionnaire, Dealing with Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination

StronglyAgree

Agree Undecided Disagree StronglyDisagree x SD

StatementN % N % N % N % N %

8. I have been singled out in class andtreated differently than other students. 15 6.4 20 8.5 28 12 71 30.3 100 42.7 3.9 1.2

9. Being a student at this institution is apleasant experience. 59 25.2 98 41.9 47 20.1 24 10.3 6 2.6 2.2 1.0

10. I feel I belong at my college/university.59 25 92 39 55 23.3 18 7.6 12 5.1 1.8 .36

109

Research Question 1.2

If perceptions of prejudice and discrimination are present, to what extent do they

affect the satisfaction of Muslim students with their academic experience?

Findings

Reference to academic experience is found in Part II of questionnaire, items 11 to

13. These items measure the students' own satisfaction with their academic experience.

(See Table 17.)

Satisfaction with Academic Experience

Statement 11: (I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since

attending my college/university.) Sixty-six percent of students from all the local

institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they are satisfied with the extent of their

intellectual development since attending their college/university, and 13.6 percent either


Statement 12: (My academic experience has had a positive influence on my

intellectual growth and interest in ideas.) Seventy-three percent of students from all the

local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that their academic experience has had a

positive influence on their intellectual growth and interest in ideas, and 9.8% either


Statement 13: (I am satisfied with my academic experience at my

college/university.) Sixty-four percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or

strongly agreed that they are satisfied with their academic experience at their

110

college/university, and 17.5% who either disagreed or strongly disagreed with

the statement.

It is worth mentioning that the GPA scores among the local participants as well as

the national participants are high. Ninety-three percent of local participants have a GPA

of either 2.6 or higher, compared to 89.2% of the national participants. (See Table 7.)

111

Table 17:

Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Satisfaction with Their Academic Experience

StronglyAgree

Agree Undecided Disagree StronglyDisagree x SDStatement

N % N % N % N % N %

11. I am satisfied with the extent of myintellectual development since attending mycollege/university.

44 18.7 111 47.2 48 20.4 24 10.2 8 3.4 1.5 .50

12. My academic experience has had apositive influence on my intellectual growthand interest in ideas.

61 25.8 111 47 41 17.4 20 8.5 3 1.3 1.7 .44

13. I am satisfied with my academicexperience at my college/university. 55 23.5 95 40.6 43 18.4 33 14.1 8 3.4 1.6 .50

112

Research Question 2

What are the perceived main issues/needs to Muslim students while attending

college?

Findings

The top 10 issues that were chosen by participants (from three local universities) from

among the 19 issues (see Table 18) that were listed in the questionnaire are:

Rank Issue (number refers to order on issues list) % N

1. Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus (1) 75.0 178

2. Clarifying misinformation about Islam (11) 54.0 129

3. Having a Muslim student association on campus (13) 41.0 97

4. No classes on Eid Holidays (5) 40.0 94

5. Halal meals served on campus (2) 36.0 85

6. Unity of Muslim students on campus (17) 34.0 80

7. Academic achievement (12) 27.0 64

8. Availability of scholarship fund (3) 27.0 64

9. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity (14) 27.0 64

10. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims (15) 22.0 52

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Table 18

Local Participants' Choices of Issues of Importance/Concerns

Chosen byIssues of Importance/Concerns

N %

1. Place for observance of daily/FridayPrayer (s) on campus 178 75

2. Halal meals served on campus85 36

3. Availability of scholarship fund64 27

4. Interest free loans41 17

5. No classes on Eid Holidays94 40

6. Concerned/bothered with interaction withthe opposite sex in class/campus 13 6

7. Social/peer support group on campus23 10

8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus49 21

9.Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa42 18

10. Dealing with prejudice anddiscrimination on campus 37 16

11. Clarifying misinformation about Islamto peers/campus community 129 54

12. Academic achievement64 27

13. Having a Muslim student association oncampus 97 41

14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity64 27

15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims52 22

16. Muslim room-mate14 6


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Table 18

Local Participants' Choices of Issues of Importance/Concerns

Chosen byIssues of Importance/Concerns

N %

17. Unity of Muslim students on campus80 34

18. Observing Islamic dress code22 10

19. Adjustment to college/university life22 9

Research Question 2.1

How important are these issues/needs to Muslim students?

Findings

In Part IV, local participants were asked to rank the 19 issues/concerns that fall in

three major dimensions: the Religious, Social, and Academic Dimensions. The Likert

scale was used. The scale is coded according to the format: "Extremely Important,"

"Very Important," "Important," "Less Important," and "Not Important." Extremely

Important, Very Important, and Important were coded as 1, 2, and 3, respectively. (See

Table 19.)

The Religious Dimension

Issue 1: (Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus.) Ninety-

seven percent of participating students from the 3 local institutions feel that it is

115

extremely important, very important, or important to have a place for

observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus.

Issue 2: (Halal meals served on campus.) Eighty-three percent of participating

students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very

important, or important to have Halal meals served on campus.

Issue 5: (No classes on Eid Holidays). Eighty-two percent of participating


important, or important to have no classes on Eid Holidays.

Issue 9: (Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa). Eighty-four percent of

participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important,

very important, or important to have Islamic Tarbiyyah program/Halaqa.

Issue 10: (Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus.) Eighty-five

percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely

important, very important, or important to deal with prejudice and discrimination on

campus.

Issue 11: (Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community.)

Ninety-six percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is

extremely important, very important, or important to clarify misinformation about Islam

to peers/campus community.

116

Issue 14: (Preserving one’s own Islamic identity.) Ninety-five percent

of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely

important, very important, or important to preserve one's own Islamic identity.

Issue 15: (Making Da’wah to non-Muslims.) Eighty-eight percent of participating

students from the three local institutions feels that it is extremely important, very

important, or important to make Da'wah to non-Muslims, inviting them to Islam.

Issue 17: (Unity of Muslim students on campus.) Ninety-two percent of

participating students from the three local institutions regard the unity of Muslim students

on campus as either extremely important, very important, or important.

Issue 18: (Observing Islamic dress code.) Seventy-five percent of participating


important, or important to observe their Islamic dress code (especially for female Muslim

students).

Social Dimension

Issue 7: (Social/peer support group on campus.) Eighty-two percent of

participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important,

very important, or important to have social/peer support group on campus.

Issue 8: (Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus.) Eighty-five percent of participating


important, or important to have an advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus.

117

Issue 13: (Having a Muslim student association on campus.) Ninety-

five percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is

extremely important, very important, or important to have a Muslim student association

on campus.

Issue 16: (Muslim room-mate.) Sixty-seven percent of participating students

from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very important, or

important to have a Muslim roommate.

Academic Dimension

Issue 3: (Availability of scholarship fund.) Eighty-six percent of participating


important, or important to have scholarship funds available.

Issue 4: (Interest-free loans). Eighty percent of participating students from the

three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very important, or important to

have interest-free loans.

Issue 6: (Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in

class/campus.) Fifty-four percent of participating students from the three local

institutions concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in class/campus.

Issue 12: (Academic achievement.) Ninety-six percent of participating students

from the three local institutions regard academic achievement as either extremely

important, very important, or important.

118

Issue 19: (Adjustment to college/university life.) Eighty-nine percent

of participating students from the three local institutions regard the adjustment to

college/university life as either extremely important, very important, or important.

119

Table 19

Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Ranking of Issues of Importance/Concerns

ExtremelyImportant

VeryImportant Important

LessImportant

NotImportant

x SDIssues of Importance/Concerns

N % N % N % N % N %1. Place for observance of daily/Fridayprayer(s) on campus 187 82 18 7.9 16 7 2 .9 5 2.2 1.3 .8

2. Halal meals served on campus67 29.4 60 26.3 62 27.2 30 13.2 9 3.9 2.4 1.2

3. Availability of scholarship fund74 32.9 46 20.4 73 32.4 25 11.1 7 3.1 2.3 1.1

4. Interest-free loans82 37.4 42 19.2 51 23.3 30 13.7 14 6.4 2.3 1.7

5. No classes on Eid Holidays83 37.9 49 22.4 47 21.5 28 12.8 12 5.5 2.3 1.2

6. Concerned/bothered with interaction withthe opposite sex in class/campus 36 16.4 30 13.7 53 24.2 52 23.7 48 21.9 3.2 1.4

7. Social/peer support group on campus48 21.9 59 26.9 73 33.3 34 15.5 5 2.3 2.4 1.1

8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus65 29.7 58 26.5 63 28.8 20 9.1 13 5.9 2.4 1.2

9.Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa67 30.6 59 26.9 57 26 23 10.5 13 5.9 2.3 1.2

10. Dealing with prejudice anddiscrimination on campus 74 34.1 52 24 59 27.2 22 10.1 10 4.6 2.3 1.2


120

Table 19

Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Ranking of Issues of Importance/Concerns

ExtremelyImportant

VeryImportant Important

LessImportant

NotImportant

x SDIssues of Importance/Concerns

N % N % N % N % N %11. Clarifying misinformation about Islamto peers/campus community 150 66.7 40 17.8 26 11.6 4 1.8 5 2.2 1.6 .9

12. Academic achievement137 62.3 45 20.5 28 12.7 6 2.7 4 1.8 1.6 .9

13. Having a Muslim student association oncampus 141 63.8 48 21.7 21 9.5 7 3.2 4 1.8 1.6 .9

14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity151 68.6 45 20.5 13 5.9 5 2.3 6 2.7 1.5 .9

15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims85 39.5 52 24.2 52 24.2 13 6 13 6 2.1 1.2

16. Muslim room-mate57 26.1 36 16.5 53 24.3 44 20.2 28 12.8 2.8 1.4

17. Unity of Muslim students on campus125 56.6 56 25.3 23 10.4 9 4.1 8 3.6 1.7 1

18. Observing Islamic dress code65 29.3 46 20.7 56 25.2 25 11.3 30 13.5 2.6 1.4

19. Adjustment to college/university life57 26.1 56 25.7 82 37.6 19 8.7 4 1.8 2.3 1

121

Research Hypothesis 1

Muslim students, in different institutions, have similar feelings regarding


Findings

Significance was found only on the first dimension, Campus Racial/Ethnic

Climate, which combines the first four items in Part II of the questionnaire. xGRP 1 = 3.1,

xGRP 2 = 2.8, xGRP 3 = 3.0 (F = 3.2, p= .044 <.05). (See Table 20). However, the Scheffe's

test of post hoc was not significant; indirectly the existing differences are other than

between pairs of groups.

