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! 2!

TABLE&OF&CONTENTS&

INTRODUCTION&..........................................................................................................................................................&3!

PART&I&............................................................................................................................................................................&4!CHARTER!OF!THE!UNITED!NATIONS!................................................................................................................................!4!CHAPTER!I:!PURPOSES!AND!PRINCIPLES!.......................................................................................................................!4!CHAPTER!II:!MEMBERSHIP!...................................................................................................................................................!5!CHAPTER!III:!ORGANS!.............................................................................................................................................................!6!CHAPTER!IV:!THE!GENERAL!ASSEMBLY!.........................................................................................................................!6!CHAPTER!V:!THE!SECURITY!COUNCIL!..............................................................................................................................!9!CHAPTER!VI:!PACIFIC!SETTLEMENT!OF!DISPUTES!.................................................................................................!11!CHAPTER!VII:!ACTION!WITH!RESPECT!TO!THREATS!TO!THE!PEACE,!BREACHES!OF!THE!PEACE,!

AND!ACTS!OF!AGGRESSION!.................................................................................................................................................!12!CHAPTER!VIII:!REGIONAL!ARRANGEMENTS!..............................................................................................................!15!CHAPTER!IX:!INTERNATIONAL!ECONOMIC!AND!SOCIAL!COAOPERATION!....................................................!16!CHAPTER!X:!THE!ECONOMIC!AND!SOCIAL!COUNCIL!...............................................................................................!17!CHAPTER!XI:!DECLARATION!REGARDING!NONASELFAGOVERNING!TERRITORIES!...................................!20!CHAPTER!XII:!INTERNATIONAL!TRUSTEESHIP!SYSTEM!......................................................................................!20!CHAPTER!XIII:!THE!TRUSTEESHIP!COUNCIL!..............................................................................................................!23!CHAPTER!XIV:!THE!INTERNATIONAL!COURT!OF!JUSTICE!....................................................................................!24!CHAPTER!XV:!THE!SECRETARIAT!....................................................................................................................................!25!CHAPTER!XVI:!MISCELLANEOUS!PROVISIONS!...........................................................................................................!26!CHAPTER!XVII:!TRANSITIONAL!SECURITY!ARRANGEMENTS!.............................................................................!27!CHAPTER!XVIII:!AMENDMENTS!........................................................................................................................................!28!CHAPTER!XIX:!RATIFICATION!AND!SIGNATURE!.......................................................................................................!28!

PART&II&.......................................................................................................................................................................&29!1.!PETERSON!INSTITUTE!FOR!INTERNATIONAL!ECONOMICS!!US!SHOULD!WORK!WITH!THE!ASIAN!INFRASTRUCTURE!

INVESTMENT!BANK!......................................................................................................................................................................!29!2.!PETERSON!INSTITUTE!FOR!INTERNATIONAL!ECONOMICS!!NORTH!KOREAN!NUCLEAR!WEAPONS!INVENTORIES!

UPDATE!...........................................................................................................................................................................................!30!3.!INTERNATIONAL!CRISIS!GROUP!!!ABBAS'!BUM!BOMBSHELL!...........................................................................................!32!4.!CHATHAM!HOUSE!REPORT!!!CYBER!SECURITY!AT!CIVIL.!NUCLEAR!FACILITIES!UNDERSTANDING!THE!RISKS!......!36!5.!THE!GUARDIAN!!THE!KYOTO!PROTOCOL!IS!NOT!QUITE!DEAD!.........................................................................................!38!6.!THE!GLOBAL!JOURNAL!!!WHO!OWNS!THE!ARCTIC?!A!STOCKTAKING!OF!TERRITORIAL!DISPUTES!..........................!40!7.!EURACTIVE!!!EU!LEADERS!ADOPT!'FLEXIBLE'!ENERGY!AND!CLIMATE!TARGETS!FOR!2030!......................................!42!8.!THE!WASHINGTON!POST!!!3!WAYS!THE!FUKUSHIMA!NUCLEAR!DISASTER!IS!STILL!HAVING!AN!IMPACT!TODAY!....!44!9.!CNN!!!IRAQ:!ISIS!FIGHTERS!CLOSE!RAMADI!DAM!GATES,!CUT!OFF!WATER!TO!LOYALIST!TOWNS!............................!45!10.!THE!RED!CROSS!!!DEFENDING!ALBINOS’!RIGHTS!TO!LIFE!..............................................................................................!46!!