Table 20

Analysis of Variance of Dimensions that Measure Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination

Statement Group N Mean SD F P Pairwise Comparison Sig.

Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate GRP 1 93 3.1 .9 3.2 .044* NoneGRP 2 96 2.8 .9GRP 3 43 3.0 1.0

* Denotes significance at .05 level

122


Muslim students, locally and nationally, have the same perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination.

Findings

An independent t-test was applied to compare mean scores of the local and

national participants. The results did not yield any significant difference; i.e. both groups

of students showed similar perceptions. (See Table 21.)

Table 21

Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Feelings of Prejudice andDiscrimination

Statement Groups Nx

SD t PLocal 236 2.9 1.31. I have observed discriminatory words,

behaviors or gestures directed at minoritystudents at my college/university.

National 230 2.7 1.3 1.682 .93

Local 234 3.0 1.12. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among students. National 231 2.9 1.1 .750 .454

Local 234 3.0 1.23. I have encountered racism whileattending my college/university.

National 229 3.0 1.3.401 .689

Local 236 2.9 1.24. I have heard negative words aboutpeople of my own race or ethnicity whileattending classes.

National 231 2.9 1.3-.096 .923

Local 233 3.2 1.15. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among faculty at mycollege/university.

National 228 3.2 1.0 -.725 .469

Local 235 3.2 1.16. I feel there is a general atmosphere ofprejudice among academic staff at mycollege/university.

National 228 3.2 1.1 -.047 .962


123

Table 21

Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Feelings of Prejudice andDiscrimination

Statement Groups Nx

SD t PLocal 236 4.0 1.47. I have been discouraged from

participating in class discussions.National 231 4.0 1.1

-.544 .586

Local 234 3.9 1.28. I have been singled out in class andtreated differently than other students.

National 231 3.8 1.2.852 .394

Local 234 2.2 1.09. Being a student at this institution is apleasant experience.

National 231 2.2 1.0-.079 .937

Local 236 2.3 1.110. I feel I belong at mycollege/university. National 230 2.4 1.1 -1.159 .247


Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America at

each institution and nationally, have similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination.

Findings

A two-way ANOVA was conducted to determine if Muslim students who were

born in North America differ with others who were not born in North America, regarding

their feelings of prejudice and discrimination. Statistically significant results were found

in two dimensions of the prejudice and discrimination scale. The first dimension is

Racial/Ethnic Climate on Campus. This dimension consists of 4 items (see Chapter

Three). Significance was found among those students who were born in North America

and those who were not in all of the groups other than the GRP 2 group. It is noticeable

124

that in all of the groups other than the GRP 1 group, students who were not

born in North America perceive more prejudice and discrimination under this dimension.

xBN = 3.0, xNB = 2.9, (F = 4.11, P = .043 <.05). (See Tables 22 and 23.)

The second dimension that yielded significant results was, Prejudiced Attitudes of

Faculty and Staff. This dimension consists of 2 items (see Chapter 3). An interaction

between the groups and place of birth was found to be significant in this dimension. It is

found that in the first two groups (GRP 1 and GRP 2), students who were born in North

America had a lower mean score where in the other two groups (GRP 3 and National) the

opposite is true. xBN-GRP 1 = 3.2 and xBN-GRP 2 = 2.9 vs. xNBN -GRP 3 = 3.1 and xNBN -NAT =

3.1 (F = 2.81, P = .039 <.05). No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables 24 and

25.)

Table 22: Descriptive Statistics

Dependent Variable: Racial/Ethnic Climate on Campus

2.9911 1.0682 28

3.2266 .9147 64

3.1549 .9642 92

2.7885 .8908 26

2.7929 .9217 70

2.7917 .9088 96

3.0962 1.1115 26

2.7500 .9618 16

2.9643 1.0586 42

3.0898 .9535 103

2.7149 .9216 121

2.8873 .9528 224

3.0328 .9842 183

2.8579 .9404 271

2.9284 .9611 454

Place of Birth


Not Born In North America

Total



Total



Total



Total



Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

125

Table 23: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Place of Birth


17.036a 7 2.434 2.704 .009

3893.327 1 3893.327 4326.051 .000

6.947 3 2.316 2.573 .054

3.702 1 3.702 4.113 .043*

6.387 3 2.129 2.366 .070

401.388 446 .900

4311.750 454

418.423 453

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

BIRTH_P

GROUPS * BIRTH_P

Error

Total

Corrected Total

Type I Sumof Squares df

MeanSquare F Sig.

* p<.05

R Squared = .041 (Adjusted R Squared = .026)a.


Dependent Variable: Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff

3.1786 1.0560 28

3.4365 1.0568 63

3.3571 1.0575 91

2.8846 .7656 26

3.0571 1.0445 70

3.0104 .9760 96

3.5000 1.1662 26

3.1176 1.2934 17

3.3488 1.2176 43

3.4709 .9747 103

3.0826 1.0111 121

3.2612 1.0111 224

3.3470 1.0061 183

3.1605 1.0546 271

3.2357 1.0382 454

Place of Birth



Total



Total



Total



Total



Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

126


Dependent Variable: Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff

18.653a 7 2.665 2.531 .015

4753.218 1 4753.218 4514.061 .000

6.910 3 2.303 2.187 .089

2.857 1 2.857 2.714 .100

8.885 3 2.962 2.813 .039*

469.629 446 1.053

5241.500 454

488.282 453

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

BIRTH_P

GROUPS * BIRTH_P

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Muslim students, both males and females in each local institution and nationally,


Findings

A two-way ANOVA test did not yield any significance on all of the four

dimensions. There was no significant difference in the perception of male and female

students regarding prejudice and discrimination.

127


Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally, have

similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded a significant result on the In-Class Discriminatory

Experiences Dimension. There was an interaction between groups and ethnicity. This is

clear from the mean scores. All ethnic groups mean scores were above 3.0 except for

GRP 3 where the White American mean score was xGRP 3-White-American = 2.2, which

indicates a high level of feelings of prejudice and discrimination under this dimension.

No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables 26 and 27.)

128


Dependent Variable: In-Class Discriminatory Experiences

3.8750 .9470 24

3.9907 1.1180 54

4.2083 .7525 12

5.0000 .0000 2

4.6667 .5774 3

4.0316 1.0206 95

3.9038 1.1491 26

3.9250 1.0288 40

4.0000 .7071 5

4.0000 .9354 5

3.7059 .9852 17

3.0000 . 1

3.8777 1.0205 94

4.0526 1.1534 19

4.5000 .5641 12

5.0000 .0000 2

2.1667 1.6073 3

3.5833 2.0104 6

3.2500 .3536 2

3.9886 1.2781 44

4.1000 .9311 125

3.7532 1.1966 77

3.6875 .9234 8

4.5833 .4916 6

3.5556 1.2105 9

3.9000 1.1402 5

3.9565 1.0460 230

4.0412 .9835 194

3.9098 1.1150 183

4.0741 .8169 27

4.0000 1.2649 16

3.7286 1.2268 35

3.6250 .9543 8

3.9590 1.0576 463

Ethnicity

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

129

Table 27: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Ethnicity


34.282a 22 1.558 1.421 .098

7256.780 1 7256.780 6618.424 .000

1.162 3 .387 .353 .787

4.630 5 .926 .844 .519

28.490 14 2.035 1.856 .029*

482.439 440 1.096

7773.500 463

516.720 462

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

ETHNIC

GROUPS * ETHNIC

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Muslim students, undergraduate and graduate at each local institution and

nationally, have similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on two of four dimensions that

measure discrimination and prejudice. The first dimension that yielded a significant

result was on the Racial/Ethnic Climate Dimension. There was an interaction between

groups and educational level (graduate and undergraduate). The interaction can be seen

in GRP 2 and GRP 3 where in the GRP 2 group, the undergraduate scored a lower level

of mean compared to a higher level of mean in GRP 3 group and vice versa for the

130

graduate students, xUndergrad-GRP 2 = 2.7 and xGrad-GRP 2 = 3.2 vs. xUndergrad -GRP 3 =

3.1 and xGrad-GRP 3 = 2.5. (See Tables 28 and 29.)



3.0254 .9477 59

3.4355 .9789 31

3.1667 .9729 90

2.7094 .8845 80

3.3036 .8388 14

2.7979 .8990 94

3.1917 1.0207 30

2.4615 .9566 13

2.9709 1.0468 43

2.9082 .9656 147

2.9123 .9405 77

2.9096 .9549 224

2.9066 .9539 316

3.0296 .9755 135

2.9435 .9610 451

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

131

Table 29: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Educational Level


19.225a 7 2.746 3.070 .004

3907.442 1 3907.442 4367.533 .000

6.766 3 2.255 2.521 .057

.882 1 .882 .986 .321

11.577 3 3.859 4.314 .005*

396.333 443 .895

4323.000 451

415.558 450

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

LEVEL

GROUPS * LEVEL

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05


The second dimension that showed significance was the In-Class Discriminatory

Experiences Dimension. The significance was among the educational level of

participants, xUndergrad = 3.9 and xGrad = 4.2 (F = 6.42, P = .012 <.05). (See Tables 30 and

31.)

132

Table 31: Two-Way ANOVA-- Groups by Educational Level


13.920a 7 1.989 1.801 .085

7184.430 1 7184.430 6506.877 .000

.883 3 .294 .267 .849

7.084 1 7.084 6.416 .012*

5.953 3 1.984 1.797 .147

494.650 448 1.104

7693.000 456

508.570 455

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

LEVEL

GROUPS * LEVEL

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05




3.8525 1.0776 61

4.4194 .7968 31

4.0435 1.0235 92

3.8437 1.0421 80

4.3077 .8046 13

3.9086 1.0214 93

4.1000 1.1173 30

3.7500 1.5902 14

3.9886 1.2781 44

3.8800 1.0940 150

4.1169 .9244 77

3.9604 1.0436 227

3.8863 1.0776 321

4.1667 .9831 135

3.9693 1.0572 456

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N



3.8525 1.0776 61

4.4194 .7968 31

4.0435 1.0235 92

3.8437 1.0421 80

4.3077 .8046 13

3.9086 1.0214 93

4.1000 1.1173 30

3.7500 1.5902 14

3.9886 1.2781 44

3.8800 1.0940 150

4.1169 .9244 77

3.9604 1.0436 227

3.8863 1.0776 321

4.1667 .9831 135

3.9693 1.0572 456

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N



3.8525 1.0776 61

4.4194 .7968 31

4.0435 1.0235 92

3.8437 1.0421 80

4.3077 .8046 13

3.9086 1.0214 93

4.1000 1.1173 30

3.7500 1.5902 14

3.9886 1.2781 44

3.8800 1.0940 150

4.1169 .9244 77

3.9604 1.0436 227

3.8863 1.0776 321

4.1667 .9831 135

3.9693 1.0572 456

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

133


Among the undergraduates at each institution and nationally, Muslim students


Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Racial/Ethnic Climate on

Campus Dimension. The significance was found among the different levels of school

years. The seniors showed the lowest of means. The following are the mean scores:

xFreshman = 3.0, xSophomore = 2.9, xJunior = 3.1, xSenior = 2.7 (F = 3.75, P = .011 <.05). No

pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables 32 and 33.)

134



3.3214 .8573 14

3.2500 1.1426 10

3.1389 .7775 18

2.5294 .9474 17

3.0254 .9477 59

2.6176 .8711 17

2.6842 .9784 19

2.9659 .9490 22

2.5455 .7345 22

2.7094 .8845 80

3.3000 1.0328 10

2.5000 1.0607 2

2.8125 .8260 4

3.3750 1.1750 12

3.2054 1.0542 28

3.0921 .9726 19

2.9130 1.0434 23

3.1275 .9197 51

2.6343 .9287 54

2.9082 .9656 147

3.0458 .9495 60

2.8796 1.0322 54

3.0789 .8890 95

2.6833 .9471 105

2.9061 .9567 314

School Year

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

135

Table 33: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Undergraduate Level


23.978a 15 1.599 1.815 .032

2651.771 1 2651.771 3010.386 .000

6.444 3 2.148 2.439 .065

9.898 3 3.299 3.745 .011*

7.636 9 .848 .963 .471

262.501 298 .881

2938.250 314

286.479 313

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

SCHOOL_Y

GROUPS * SCHOOL_Y

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Muslim students, locally and nationally, rank issues of concern and importance

similarly.

Findings

Independent t-tests were performed to detect the presence of any significant

differences among the mean scores of the different issues of concern to Muslim students

locally (3 universities combined) and nationally. Seven out of 19 issues were found to be

significant. These issues were:

-P4q2: Halal meals served on campus, xLocal = 2.4, xNational = 2.6, (t = -2.010,

p= .045 <.05)

136

-P4q5: No classes on Eid Holidays, xLocal = 2.2, xNational = 2.5,

(t = -1.998, p= .046 <.05)

-P4q9: Islamic Tarbiyyah program/ Halaqa, xLocal = 2.3, xNational = 2.1, (t = 2.289,

p= .023 <.05)

-P4q11: Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community,

xLocal = 1.6, xNational = 1.8, (t = -2.314, p= .021 <.05)

-P4q12: Academic achievement, xLocal = 1.6, xNational = 1.9, (t = -3.109,

p= .002 <.05)

-P4q13: Having a Muslim student association on campus, xLocal = 1.6,

xNational = 1.9, (t = -2.089, p= .037 <.05)

-P4q19: Adjustment to college/university life, xLocal = 2.3, xNational = 2.7,

(t = -2.010, p= .045 <.05)

Although significance exists, all of the above mean scores fall between either 1 =

"Extremely Important", 2 = "Very Important" and 3 = "Important." Therefore, all

participants agree on their importance. Furthermore, for the most part, the local

participants attributed more importance to the above issues than the national participants.

(See Table 34.)

137

Table 34:

Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Issues of Concerns and Importance

Issues Groups N x SD t P

Local 228 2.4 1.22. Halal meals served on campus

National 218 2.6 1.1 -2.010 .045*

Local 219 2.3 1.25. No classes on Eid Holidays

National 222 2.5 1.3 -1.998 .046*

Local 219 2.3 1.29. Islamic Tarbiyyah program/ Halaqa

National 221 2.1 1.1 2.289 .023*

Local 225 1.6 1.011. Clarifying misinformation about Islamto peers/campus community National 220 1.8 1.1 -2.314 .021*

Local 220 1.6 1.012. Academic achievement

National 221 2.0 1.1 -3.109 .002*

Local 221 1.6 1.013. Having a Muslim student associationon campus National 223 1.8 1.1 -2.089 .037*

Local 218 2.3 1.019. Adjustment to college/university life

National 219 2.7 1.1 -3.876 .000*

* p < .05


Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America at

each institution and nationally, rank issues of concern and importance similarly.

Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Religious and Social

Dimensions that measure the importance of these issues of concern. The significance

was found among the different groups, and in particular with the GRP 2 group. GRP 2

showed lower mean scores than participants in other categories of this study, a fact that

138

shows participants at GRP 2 attach a greater degree of importance to both

Dimensions measured than do other groups in the study. xGRP 1 = 2.1, xGRP 2 = 1.9, xGRP 3

= 2.2, xNAT = 2.1 (F = 2.683, p= .046 <.05) (See Tables 35 and 36.) xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 =

2.0, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.113, p= .026 <.05). No pairwise comparison was

found. (See Tables 37 and 38.)


Dependent Variable: Religious Dimension

2.1282 .7746 28

2.1015 .6479 63

2.1097 .6851 91

1.9795 .8095 27

1.8291 .6251 68

1.8719 .6815 95

2.1312 .6323 26

2.2178 .7127 17

2.1654 .6582 43

2.0915 .8235 103

2.0996 .7517 120

2.0959 .7839 223

2.0862 .7851 184

2.0389 .7026 268

2.0582 .7368 452

Place of Birth



Total



Total



Total



Total



Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

139



4.882a 7 .697 1.290 .253

1914.720 1 1914.720 3542.708 .000

4.350 3 1.450 2.683 .046*

4.157E-02 1 4.157E-02 .077 .782

.490 3 .163 .302 .824

239.968 444 .540

2159.570 452

244.850 451

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

BIRTH_P

GROUPS * BIRTH_P

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Dependent Variable: Social Dimension

2.3631 .8365 28

2.3639 .7936 61

2.3637 .8025 89

2.1093 .8957 27

2.0102 .7906 67

2.0387 .8185 94

2.2949 .6224 26

2.3865 .8304 16

2.3298 .7004 42

2.3045 .8118 103

2.2787 .7946 119

2.2907 .8009 222

2.2834 .8020 184

2.2366 .8029 263

2.2559 .8019 447

Place of Birth



Total



Total



Total



Total



Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

140



6.277a 7 .897 1.403 .202

2274.803 1 2274.803 3559.546 .000

5.968 3 1.989 3.113 .026*

5.603E-02 1 5.603E-02 .088 .767

.253 3 8.424E-02 .132 .941

280.552 439 .639

2561.632 447

286.829 446

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

BIRTH_P

GROUPS * BIRTH_P

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Muslim students, both males and females at each institution and nationally, rank

issues of concern and importance similarly.

Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on all of the dimensions. The first

of these dimensions is the Religious Dimension. The significance was between the males

and females, xMale = 2.1 and xFemale = 2.0, (F = 4.247, p = .040 < .05). Female

participants, overall, attached more importance to issues of importance listed under the

Religious Dimension than male participants. (See Tables 39 and 40.)

The second dimension is the Social Dimension. The significance was among the

groups as well as between the females and males. The groups mean scores, xGRP 1 = 2.3,

141

xGRP 2 = 2.0, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.126, p= .026 <.05), and the gender

mean scores are, xMale = 2.3, xFemale = 2.1, (F = 4.528, p= .034 <.05). No pairwise

comparison was found. (See Tables 41 and 42.)



2.1496 .6211 61

2.0286 .8052 30

2.1097 .6851 91

1.9140 .7156 45

1.8339 .6542 50

1.8719 .6815 95

1.9746 .3948 19

2.2938 .7762 25

2.1560 .6535 44

2.1889 .8143 141

1.9141 .6996 86

2.0848 .7827 227

2.1181 .7380 266

1.9608 .7245 191

2.0523 .7357 457

Gender

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

142

Table 40: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Gender


9.686a 7 1.384 2.620 .012

1924.943 1 1924.943 3644.609 .000

4.105 3 1.368 2.591 .052

2.243 1 2.243 4.247 .040*

3.337 3 1.112 2.106 .099

237.145 449 .528

2171.773 457

246.830 456

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

GENDER

GROUPS * GENDER

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05




2.4299 .8211 59

2.2333 .7614 30

2.3637 .8025 89

2.0182 .7921 44

2.0567 .8486 50

2.0387 .8185 94

2.4630 .5225 18

2.2273 .7883 25

2.3260 .6924 43

2.3729 .8066 139

2.1477 .7741 86

2.2868 .8001 225

2.3321 .8004 260

2.1477 .7906 191

2.2540 .8006 451

Gender

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

143



9.974a 7 1.425 2.267 .028

2291.295 1 2291.295 3645.383 .000

5.895 3 1.965 3.126 .025*

2.846 1 2.846 4.528 .034*

1.234 3 .411 .654 .581

278.446 443 .629

2579.715 451

288.421 450

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

GENDER

GROUPS * GENDER

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05


The third dimension is the Academic Dimension. The significance in this

dimension was between males and female, a situation in which female participants

having lower mean scores in general. xMale = 2.5, xFemale = 2.3, (F = 4.983, p= .026 <.05).