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! 3!

INTRODUCTION&&

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Each! delegate! attending! the!Model!United!Nations! (MUN)! programs! promoted! by! Consules!

will! take!an!active!role! in!a!challenging!training!course.!During!this!course,!each!participant!will!acquire!the!necessary!knowledge!and!communication!skills!allowing!her/him!to!act!as!a!

delegate!in!the!simulation.!!!

The! delegates! need! to! possess! both! intellectual! curiosity! and! diligence,! characteristics! that!

will!allow!them!to!perform!properly!in!the!negotiations.!!!

In! order! to! be! admitted! to! the! Model! United! Nations! programs! promoted! by! Consules,!

applicants!also!have!to!take!a!written!examination.!!!

The! following! guide! contains! all! the! instructions! and! materials! required! for! the! MUN!admission!test.!The!test!gives!no!advantage!to!older!or!more!experienced!students:!it!is!based!

only!on!the!materials!collected!by!Consules!and!it!is!tailored!in!order!to!reward!the!students!

who!will!carefully!follow!the!instructions!and!fully!understand!all!the!suggested!readings,!not!those!who!possess!a!greater!educational!background.!

!

The! test! is! composed! of! 30! multiple! choice! questions! concerning! the! chapters! of! the! UN!Charter!(15!questions)!and!selected!topics!of!current!international!affairs!(15!questions).!The!

language!of!the!test!is!English!and!the!length!is!of!30!minutes.!Each!question!has!four!possible!choices!and!only!one!correct!answer.!The!evaluation!criteria! is! the! following:!+1,0!point! for!

each!correct!answer;!A0,5!point!for!wrong!and/or!multiple!answers;!0!point!for!unanswered!

questions.!!

Two!sample!questions,!one!for!each!part!of!the!guide,!are!included!below!in!order!to!acquaint!the!student!with!the!test.!All!the!questions!will!be!based!on!the!chapter!of!the!UN!charter!and!

on!the!articles!from!selected!international!press!contained!in!this!guide.!Students!have!to!read!

carefully!all!the!documents!included.!No!additional!material!is!required!for!the!preparation!of!the!exam.!

!

SAMPLE&QUESTIONS&!

Q1.!According!to!Article!10!of!UN!Charter,!the!General!Assembly!may!discuss:!!1)!Only!questions!related!to!the!admission!of!new!Member!States;!

!2)!Any!questions!or!any!matters!within!the!scope!of!the!Charter;!

!3)!Only!questions!related!to!maintenance!of!peace!and!security;!!4)!Any!questions!or!any!matters!which!is!under!consideration!of!UN!Security!Council.!

!

Q2.!The!Northern!Limit!Line!(NLL)!between!North!and!South!Korea:!1)!Is!a!border!set!down!by!the!USAled!UN!force!at!the!end!of!the!1980’s!that!only!recently!has!

been!accepted!by!Pyongyang;!2)!Is!a!border!set!down!by!the!USAled!UN!force!at!the!end!of!the!Korean!war!which!has!never!

been!accepted!by!Pyongyang;!

3)!Is!an!arbitrary!border!set!down!by!the!North!Korean!regime;!4)!Is!an!arbitrary!border!set!down!by!the!South!Korean!government.!!

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PART&I&&

&CHARTER&OF&THE&UNITED&NATIONS&&&CHAPTER&I:&PURPOSES&AND&PRINCIPLES&

Article!1!

The!Purposes!of!the!United!Nations!are:!

1.!To!maintain! international!peace!and!security,! and! to! that!end:! to! take!effective!collective!measures!for!the!prevention!and!removal!of!threats!to!the!peace,!and!for!the!suppression!of!

acts!of!aggression!or!other!breaches!of!the!peace,!and!to!bring!about!by!peaceful!means,!and!

in!conformity!with!the!principles!of!justice!and!international!law,!adjustment!or!settlement!of!international!disputes!or!situations!which!might!lead!to!a!breach!of!the!peace;!

2.! To! develop! friendly! relations! among! nations! based! on! respect! for! the! principle! of! equal!

rights! and! selfAdetermination! of! peoples,! and! to! take! other! appropriate! measures! to!strengthen!universal!peace;!