(See Tables 43 and 44.)

144


Dependent Variable: Academic Dimension

2.5593 .8436 59

2.1833 .6058 30

2.4326 .7886 89

2.2227 .7836 44

2.3459 .7160 49

2.2876 .7472 93

2.5974 .7227 19

2.3580 .7274 25

2.4614 .7269 44

2.5248 .7137 137

2.3442 .6719 86

2.4552 .7019 223

2.4867 .7629 259

2.3211 .6785 190

2.4166 .7322 449

Gender

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Male

Female

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N



7.495a 7 1.071 2.029 .050

2622.124 1 2622.124 4969.857 .000

1.989 3 .663 1.257 .289

2.629 1 2.629 4.983 .026*

2.876 3 .959 1.817 .143

232.674 441 .528

2862.293 449

240.169 448

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

GENDER

GROUPS * GENDER

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05


145


Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally, rank

issues of concern and importance similarly.

Findings

A two way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Social Dimension. The

significance was found among groups. The mean scores are, xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 = 2.0,

xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.116, p= .024 <.05). The outstanding group was the GRP 2

with a mean score of xGRP 2 = 2.0, which shows that this group attaches more importance

to social needs than the other groups. No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables

45 and 46.)

146



2.4028 .7754 24

2.3940 .7999 50

2.0152 .5188 11

2.7500 1.7678 2

2.5556 1.3878 3

2.3633 .7980 90

1.9951 .8788 27

2.0325 .8527 39

2.7417 .6149 4

2.0667 .7322 5

1.9529 .7185 17

1.3333 . 1

2.0319 .8203 93

2.3289 .7559 19

2.1212 .5582 11

2.5000 .7071 2

2.5000 .6009 3

2.6000 .9321 6

2.1667 .2357 2

2.3260 .6924 43

2.3413 .8395 121

2.2587 .7804 75

2.0208 .7109 8

2.3889 .7354 6

2.0556 .6972 9

2.0667 .6932 5

2.2859 .8021 224

2.2989 .8327 191

2.2383 .7959 175

2.1720 .6400 25

2.3542 .7955 16

2.1419 .8187 35

2.0000 .5976 8

2.2527 .8013 450

Ethnicity

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Indo-Pak

Arab

Asian

White-America

Other

Afro-American

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

147

Table 46: Two-Way ANOVA--Groups by Ethnicity


13.477a 22 .613 .952 .526

2283.603 1 2283.603 3548.017 .000

6.113 3 2.038 3.166 .024*

1.478 5 .296 .459 .807

5.887 14 .420 .653 .820

274.829 427 .644

2571.910 450

288.306 449

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

ETHNIC

GROUPS * ETHNIC

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05

R Squared = .047 (Adjusted R Squared = -.002)a.


Muslim students, undergraduate and graduate at each institution and nationally,


Findings

A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Social Dimension and the

Academic Dimension. The significance in Social Dimension was found among groups.

The mean scores are, xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 = 2.1, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 2.687, p=

.046 <.05). The outstanding group was the GRP 2 with a mean score of xGRP 2 = 2.1,

which means that this group attaches more importance to social needs than the other

groups. No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables 47 and 48.)

148



2.2922 .7243 60

2.5060 .8675 28

2.3602 .7742 88

2.0442 .8460 80

2.1250 .6322 12

2.0547 .8188 92

2.3056 .6697 30

2.3731 .7687 13

2.3260 .6924 43

2.2984 .8165 146

2.2502 .7694 75

2.2821 .7994 221

2.2335 .7988 316

2.3069 .7807 128

2.2547 .7935 444

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N



6.140a 7 .877 1.402 .203

2257.135 1 2257.135 3607.790 .000

5.043 3 1.681 2.687 .046*

.113 1 .113 .180 .672

.984 3 .328 .524 .666

272.774 436 .626

2536.049 444

278.914 443

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

LEVEL

GROUPS * LEVEL

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* P < .05


149

The other significance was in the Academic Dimension and it is an

interaction between groups and educational level. It is noted that graduate students at

GRP 1, GRP 2, and GRP 3 had a higher mean score than the National. The

undergraduates had a lower mean than the graduates except for the National where the

opposite is true. In another sense, all of the local groups' undergraduates attached more

importance to the Academic Dimension than their graduates except for the National

where the opposite is true. No pairwise comparison was found. (See Table 49 and 50.)



2.3280 .7392 59

2.6534 .8341 29

2.4352 .7822 88

2.2392 .7502 79

2.7708 .4624 12

2.3093 .7393 91

2.4183 .6317 30

2.5536 .9187 14

2.4614 .7269 44

2.4845 .6897 145

2.3818 .6812 74

2.4498 .6870 219

2.3867 .7139 313

2.4977 .7359 129

2.4191 .7213 442

Educational Level

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

Groups

Grp 1

Grp 2

Grp 3

National

Total

MeanStd.

Deviation N

150



7.099a 7 1.014 1.979 .056

2586.642 1 2586.642 5048.766 .000

1.404 3 .468 .913 .434

.747 1 .747 1.457 .228

4.949 3 1.650 3.220 .023*

222.352 434 .512

2816.093 442

229.451 441

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

GROUPS

LEVEL

GROUPS * LEVEL

Error

Total

Corrected Total


MeanSquare F Sig.

* p < .05



Muslim students, among the undergraduates at each institution and nationally,


Findings

A two-way ANOVA test did not yield any significance on all of the three

dimensions. There was no significant difference in ranking issues of concern and

importance.

151


There is no relationship between feelings of prejudice and discrimination and

students’ satisfaction with their academic experience.

Findings

The Pearson Correlation test showed a significant relationship on all of the prejudice

and discrimination measures with respect to the satisfaction of students with their

academic experience as follows:

• Racial/Ethnic Climate of Campus with respect to Satisfaction with Academic

Experience: r = -.15 (p = .001 <.01).

• Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff with respect to Satisfaction with Academic

Experience: r = -.27 (p = .000 < .01)

• In-Class Discriminatory Experiences with respect to Satisfaction with Academic

Experience: r = -.28 (p = .000 <.01).

• Feelings of Alienation with respect to Satisfaction with Academic Experience: r = .60

(p = .000 <.01).

For the first three dimensions a negative correlation was the case, which can be

understood as that the more prejudice students experience, the lower the satisfaction with

their academic experience will be. Moreover, for the last dimension, the opposite is true:

The less the feeling of alienation, the higher is the satisfaction with academic experience

among students. (See Tables 51 and 52.)

152


2.9268 .9619 461

3.2299 1.0390 461

3.9582 1.0574 466

2.2925 .9511 465

2.2852 .9122 464

Racial/Ethnic Climate onCampus

Prejudiced Attitudes ofFaculty and Staff

In-Class DiscriminatoryExperiences


Academic Performance

MeanStd.

Deviation N

Table 52: Correlations Test--Prejudice with respect to Satisfaction with Academic Experience

1.000 .662** .416** -.297** -.151**

. .000 .000 .000 .001

461 454 459 458 457

.662** 1.000 .502** -.377** -.268**

.000 . .000 .000 .000

454 461 459 458 457

.416** .502** 1.000 -.320** -.282**

.000 .000 . .000 .000

459 459 466 463 462

-.297** -.377** -.320** 1.000 .604**

.000 .000 .000 . .000

458 458 463 465 461

-.151** -.268** -.282** .604** 1.000

.001 .000 .000 .000 .

457 457 462 461 464

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

Racial/Ethnic Climate onCampus

Prejudiced Attitudes ofFaculty and Staff

In-Class DiscriminatoryExperiences


Academic Performance

Racial/EthnicClimate on

Campus

PrejudicedAttitudes ofFaculty and

Staff

In-ClassDiscriminatory

ExperiencesFeelings ofAlienation

AcademicPerformance

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.

153

Summary

The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings related to each of the

research questions and hypotheses. The data collected for this study was analyzed by

descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. Demographic statistics (including

numbers, percentages, means, standard deviations) as well as inferential statistics

(including one- and two-way ANOVA, independent t-test and Pearson Product Moment

correlation coefficient test) were employed to report demographic data and to answer

research questions and hypotheses.

Summary of Demographics

The total number of participants was 469 students out of which 51 % were from

local participants. There were 60% males vs. 40% females participating in the study

where 42% were either 20 years old or under and where 70% were undergraduates. And

close to 77% of participants had a GPA of 3.1 or higher.

Moreover, 60% were US citizens (Canadian citizens were close to 10%) out of

which 40% were American born and close to 70% did graduate from high school in

North America.

Indo-Pak and Arabs make up for 80% of the participants of which the remaining

20% made up of Asian, White-American, African American and others. Eighty-five

154

percent of participants were single and only 22% of all participants lived on

campus and did submitted their survey forms by e-mail.

Summary of Research Questions Findings

1. Muslim students participating in this study feel that they face prejudice and

discrimination while attending institutions of higher education.

2. In spite of feelings of prejudice and discrimination, the majority of Muslim students

were satisfied with their academic experience.

3. Observance of religious obligations was among the most selected issues of concern

by Muslim students.

4. Muslim students ranked all of the issues of concern as either important, very

important, or extremely important.

Summary of Research Hypotheses Findings

1. There was a significant difference among students from the different institutions

regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

2. There was no significant difference between local and national participants regarding

their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

3. There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North

America and those who did not at each institution and nationally regarding their

feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

155

4. There was no significant difference between males and females, at each

institution and nationally, regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

5. There was a significant difference among the ethnicity of participants at each

institution and nationally regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

6. There was a significant difference between undergraduate and graduate participants at

each institution and nationally regarding their feelings of prejudice and

discrimination.

7. There was a significant difference among the undergraduates at each institution and

nationally regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

8. There was a significant difference between local and national participants in ranking

issues of concern and importance.

9. There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North

America and those who did not at each institution and nationally in ranking issues of

concern and importance.

10. There was a significant difference between males and females at each institution and

nationally in ranking issues of concern and importance.

11. There was a significant difference among the ethnicity of participants at each

institution and nationally in ranking issues of concern and importance.

12. There was a significant difference between undergraduate and graduate participants at

each institution and nationally in ranking issues of concern and importance.

156

13. There was no significant difference among undergraduates at each

institution and nationally in ranking issues of concern and importance.

14. There was a significant relationship between feelings of prejudice and discrimination

and the satisfaction of students with their academic experience.

157

CHAPTER 5

Discussion of the Research Findings

This chapter provides an overview of the study, including discussion of findings,

conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future research. The conclusions

and implications are based on the findings of the study as outlined in Chapter 4.

Recommendations are suggested on how to overcome obstacles in the way of Muslim

students in American academia and on how to encourage better accommodation of this

unique, but integral group of students.

Overview of the Study

Diversity and tolerance are essential elements influencing modern higher

education institutions in accommodating and reconciling the hard issues surrounding race

relations. However, if one looks deeper into these issues, the findings show that there is

still a long way to go to attain the desired equal status for all races. Research studies

affirm that "Most administrators and faculty are not trained in an environment that

emphasizes cultural pluralism, and as well intentioned as they may be, they are likely to

be ethnocentric" (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998, p. 87). We are reminded by

scholars that we have a problem when, "Seeing White people only as a norm by which to

measure others is a narrow view that is acquired by living in a society that perpetuates

158

White norms and by believing that what differs from these norms is a

deviation" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). These scholars point out that "Racial

identity and acceptance are important for all races, especially in this increasingly

multicultural society" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). Moreover, "Despite

decades of legal and educational reform, racism remains a serious social problem in the

United States. Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of the civil rights

movement, racism has not declined but has merely changed forms" (Maluso, 1995, p.

50).

According to Loo & Rolison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national goal of

providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher education

and opportunities for academic success has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58).

Siggelkow also concurs with Loo & Rolison when he emphasizes the role of

academia by saying that "Perhaps colleges and universities are no less racist than other

societal institutions and the commercial world, but the potential for irreparable harm is

far greater in higher education . . . Serious, unfinished business remains" (1991, p. 104).

The race issue is very serious and one that academia must deal with and resolve to

preserve the democratic values for which America stands. Dean Trueba, Dean of the

School of Education at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, argues that the American

society may lose its democratic values if it ignores the race issue or does not deal with it

properly (1993). Trueba views the university as an institution with a vital role in healing

the society's race and ethnic problems. Moreover, he says that "If the resolution of these

159

conflicts is crucial for the survival of our democracy, the role of universities in

maintaining democratic principles is also of paramount importance" (1993, p. 41). He

goes on to say, "Universities are the main instrument that democratic societies use to

generate and transmit new knowledge, and to inculcate democratic values and respect for

ethnic and racial differences" (1993, p. 41).

Trueba poses a critical question to educators and administrators a like, "What can

modern universities do to heal America's racial and educational crises?" (1993, p. 52).

He follows up his question with a reply that sums up the university's role. He says,

"academia has the potential, and the responsibility, to create a better understanding of the

nature of race and ethnicity, to help solve racial and ethnic problems, and to develop the

necessary knowledge and strategies to heal ethnic and racial hatred in democratic

societies" (Trueba, 1993, p. 5). And because one of the goals of higher education

institutions is to educate students and to promote their development, socially and

academically, it is vital for these institutions to design environments that will provide

opportunities, incentives, and reassurances for growth and development (Arnold & King,

1997; Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner & Lawson, 1990;

Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991; Pascarella &

Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).

It is with these concerns of Trueba and other scholars in mind, that this study was

originated. Research reveals that it is inevitable for minority students studying at

predominantly white institutions to face prejudice and discrimination (Cabrera,

160

Castaneda, Nora & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991;

Harris, 1995; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996;

Prieto, 1995). Therefore, this study is an attempt to enrich scholarly research in the area

of the study of Muslim students as a minority group within this truly diverse society--a

society where every member should be respected for who he/she is, where every member

in the society ought to enjoy the same rights and privileges.

This study focuses on Muslim students, as a minority group. A group that no


discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour,

1997). This study included an investigation of Muslim students' perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination while attending colleges and universities and an exploration of their

satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through the study the

researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim students and the

importance of such issues to them as they make their way through academia. This study

was also intended to provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines to

use when interacting with this unique group of students.


metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population of the local participants

was drawn. Another sample was selected from among the participants of the MSA in

national activities. The purpose is to measure perceptions of prejudice and discrimination

and also to determine the important issues of concern to students.

161

The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part

consists of basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous

studies measuring prejudice and discrimination, feelings of alienation, and satisfaction of

academic experience. Parts III and IV, highlighting issues of concern and importance to

Muslim students, were developed by the researcher, utilizing information collected from

prior literature review and empirical research conducted by the researcher.

Descriptive statistics (including numbers, percentages, means, standard

deviations) as well as inferential statistics (including one- and two-way ANOVA,

independent t-test, and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were

employed to report demographic data and to answer research questions and hypotheses.

162

Conclusions

Research Questions

1. Do Muslim Students perceive that they face prejudice and

discrimination while attending college/university?

Findings

• Muslim students participating in this study feel that they face prejudice and

discrimination while attending institutions of higher education.

Discussion

"Muslims in America are best defined as the type of minority that wants to

maintain its group identity based on religion but that also wants to give full allegiance to

society" (Lovell, 1983, p. 97). Thus, when one speaks about Muslim students, one is

referring to a group of students with a similar cultural and moral heritage, and diverse

ethnic backgrounds.

The measurement of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination was evaluated in

three dimensions. These dimensions are 1) Racial/Ethnic Climate on Campus, 2)

Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff, and 3) In-Class Discriminatory Experiences.

Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate Dimension. This dimension measures the

students' sense of global (the general atmosphere on a university campus) perception of

prejudice and discrimination based on race and ethnicity. It is concerned with whether

163

students have observed discriminatory words or gestures. The four indicators

designated are: (a) I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors or gestures directed

at minority students at this institution, (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice

among students, (c) I have encountered racism while attending this institution, and (d) I

have heard negative words about people of my own race or ethnicity while attending

classes (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension. This dimension deals with

students’ perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority

students. The two indicators designated are: (a) I feel there is a general atmosphere of

prejudice among faculty at this institution, and (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of

prejudice among academic staff at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

In-Class Discriminatory Experiences Dimension. This dimension uncovers

experiences and accounts of prejudice and discrimination inside the classroom. The two

indicators designated are: (a) I have been discouraged from participating in class

discussions, and (b) I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other

students (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).

Alienation Dimension. Feeling of alienation is usually an outcome of feelings of

prejudice and discriminations. The two indicators designated to measure feelings of

alienation are: (a) Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience, and (b) I feel

I belong at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994 & 1996).

164

Muslim students participating in this study showed a high level of

feelings of prejudice and discrimination on all of the three dimensions measuring

prejudice while attending universities and colleges. This is consistent with research

studies that minority students are prone to face prejudice and discrimination when they

attend predominately white institutions (Cabrera & Nora, 1994 & 1996). It is also

consistent with reports that highlight rising number of incidents of discrimination and

harassment against Arabs and Muslims in general (ADC, 1997; CAIR, 1997).

Moreover, research indicates that the American people know very little about the

religion of Muslims and about Islam, and have been victimized by media driven

propaganda, creating images of terror, desires, and conspiracies for world conquest, and

sly and sophisticated monetary schemes that will cripple America like the oil crisis (Al-

Tareb, 1997; El-Refaei, 1993; Luna, 1993; Mehden, 1983; Siam, 1993; Speck, 1997).

The above research findings should bring to the attention of educators and

university officials the dilemma of Muslim students in American academia. On the one

hand, the majority of Muslim students are citizens of this country, and this goes

unnoticed by educators and university officials. And on the other hand, there is a void in

research when it comes to studies regarding Muslim students as a minority group with its

own unique characteristics and needs.

165

1.2 If perceptions of prejudice and discrimination are present, to what

extent do they affect the Muslim students' satisfaction with their

academic experience?

Findings

• In spite of feelings of prejudice and discrimination, the majority of Muslim students

were satisfied with their academic experience.

Discussion

Satisfaction with Academic Experience Dimension. Satisfaction with students'




growth and interest in ideas, and (c) I am satisfied with my academic experience at this

institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1996).

The fact that a majority of Muslim students feel satisfied with their academic

experience is consistent with the findings that minority students tend to adjust to campus

environments more than white students and tend to develop their own subcultures where

they find their own tolerant environments (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Loo

& Rolison, 1986; Cabrera & Nora, 1996). Satisfaction with their academic experience

166

can also be seen in the fact that Muslim students are encouraged by their

religious heritage to be open and receptive to others. It is important to note that a

majority of these students come from families in which both parents have at least a

college education and are well-to-do for the most part (Haddad, 1986 & 1991). In

addition to their satisfaction with their academic experience, Muslim students

participating in this study have high GPA scores. Seventy-seven percent of students

participating have a GPA of 3.1 or higher.

2. What are the perceived main issues/needs to Muslim students while

attending college?

Findings

• Observance of religious obligations was among the most selected issues of concern

by Muslim students.

Discussion

A number of doctoral dissertations were conducted to determine the needs and

concerns of international Muslim students. Research found that there are four areas of

concern to international Muslim students. These areas are: religious services, social

adjustment, academic achievement, and financial aid (Addou, 1989; El-Refaei, 1993;

Halaweh, 1996; Luna, 1993; Pouryousseffi, 1984).