3.! To! achieve! international! coAoperation! in! solving! international! problems! of! an! economic,!

social,! cultural,! or! humanitarian! character,! and! in! promoting! and! encouraging! respect! for!

human! rights! and! for! fundamental! freedoms! for! all! without! distinction! as! to! race,! sex,!language,!or!religion;!and!

4.!To!be!a!centre! for!harmonizing!the!actions!of!nations! in!the!attainment!of! these!common!

ends.!

Article!2!

1.!The!Organization!and!its!Members,!in!pursuit!of!the!Purposes!stated!in!Article!1,!shall!act!in!accordance!with!the!following!Principles.!

2.!The!Organization!is!based!on!the!principle!of!the!sovereign!equality!of!all!its!Members.!

3.! All! Members,! in! order! to! ensure! to! all! of! them! the! rights! and! benefits! resulting! from!

membership,!shall!fulfill!in!good!faith!the!obligations!assumed!by!them!in!accordance!with!the!present!Charter.!

4.!All!Members!shall!settle! their! international!disputes!by!peaceful!means! in!such!a!manner!

that!international!peace!and!security,!and!justice,!are!not!endangered.!

5.! All!Members! shall! refrain! in! their! international! relations! from! the! threat! or! use! of! force!

against!the!territorial!integrity!or!political!independence!of!any!state,!or!in!any!other!manner!inconsistent!with!the!Purposes!of!the!United!Nations.!

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6.! All! Members! shall! give! the! United! Nations! every! assistance! in! any! action! it! takes! in!

accordance! with! the! present! Charter,! and! shall! refrain! from! giving! assistance! to! any! state!against!which!the!United!Nations!is!taking!preventive!or!enforcement!action.!

7.!The!Organization!shall!ensure!that!states!which!are!not!Members!of!the!United!Nations!act!

in! accordance! with! these! Principles! so! far! as! may! be! necessary! for! the! maintenance! of!

international!peace!and!security.!

8.!Nothing!contained!in!the!present!Charter!shall!authorize!the!United!Nations!to!intervene!in!matters!which!are!essentially!within!the!domestic!jurisdiction!of!any!state!or!shall!require!the!

Members!to!submit!such!matters!to!settlement!under!the!present!Charter;!but!this!principle!shall!not!prejudice!the!application!of!enforcement!measures!under!Chapter!Vll.!

&CHAPTER&II:&MEMBERSHIP&

Article!3!

The!original!Members!of!the!United!Nations!shall!be!the!states!which,!having!participated!in!the! United! Nations! Conference! on! International! Organization! at! San! Francisco,! or! having!

previously! signed! the! Declaration! by! United! Nations! of! 1! January! 1942,! sign! the! present!

Charter!and!ratify!it!in!accordance!with!Article!110.!

Article!4!

1.!Membership!in!the!United!Nations!is!open!to!all!other!peaceAloving!states!which!accept!the!obligations!contained!in!the!present!Charter!and,!in!the!judgment!of!the!Organization,!are!able!

and!willing!to!carry!out!these!obligations.!

2.!The!admission!of!any!such!state!to!membership!in!the!United!Nations!will!be!effected!by!a!decision!of!the!General!Assembly!upon!the!recommendation!of!the!Security!Council.!

Article!5!

A!Member! of! the!United!Nations! against!which! preventive! or! enforcement! action! has! been!

taken!by!the!Security!Council!may!be!suspended!from!the!exercise!of!the!rights!and!privileges!

of!membership!by! the!General!Assembly!upon! the!recommendation!of! the!Security!Council.!The!exercise!of!these!rights!and!privileges!may!be!restored!by!the!Security!Council.!

Article!6!

A!Member!of! the!United!Nations!which!has!persistently!violated!the!Principles!contained! in!

the!present!Charter!may!be!expelled!from!the!Organization!by!the!General!Assembly!upon!the!recommendation!of!the!Security!Council.!

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CHAPTER&III:&ORGANS&

Article!7!

1.! There! are! established! as! principal! organs! of! the! United! Nations:! a! General! Assembly,! a!

Security! Council,! an! Economic! and! Social! Council,! a! Trusteeship! Council,! an! International!Court!of!Justice!and!a!Secretariat.!

2.!Such!subsidiary!organs!as!may!be!found!necessary!may!be!established!in!accordance!with!

the!present!Charter.!

Article!8!

The! United! Nations! shall! place! no! restrictions! on! the! eligibility! of! men! and! women! to!participate! in! any! capacity! and! under! conditions! of! equality! in! its! principal! and! subsidiary!

organs.!

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CHAPTER&IV:&THE&GENERAL&ASSEMBLY&

COMPOSITION&

Article!9!

1.!The!General!Assembly!shall!consist!of!all!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations.!

2.!Each!Member!shall!have!not!more!than!five!representatives!in!the!General!Assembly.!

FUNCTIONS&and&POWERS&

Article!10!

The! General! Assembly! may! discuss! any! questions! or! any! matters! within! the! scope! of! the!

present! Charter! or! relating! to! the! powers! and! functions! of! any! organs! provided! for! in! the!present! Charter,! and,! except! as! provided! in! Article! 12,!may!make! recommendations! to! the!

Members!of!the!United!Nations!or!to!the!Security!Council!or!to!both!on!any!such!questions!or!

matters.!

Article!11!

1.! The! General! Assembly! may! consider! the! general! principles! of! coAoperation! in! the!maintenance! of! international! peace! and! security,! including! the! principles! governing!

disarmament!and!the!regulation!of!armaments,!and!may!make!recommendations!with!regard!to!such!principles!to!the!Members!or!to!the!Security!Council!or!to!both.!

2.! The! General! Assembly! may! discuss! any! questions! relating! to! the! maintenance! of!

international!peace!and!security!brought!before!it!by!any!Member!of!the!United!Nations,!or!by!

the!Security!Council,!or!by!a!state!which!is!not!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations!in!accordance!with! Article! 35,! paragraph! 2,! and,! except! as! provided! in! Article! 12,! may! make!

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recommendations!with!regard!to!any!such!questions!to!the!state!or!states!concerned!or!to!the!

Security!Council!or!to!both.!Any!such!question!on!which!action!is!necessary!shall!be!referred!to!the!Security!Council!by!the!General!Assembly!either!before!or!after!discussion.!!

3.!The!General!Assembly!may!call!the!attention!of!the!Security!Council!to!situations!which!are!

likely!to!endanger!international!peace!and!security.!

4.!The!powers!of!the!General!Assembly!set!forth!in!this!Article!shall!not!limit!the!general!scope!

of!Article!10.!

Article!12!

1.!While!the!Security!Council!is!exercising!in!respect!of!any!dispute!or!situation!the!functions!

assigned! to! it! in! the! present! Charter,! the! General! Assembly! shall! not! make! any!

recommendation! with! regard! to! that! dispute! or! situation! unless! the! Security! Council! so!requests.!

2.! The! SecretaryAGeneral,!with! the! consent! of! the! Security! Council,! shall! notify! the! General!

Assembly!at! each! session!of! any!matters! relative! to! the!maintenance!of! international!peace!and!security!which!are!being!dealt!with!by!the!Security!Council!and!shall!similarly!notify!the!

General! Assembly,! or! the!Members! of! the!United!Nations! if! the!General! Assembly! is! not! in!

session,!immediately!the!Security!Council!ceases!to!deal!with!such!matters.!

Article!13!

1.!The!General!Assembly!shall!initiate!studies!and!make!recommendations!for!the!purpose!of:!a.!promoting!international!coAoperation!in!the!political!field!and!encouraging!the!progressive!

development!of!international!law!and!its!codification;!b.!promoting!international!coAoperation!in!the!economic,!social,!cultural,!educational,!and!health!fields,!and!assisting!in!the!realization!

of! human! rights! and! fundamental! freedoms! for! all! without! distinction! as! to! race,! sex,!

language,!or!religion.!

2.!The!further!responsibilities,!functions!and!powers!of!the!General!Assembly!with!respect!to!matters!mentioned!in!paragraph!1!(b)!above!are!set!forth!in!Chapters!IX!and!X.!

Article!14!

Subject!to!the!provisions!of!Article!12,! the!General!Assembly!may!recommend!measures!for!

the!peaceful!adjustment!of!any!situation,!regardless!of!origin,!which!it!deems!likely!to!impair!the!general!welfare!or!friendly!relations!among!nations,!including!situations!resulting!from!a!

violation!of!the!provisions!of!the!present!Charter!setting!forth!the!Purposes!and!Principles!of!

the!United!Nations.!