Moreover, another study appeared in New Directions for Teaching and Learning,

titled "Respect for Religious Differences: The Case of Muslim Students." In this article

167

the author identifies four areas of importance to Muslim students. The article

is based on an interview of four Muslim students--two males and two females of whom

two were undergraduates and the other two were graduates. These areas of concern were

identified to be: 1) misrepresentation of Islam by instructors, 2) instructional material

offensive to Muslim students, 3) lack of respect to their own religion and/or religions in

general, and 4) the failure on the part of the professors to accommodate students'

religious practices. (Speck, 1997). These concerns for the international Muslim students

were never addressed in light of a comprehensive approach where both international and

American Muslim students were included, however.

In addition to the review of the literature and feedback by a panel of experts, the

researcher conducting a survey of more than 200 college students across the United

States and Canada. These students were asked to list the 3 most important

issues/concerns that they consider important while attending college. Sixty-one (31 %)

students replied to the above request. These issues of concern/importance (not ranked in

any particular order) are:

1. Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus. All Muslims are required

to perform five obligatory daily prayers in addition to Friday Prayer (usually

conducted at noontime).

2. Halal meals served on campus. Muslims are required by their faith to eat meals that

are free of pork, ham, lard or any related substance. In addition, some may choose to

168

eat meat or poultry that are killed in a specific way in accordance to the

Islamic dietary code.

3. Availability of scholarship fund. As with any other student group, Muslim students

are concerned with the availability of scholarship funds to make their way through

college.

4. Interest-free loans. Although, this issue was grouped under the Academic Dimension,

it is important for a Muslim not to engage in any financial transaction that bears any

interest charges for religious reasons.

5. No classes on Eid Holidays. Muslims celebrate two main holidays where they are

requested to perform special congregational prayers on those days. The first of these

holidays is Eid al-Fitr, commemorating the end of the fasting of the month of

Ramadhan, and the second is Eid al-Adha, commemorating the end of the pilgrimage

season.

6. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in class/campus. Some

Muslim students may feel bothered with the fact that they have to interact with the

opposite sex. Once reaching the age of puberty, Muslims are encouraged to minimize

interaction with the opposite sex of unrelated individuals. They are also encouraged

to minimize eye contact with the opposite sex. Such behavior is based on a sense of

personal modesty and is not meant to show disrespect to others.

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7. Social/peer support group on campus. As research indicates, the presence

of a peer group makes the strange environment of a college campus a more friendly

welcoming one (Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998).

8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus. In many universities, the presence of an advisor

who plays the role of a chaplain can enhance and cater to the religious needs of

students. For Muslim students, the availability of such opportunity helps them

organize for their religious services and represent them in campus ministry.

9. Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa. Muslim students are concerned with learning

about their faith while attending college. The availability of such study circles

provides an opportunity for such an experience.

10. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus. Research shows that the

Muslim image is mutilated and denigrated by the media and by ignorant individuals

or groups. Muslim students see dealing with stereotypes, prejudice, and

discrimination very important matters.

11. Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community. While attending

colleges, Muslim students may encounter events in which Islam is misrepresented.

Such events could be a lecture organized by a student group, a course taught by a

faculty member, a text book that is sold in the book store, or a book on library shelf.

12. Academic achievement. Muslims are encouraged by their Islamic teachings to excel

in what they do, including achieving academic success.

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13. Having a Muslim student association on campus. Muslim students, for the

most part, are used to having MSA chapters on campuses. The MSA plays an

important role in providing for religious and social needs of the Muslim student.

Researchers found that "cohesive and satisfying social environments are more likely

to develop in smaller groups" (Huebner & Lawson, 1990, p. 133).

14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity. Muslim students are very much concerned

with the preservation of their own Islamic identity. As reported by researchers,

Muslims want to be part of the society in which they live. At the same time,

however, they want to observe their Islamic duties without either compromise or

assimilation (Haddad, 1998; Lovell, 1983).

15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims. The process of inviting others to know about Islam

and its teachings is a noble act for a Muslim. Muslims believe in the right of

everyone to choose his or her own faith. They also believe that there is no

compulsion in religion.

16. Muslim roommate. Muslim students, who choose to live on campus, prefer to have a

Muslim roommate who understands their own background. Such a choice makes it

easy for a Muslim student to observe religious duties, such as the daily prayer and the

fast of the month of Ramadhan. Muslims also are required to refrain from any

intoxicating substances and are requested to avoid gatherings where alcoholic

beverages are served.

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17. Unity of Muslim students on campus. Muslims are requested by their

faith to cooperate and work together for the overall good of society. Muslim students

on campus perceive this issue as an important way to presenting Islam to others and

to clarifying misconceptions and misrepresentations of Islam.

18. Observing Islamic dress code. Muslim students may choose to dress in a manner that

fulfills their religious obligation. This is more visible when it comes to female

students who are required to cover their hair and dress modestly.

19. Adjustment to college/university life. As indicated by research studies, adjustment to

college life depends on a number of factors, among which are social climate, existing

environments, and support/challenge balance (Huebner & Lawson, 1990).

These issues then were grouped and combined by the researcher as follows: Religious

Dimension items (1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18), Social Dimension items (7, 8, 13,

and 16), and Academic Dimension items (3, 4, 6, 12, and 19). Students participating in

this study were then asked to select the 5 most important issues in their opinion. The

following are the 19 issued as ranked by participants:


1. Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus (1) 75.0 % 178

2. Clarifying misinformation about Islam (11) 54.0% 129

3. Having a Muslim student association on campus (13) 41.0% 97

4. No classes on Eid Holidays (5) 40.0% 94

5. Halal meals served on campus (2) 36.0% 85

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Continued,


6. Unity of Muslim students on campus (17) 34.0% 80

7. Academic achievement (12) 27.0% 64

8. Availability of scholarship fund (3) 27.0% 64

9. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity (14) 27.0% 64

10. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims (15) 22.0% 52

11. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus (8) 21.0% 49

12. Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa (9) 18.0% 42

13. Interest free loans (4) 17.0% 41

14. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus (10) 16.0% 37

15. Social/peer support group on campus (7) 10.0% 23

16. Observing Islamic dress code (18) 09.0% 22

17. Adjustment to college/university life (19) 09.0% 22

18. Muslim room-mate (16) 06.0% 14

19. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex

in class/campus (6) 05.0% 13

Issues were regrouped in accordance to the three defined dimensions: Religious,

Social, and Academic.

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Religious Dimension


1. Place for observance of daily/Friday Prayer (s) on campus (1) 75.0 % 178

2. Clarifying misinformation about Islam (11) 54.0% 129

4. No classes on Eid Holidays (5) 40.0% 94

5. Halal meals served on campus (2) 36.0% 85

6.Unity of Muslim students on campus (17) 34.0% 80

9. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity (14) 27.0% 64

10. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims (15) 22.0% 52

12. Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa (9) 18.0% 42

14. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus (10) 16.0% 37

16. Observing Islamic dress code (18) 09.0% 22

Social Dimension


3. Having a Muslim student association on campus (13) 41.0% 97

11. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus (8) 21.0% 49

15. Social/peer support group on campus (7) 10.0% 23

18. Muslim room-mate (16) 06.0% 14

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Academic Dimension


7. Academic achievement (12) 27.0% 64

8. Availability of scholarship fund (3) 27.0% 64

13. Interest-free loans (4) 17.0% 41

17. Adjustment to college/university life (19) 09.0% 22

19. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex

in class/campus (6) 05.0% 13

It should be noted that four of the top five issues chosen by participants fall under

the Religious Dimension. This is consistent with research findings that concluded that

Muslim students value their religious commitment highly (El-Refaie, 1993; Luna, 1993;

Pouryousseffi, 1984; Speck, 1997).

Moreover, as noted earlier in the study, universities for the most part are secular

institutions, a fact that do affects the religiosity of the individual. If they have to deal

with an environment that is challenging them all the time, Muslim students will be placed

under unnecessary stress and hardship. Research indicates that a "certain amount of

challenge is deemed necessary for growth and development. Environments that are too

challenging, however, tend to be perceived as overwhelming and may produce illness. . .

, exit from the environment . . . , dissatisfaction . . . , greater stress and

strain . . . , or difficulty in learning" (Huebner & Lawson, 1990, p. 131)

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2.1 How important are these issues/needs to Muslim students?

Findings:

Muslim students ranked all of the issues of concern as important, very important

or extremely important.

Discussion

The scale used to rank the above issues, are as follows: "extremely important" as

1, "very important" as 2, "important" as 3, "less important" as 4, and "not important" as 5.

Muslim students perceived all of the 19 issues as important, very important, or

extremely important issues/concerns.

It also should be noted that for a Muslim, the division between what is secular and

what is religious might be mixed. Muslims view their existence as a continuous act of

worship that encompasses all forms of societal and individual needs. In other words, a

Muslim is requested by his/her faith to have in mind that all actions are done to fulfill

his/her mission in life. This is also consistent with research studies that outlined Muslim

students' needs and concerns (Addou, 1989; El-Refaie, 1993; Halaweh, 1996; Luna,

1993; Pouryousseffi, 1984; Speck, 1997).

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Research Hypotheses

1. Muslim students, in different institutions, have similar feelings

regarding perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

Findings

• There was a significant difference among students from the different institutions

regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

Discussion

Participants showed agreement on all of the dimensions measuring perceptions of

prejudice and discrimination except the first dimension. Students from GRP 2 felt a

greater sense of prejudice and discrimination than did students at GRP 1 and GRP 3. It is

not known if this sentiment by GRP 2 students can be explained by the type of institution

in which they are enrolled or with the demographic make-up of GRP 2.

Prior research focused on single institutions as sites for conducting studies of the

same nature rather than multiple institutions at the same time. There will be a need to do

further research to investigate whether minorities face more prejudice in public

institutions of higher education than they do at other types of institutions.