Article!15!

1.! The! General! Assembly! shall! receive! and! consider! annual! and! special! reports! from! the!Security! Council;! these! reports! shall! include! an! account! of! the! measures! that! the! Security!

Council!has!decided!upon!or!taken!to!maintain!international!peace!and!security.!

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2.! The! General! Assembly! shall! receive! and! consider! reports! from! the! other! organs! of! the!

United!Nations.!

Article!16!

The! General! Assembly! shall! perform! such! functions! with! respect! to! the! international!trusteeship!system!as!are!assigned!to!it!under!Chapters!XII!and!XIII,!including!the!approval!of!

the!trusteeship!agreements!for!areas!not!designated!as!strategic.!

Article!17!

1.!The!General!Assembly!shall!consider!and!approve!the!budget!of!the!Organization.!

2.! The! expenses! of! the!Organization! shall! be! borne! by! the!Members! as! apportioned! by! the!General!Assembly.!

3.! The! General! Assembly! shall! consider! and! approve! any! financial! and! budgetary!

arrangements! with! specialized! agencies! referred! to! in! Article! 57! and! shall! examine! the!

administrative!budgets!of!such!specialized!agencies!with!a!view!to!making!recommendations!to!the!agencies!concerned.!

VOTING&

Article!18!

1.!Each!member!of!the!General!Assembly!shall!have!one!vote.!

2.!Decisions!of! the!General!Assembly!on! important!questions!shall!be!made!by!a! twoAthirds!

majority!of!the!members!present!and!voting.!These!questions!shall!include:!recommendations!with!respect!to!the!maintenance!of!international!peace!and!security,!the!election!of!the!nonA

permanent!members!of!the!Security!Council,!the!election!of!the!members!of!the!Economic!and!Social! Council,! the! election! of! members! of! the! Trusteeship! Council! in! accordance! with!

paragraph! 1! (c)! of! Article! 86,! the! admission! of! new! Members! to! the! United! Nations,! the!

suspension!of!the!rights!and!privileges!of!membership,!the!expulsion!of!Members,!questions!relating!to!the!operation!of!the!trusteeship!system,!and!budgetary!questions.!

3.! Decisions! on! other! questions,! including! the! determination! of! additional! categories! of!

questions!to!be!decided!by!a!twoAthirds!majority,!shall!be!made!by!a!majority!of!the!members!

present!and!voting.!

Article!19!

A! Member! of! the! United! Nations! which! is! in! arrears! in! the! payment! of! its! financial!

contributions!to!the!Organization!shall!have!no!vote!in!the!General!Assembly!if!the!amount!of!

its!arrears!equals!or!exceeds! the!amount!of! the!contributions!due! from! it! for! the!preceding!two!full!years.!The!General!Assembly!may,!nevertheless,!permit!such!a!Member!to!vote!if!it!is!

satisfied!that!the!failure!to!pay!is!due!to!conditions!beyond!the!control!of!the!Member.!

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PROCEDURE&

Article!20!

The!General!Assembly!shall!meet! in!regular!annual!sessions!and! in!such!special! sessions!as!

occasion! may! require.! Special! sessions! shall! be! convoked! by! the! SecretaryAGeneral! at! the!request!of!the!Security!Council!or!of!a!majority!of!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations.!

Article!21!

The!General!Assembly!shall!adopt! its!own!rules!of!procedure.! It! shall!elect! its!President! for!

each!session.!

Article!22!

The! General! Assembly!may! establish! such! subsidiary! organs! as! it! deems! necessary! for! the!performance!of!its!functions.!

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CHAPTER&V:&THE&SECURITY&COUNCIL&

COMPOSITION&

Article!23!

1.!The!Security!Council!shall!consist!of!fifteen!Members!of!the!United!Nations.!The!Republic!of!China,!France,!the!Union!of!Soviet!Socialist!Republics,!the!United!Kingdom!of!Great!Britain!and!

Northern! Ireland,! and! the! United! States! of! America! shall! be! permanent! members! of! the!