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2. Muslim students, locally and nationally, have similar feelings


Findings

• There was no significant difference between local and national participants regarding

their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

Discussion

The local sample (the combination of the three local schools) was compared with

the national sample (the combination of students from different types of institutions)

regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination. The researcher did not find any

significant difference. The fact that both samples had similar results validates the theory

that minority students are prone to face prejudice and discrimination if they attend

predominately white institutions (Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora, & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera

& Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston,

1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995). It is also consistent with the researcher's

assumption that both samples are similar in their perceptions, since both samples come

from similar backgrounds and go to similar type of schools.

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3. On a number of selected demographic characteristics, Muslim

students at each institution and nationally have similar feelings


Findings

• There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North

America and those who were not, among participants from different ethnic

backgrounds, between graduates and undergraduates, and among undergraduate

participants, at each institution and nationally regarding their feelings of prejudice

and discrimination.

• There was no significant difference between males and females at each institution and

nationally regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination.

Discussion

Students who were not born in North America felt overall a greater sense of

prejudice and discrimination on two of the dimensions measuring perceptions of

prejudice and discrimination than students born in North America. Students from GRP 1

and GRP 2, however, who were born in North America felt a greater sense of prejudice

and discrimination on the Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension than their

counter part.

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Research reveals that although minority students are prone to face

prejudice and discrimination at predominately white institutions, international students

are more prone to experience prejudice and discrimination due to a number of factors,

such as language barriers and different cultural expectations (Jacoby, 1991; Miller &

Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Stabb, Harris, Talley, & 1995).

It should also be noted that research indicates that formal and informal student-

faculty interaction strongly correlates with the academic success of students. The

atmosphere established by faculty, and peer group attitudes and interaction establish the

classroom atmosphere, which enables or hinders student intellectual growth (Halaweh,

1996).

Moreover, comparing Muslim students ethnically, findings show that except for

white America Muslim students, Muslim groups were similar in their perceptions. White

American students at GRP 3 showed a somewhat higher level of perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination under the In-Class Discriminatory Experience Dimension and a

slightly higher, although not significant, level of feelings of alienation than did students

at GRP 1 and GRP 2. This finding is also consistent with other research supporting that

white American students, due to their lack of experience with issues related to prejudice

and discrimination, may hold stronger feelings of perception of prejudice and

discrimination directed against them (Nora & Cabrera, 1996). It is also important to note

that in-class discriminatory experiences by students, minorities and whites, are believed

to "contribute the most to students alienation" (Cabrera & Nora, 1994, p. 406).

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Furthermore, undergraduate students showed a higher level of

perceptions of prejudice and discrimination than graduate students under the

Racial/Ethnic Campus Climate Dimension and In-Class Discriminatory Experience

Dimension. The study found that undergraduate students from GRP 2 showed a higher

level of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination under the Racial/Ethnic Campus

Climate Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3. Research indicates that

because undergraduates are usually less experienced and new to campus environments

than graduate students, they are more vulnerable to incidents involving prejudice and

discrimination than are graduate students (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998;

Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).

It was also found that among the undergraduate students, seniors had the highest

level of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination under the Racial/Ethnic Campus

Climate Dimension. Prior research was concerned mainly with freshmen perceptions,

thus, further research is needed to clarify such a finding.

It was also found that GRP 3 graduate students reported a higher level of

perceptions of prejudice and discrimination under the In-Class Discriminatory

Experience Dimension than did students at GRP 1 and GRP 2. The reasons, may be, for

graduate students to feel that they are the object of prejudice or discrimination could be

attributed to the fact that graduate instruction usually takes place on a more personal level

where faculty members are in direct or close contact with students due to small class

room arrangements which may result in quicker misunderstandings in the interpretation

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of faculty's actions on the part of graduate students also the lack of faculty's

orientation in understanding the needs of the diverse student body could be seen as a

discriminatory actions on the students part.

And when perceptions of both males and females were compared, the study found

no gender difference in perceptions of prejudice and discrimination.

4. Muslim students, locally and nationally, rank issues of concern and


Findings

• There was a significant difference between local and national participants in ranking

issues of concern and importance.

Discussion

Unlike their agreement on their perception of prejudice and discrimination, local

and national participants had a number of disagreements on the ranking of 7 of the 19

issues of concern to Muslim students. However, the disagreements are not on whether

these issues are important but, rather, on how important these issues are for them.

Therefore, whatever is the out come of the disagreement, both groups agree on the

importance of these issues and this is consistent with research findings (El-Refaie, 1993;

Luna, 1993; Pouryousseffi, 1984; Speck, 1997).

182

The local participants attributed more importance to the following issues

than the national participants:

• Halal meals served on campus (issue 2)

• No classes on Eid Holidays (issue 5)

• Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community (issue 11)

• Having a Muslim student association on campus (issue 13)

• Adjustment to college/university life (issue 19).

Students from the national sample attributed more importance to the following

issue than students from the local sample:

• Islamic Tarbiyyah Program/Halaqa (issue 9)

As stated above, both groups agreed on the importance of these issues. Therefore, the

extent of the difference dedicated is not attributed to any particular findings or research

studies.

5. On a number of selected demographic characteristics, Muslim

students at each institution and nationally rank issues of concern and


Findings

• There was a significant difference between males and females, and between

participants' educational level in ranking issues of concern and importance.

183

• There was no significant difference between participants who were born in

North America and those who were not, among participants from different ethnic

backgrounds, among undergraduates, and at each local institution and nationally in

ranking issues of concern and importance.

Discussion

In ranking issues of concern, Muslim students showed a difference along

demographic lines in the way they attributed importance to these issues. Gender is one

example. Female Muslim students attributed more importance than males to issues

falling under all of the dimensions: Religious, Social, and Academic Dimensions.

However, the disagreements between female Muslim students and male Muslim students

are not on whether these issues are important or not but rather, on how important these

issues are for them.

One explanation of such a finding could, first, be related to the fact the females

mature earlier than males. Second, such a view is consistent with realities on campuses

where, according to MSA, more female students than males are assuming campus

leadership positions across the country. And third, female Muslim students have to

commit to the wearing of the headscarf at an early age, a practice that makes them aware

of their Islamic identity and visible to the public as being Muslims.

The researcher found that undergraduate students attributed more importance to

issues falling under the Academic Dimension than did graduate students. It was also

observed the students from GRP 2 attributed more importance overall to issues falling

184

under the Academic Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3.

However, both graduate and undergraduate students had similar ranking for issues falling

under the Religious Dimension as well as issues falling under the Social Dimension.

Regardless of their place of birth, ethnicity, and undergraduate level, participants

displayed similar patterns in ranking these issues of concern and importance. It should be

also noted that students from GRP 2 attributed more importance to issues falling under

the Social Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3.

Despite the fact that the researcher found that there were a number of occasions in

which students' preferences differed on how important are those issues, the main and

important point remains that all of the students are in agreement on the importance of

such issues. Such agreement raises an important question: How can institutions of

higher education provide a climate for Muslim students by which they can practice their

beliefs and attain their educational goals without hardship and strain? Research indicates

that accommodating environments can produce a desired development or change,

whereas poor environments can produce dissatisfaction, stress, and psychological

disorder (Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989;

Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston,

1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).

185

6. There is no relationship between feelings of prejudice and

discrimination and students’ satisfaction with their academic

experience.

Findings

• There was a significant relationship between feelings of prejudice and discrimination

and the satisfaction of students with their academic experience.

Discussion

The three dimensions that make up the scale for measuring perceptions of

prejudice and discrimination are: (a) Racial/Ethnic Climate on Campus, (b) Prejudiced

Attitudes of Faculty and Staff, and (c) In-Class Discriminatory Experiences. (Items

explaining these dimension were discussed earlier.)

The dimension measuring satisfaction of students with their academic experience

is the Satisfaction with Academic Experience Dimension. Satisfaction with students'




growth and interest in ideas, and (c) I am satisfied with my academic experience at this

institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1996).

The study found that there exists a reciprocal relationship, in spite of its

weakness, between feelings of prejudice and discrimination and satisfaction with the

academic experience. This finding is consistent with research findings that "minority

186

students who perceived higher levels of discrimination on campus and in

classrooms were less likely to experience academic and intellectual development" (Nora

& Cabrera, 1996, p. 133). Therefore, it is important for institutions of higher education to

work to reduce or minimize levels of prejudice and discrimination and in so doing, allow

for academic and intellectual development to flourish.

Summary of Conclusions

1. A majority of Muslim students, locally and nationally, perceive that they experience

prejudice and discrimination while attending institutions of higher education in

United States.

2. In spite of Muslim students' perception of prejudice and discrimination, the majority

were satisfied with their academic and intellectual development.

3. In their selection of issues of concern and importance, Muslim students chose mostly

issues related to religious practices.

4. In their ranking of issues of concern and importance, Muslim students tend to either

consider them as important, very important, or extremely important.

5. Muslim students, not born in North America, had overall a higher level of perceptions

of prejudice and discrimination while attending institutions of higher education than

did students not born in North America.

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6. Muslim students, born in North America and attending GRP 1 and GRP 2,

perceive that faculty and academic staff harbored feelings of prejudice and

discrimination towards minority students.

7. White American Muslim students attending GRP 3 felt that they either were

discouraged from participating in class discussions or singled out in class and treated

differently from other students.

8. Undergraduate Muslim students in general and GRP 2 students in particular had a

higher level of perception of prejudice and discrimination while attending institutions

of higher education than did graduate students.

9. Graduate Muslim students at GRP 3 felt that they either were discouraged from

participating in class discussions or singled out in class and treated differently from

other students.

10. Muslim students who were seniors had a higher level of perception of prejudice and

discrimination while attending institutions of higher education than did other

undergraduate students.

11. Muslim students, locally and nationally, agree on the importance of issues of concern

in spite of their differences in attributing levels of importance.

12. Female Muslim students attributed more importance to all of the issues of concern

and importance than did male Muslim students.

13. Undergraduate Muslim students attributed more importance to issues relating to

academic dimension than did graduate students.

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14. Place of birth, ethnicity, and undergraduate level did not affect the ranking

of Muslim students to issues of concern and importance.

15. The higher the level of prejudice and discrimination experienced by Muslim students,

the lower was the satisfaction of Muslim students with their academic and intellectual

development.

Implications

The study is the first to examine directly Muslim student perceptions of prejudice

and discrimination as Muslim students make their way through academia. The finding

that majority of Muslim students perceive that prejudice and discrimination are well and

alive in institutions of higher education is in concurrence with other research findings that

found non-white students are prone to experience prejudice and discrimination in

predominantly white colleges and universities. The fact that Muslim students were

examined, as a distinct group, makes the study's findings valuable contribution to

academic research in the field of non-white American students’ studies.

Moreover, Islam and Muslims are not and should not be considered as foreign

phenomenon in American life in general and into American academia in particular. In

many respects, Muslims have religious beliefs and practices that have much in common

with the religious beliefs and practices of other Americans. In this regards, for Muslim

students issues related to religious aspects and practices are central to their day-to-day

life and should not be separated from other activities and events.

189

Furthermore, this is the first study to take in to consideration the

growing numbers of American-born Muslim students in academia and to examine their

needs and concerns. It is also note worthy that, unlike other studies, this study has

examined a wide range of backgrounds of Muslim students' demographic characteristics

and geographic spread.

Recommendations

In light of the findings and implications of this study, the following are

recommendations for faculty, educators, and university officials:

1. Institutions of higher education need to assess and evaluate their existing

environments in relation to minority students in general and to Muslim students in

particular. This assessment should consider the status of Muslim students and the

specific programs and efforts undertaken by the institution in promoting friendly

environment for Muslim students.

2. Institutions of higher education, in cooperation with national Muslim organizations,

need to devise orientation programs for students, faculty members, and academic staff

regarding Muslim faith and cultures. Institutions should make it a requirement for

faculty, academic staff and university officials to attend such orientations.

3. Institutions of higher education should include Muslim representatives in university

bodies, committees, and forums. These arrangements should be made public to

insure proper follow up and implementation.

190

4. Institutions of higher education should accommodate Muslim holidays and

religious services into the university/college calendar of events and programs.

Institutions should make it a point to include Muslim holidays on schools calendar

and advise faculty and academic staff to make special efforts to accommodate

students who need to observe these holidays or any other religious services.

5. Institutions of higher education should accommodate Muslim students in housing and

dietary needs in university/college services. Muslim students’ need for privacy and

modesty should be respected. It is also important to insure that dining arrangements

are compatible with Islamic injunctions and students are accommodated for during

the fasting month of Ramadhan.

6. Institutions of higher education should involve top officials, including the university

president, in overseen the process of inclusion of Muslims student, faculty and staff in

the university/college system.

7. Institutions of higher education should include in their recruitment efforts faculty and

university officials from Muslim background. Institutions should allow for a certain

threshold in their recruitment plans comparable to numbers of Muslim students on

campus.

8. Institutions of higher education should, in cooperation with national Muslim

organizations, evaluate courses and textbooks that provide information about Islam

and Muslims to insure accuracy of information provided. Institutions should insure

that contents are not defamatory, stereotyping, or misrepresenting Muslims and Islam.

191

9. Institutions of higher education should establish standing committees of

university officials, faculty and students from the different cultural backgrounds as

the campus environment team to develop strategies that prevent instances of racial,

sexual, religious, or political intolerance on campus.

Recommendations for Future Research

Based on the results of this study, several recommendations for further research

are suggested:

1. It is recommended that a study be initiated to verify the demographics of American

Muslim students in American academia

2. It is recommended that a comparison be done on Muslim Students' experience in

community colleges with their experience in private or public four-year institutions

3. It is recommended that a study be initiated to document incidents of prejudice or

discrimination involving Muslim students

4. It is recommended that a comparison of Muslim students' perceptions of the freshmen

year in college with their experience in high schools

5. It is recommended that a comparison of the African American Muslim students

experience with the rest of the African American student population

6. It is recommended that a study be initiated to examine religious trends among Muslim

students

192

7. It is recommended that a study be initiated to assess the impact of Muslim

student societies on students' behavior and outlook in colleges and universities

8. It is recommended that a research be conducted to examine the extent of religious

accommodation for Muslim students in public, liberal and religious colleges and

universities.

9. It is recommended that research be conducted to compare the experiences of religious

groups (Muslim, Christian, and Jewish) on campus with respect to their experiences

in dealing with prejudice and discrimination in colleges and universities.

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APPENDIX A

Survey Questionnaire

194

Bism Allah al-Rahman al-Raheem

Fill & Win a Free copy of the Alim Software (retails @ $99)

Fall 1997

Dear Muslim Student:

Assalamu Alaykum

I am writing to ask you to help me in completing this important survey as part ofmy doctoral study. My dissertation topic is about Muslim students’ perception ofprejudice and discrimination in academia.

The study also deals with the important issues and concerns that face the Muslimstudent while pursuing his/her higher education.

Your participation is very important to the success of this research. I hope thatthe findings will find its way to university officials and administrators. This willdefinitely help all of us improve the status of the Muslim student.

In appreciation for your time and concern, a drawing will take place to award oneof you a copy of Alim Software (retailed at $99) donated by TransCom International(developers of Discover Islam Posters).

If you are a winner, I will notify you as soon as the drawing takes place. Pleaseprovide me with your contact information in the optional section (page 4).

Thank you for your time and concern. To obtain a copy of the results, pleasecontact researcher at (703) 820-7900 or via e-mail, [email protected].

Yours truly,

M. SalemMohamed Salem Omeish

Ps. This survey is printed free of charge by International Graphics of Beltsville, Maryland.

195

The Muslim Student Survey Questionnaire

• Please Answer All Questions

Part I (Please mark your answer with a üü)

Sex M___ F___ Born in North America Yes_____ NO_____

Year in School: Undergraduate: Freshman _____ Sophomore _____ Junior ______ Senior ______Graduate: Masters _____ Doctoral _____

Name of School: _________________________________ State: _____________________________

Do you live on campus? YES __ NO __ Did you graduate from high school in North America? Yes __ NO __

GPA Below 2.0 ____ 2.0 - 2.5 _____ 2.6 - 3.0 _____ 3.1 - 3.5 _____ Above 3.5 _____

Age _________ Marital Status Single _____ Married _____ Other_____

Ethnic Background: Afro-American ______ Indo-Pak _____ Arab _____ Asian_____White-American ______ Other ________

Nationality: US Citizen __________ Non-US Citizen _________Canadian Citizen __________ Non-Canadian Citizen_________

Part II

There is no right or wrong answerPlease circle number corresponding to your answer using scale above

1. I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors or gestures directed 1 2 3 4 5at minority students at my college/university.

2. I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among students. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I have encountered racism while attending my college/university. 1 2 3 4 5

4. I have heard negative words about people of my own race or ethnicity 1 2 3 4 5while attending classes.

5. I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among faculty 1 2 3 4 5at my college/university.

6. I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among academic staff 1 2 3 4 5at my college/university.

7. I have been discouraged from participating in class discussions. 1 2 3 4 5

8. I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other students. 1 2 3 4 5

9. Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience. 1 2 3 4 5

10. I feel I belong at my college/university. 1 2 3 4 5

Scale1=Strongly Agree2=Agree3=undecided4=disagree5=Strongly disagree

196

Scale 1=Strongly Agree; 2=Agree; 3=undecided; 4=disagree; 5=Strongly disagree

11. I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since 1 2 3 4 5attending my college/university.

12. My academic experience has had a positive influence on my intellectual 1 2 3 4 5growth and interest in ideas.

13. I am satisfied with my academic experience at my college/university. 1 2 3 4 5

Part III

There is no right or wrong answer;

Please read first and then choose only 5 issues

Please þ only 5 Issues you consider important

r Place for observance of daily/Friday Prayer (s) on campus

r Halal meals served on campusr Availability of scholarship fundr Interest free loansr No classes on Eid Holidaysr Concerned/bothered with interaction

with the opposite sex in class/campusr Social/peer support group on campusr Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campusr Islamic Tarbiyyah program/Halaqar Dealing with prejudice and

discrimination on campus

r Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community

r Academic achievementr Having a Muslim student association on

campusr Preserving one’s own Islamic identityr Making Da’wah to non-Muslimsr Muslim room-mater Unity of Muslim students on campusr Observing Islamic dress coder Adjustment to college/university life

If there are other issues that are not listed above that you feel are important,Please list any ones below, keeping the combined total of circled and listed items to five (5).

� _______________________________________ � _______________________________________

� _______________________________________ � _______________________________________

� _______________________________________

197

Part IV

There is no right or wrong answer

Please read first and then rank all of the following issues using scale above

Please circle number corresponding to your choice

Please Circle

Issues Rank (1 to 5)

1. Place for observance of daily/Friday Prayer(s) on campus 1 2 3 4 52. Halal meals served on campus 1 2 3 4 53. Availability of scholarship fund 1 2 3 4 54. Interest free loans 1 2 3 4 55. No classes on Eid Holidays 1 2 3 4 56. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in class/campus 1 2 3 4 57. Social/peer support group on campus 1 2 3 4 58. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus 1 2 3 4 59. Islamic Tarbiyyah program/Halaqa 1 2 3 4 510. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus 1 2 3 4 511. Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community 1 2 3 4 512. Academic achievement 1 2 3 4 513. Having a Muslim student association on campus 1 2 3 4 514. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity 1 2 3 4 515. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims 1 2 3 4 516. Muslim room-mate 1 2 3 4 517. Unity of Muslim students on campus 1 2 3 4 518. Observing Islamic dress code 1 2 3 4 519. Adjustment to college/university life 1 2 3 4 5

If you wrote-in any issue(s) in Part III, please re-write them below and rank them as well

� ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5 � ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5

� ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5 � ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5

� ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5

Optional (contact information)

Name: ________________________________________________________________________________

E-Mail:______________________________________ Phone(_______)____________________________

Address : ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Scale1=Extremly Important2=Very Important3=Important4=Less Important5=Not Important

198

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