Security!Council.!The!General!Assembly!shall!elect!ten!other!Members!of!the!United!Nations!to!be!nonApermanent!members!of! the!Security!Council,!due! regard!being! specially!paid,! in! the!

first! instance! to! the! contribution! of!Members! of! the! United! Nations! to! the!maintenance! of!international!peace!and! security!and! to! the!other!purposes!of! the!Organization,! and!also! to!

equitable!geographical!distribution.!

2.! The! nonApermanent!members! of! the! Security! Council! shall! be! elected! for! a! term! of! two!

years.! In! the! first! election! of! the! nonApermanent! members! after! the! increase! of! the!membership! of! the! Security! Council! from! eleven! to! fifteen,! two! of! the! four! additional!

members!shall!be!chosen!for!a! term!of!one!year.!A!retiring!member!shall!not!be!eligible! for!

immediate!reAelection.!

3.!Each!member!of!the!Security!Council!shall!have!one!representative.!

FUNCTIONS&and&POWERS&

Article!24!

1.!In!order!to!ensure!prompt!and!effective!action!by!the!United!Nations,! its!Members!confer!

on!the!Security!Council!primary!responsibility!for!the!maintenance!of!international!peace!and!

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security,!and!agree!that!in!carrying!out!its!duties!under!this!responsibility!the!Security!Council!

acts!on!their!behalf.!

2.!In!discharging!these!duties!the!Security!Council!shall!act!in!accordance!with!the!Purposes!and!Principles!of!the!United!Nations.!The!specific!powers!granted!to!the!Security!Council!for!

the!discharge!of!these!duties!are!laid!down!in!Chapters!VI,!VII,!VIII,!and!XII.!

3.! The! Security! Council! shall! submit! annual! and,! when! necessary,! special! reports! to! the!

General!Assembly!for!its!consideration.!

Article!25!

The!Members!of!the!United!Nations!agree!to!accept!and!carry!out!the!decisions!of!the!Security!

Council!in!accordance!with!the!present!Charter.!

Article!26!

In!order!to!promote!the!establishment!and!maintenance!of! international!peace!and!security!

with! the! least! diversion! for! armaments! of! the!world's! human! and! economic! resources,! the!Security!Council!shall!be!responsible!for!formulating,!with!the!assistance!of!the!Military!Staff!

Committee! referred! to! in! Article! 47,! plans! to! be! submitted! to! the! Members! of! the! United!Nations!for!the!establishment!of!a!system!for!the!regulation!of!armaments.!

VOTING&

Article!27!

1.!Each!member!of!the!Security!Council!shall!have!one!vote.!

2.!Decisions! of! the! Security! Council! on! procedural!matters! shall! be!made! by! an! affirmative!

vote!of!nine!members.!

3.!Decisions!of!the!Security!Council!on!all!other!matters!shall!be!made!by!an!affirmative!vote!of!nine!members!including!the!concurring!votes!of!the!permanent!members;!provided!that,!in!

decisions!under!Chapter!VI,! and!under!paragraph!3!of!Article!52,! a!party! to! a!dispute! shall!

abstain!from!voting.!

PROCEDURE&

Article!28!

1.! The! Security! Council! shall! be! so! organized! as! to! be! able! to! function! continuously.! Each!member!of!the!Security!Council!shall!for!this!purpose!be!represented!at!all!times!at!the!seat!of!

the!Organization.!

2.!The!Security!Council!shall!hold!periodic!meetings!at!which!each!of!its!members!may,!if!it!so!desires,! be! represented! by! a! member! of! the! government! or! by! some! other! specially!

designated!representative.!

!

! 11!

3.! The! Security! Council! may! hold! meetings! at! such! places! other! than! the! seat! of! the!

Organization!as!in!its!judgment!will!best!facilitate!its!work.!

Article!29!

The! Security! Council! may! establish! such! subsidiary! organs! as! it! deems! necessary! for! the!performance!of!its!functions.!

Article!30!

The!Security!Council!shall!adopt!its!own!rules!of!procedure,!including!the!method!of!selecting!

its!President.!

Article!31!

Any! Member! of! the! United! Nations! which! is! not! a! member! of! the! Security! Council! may!participate,! without! vote,! in! the! discussion! of! any! question! brought! before! the! Security!

Council!whenever!the!latter!considers!that!the!interests!of!that!Member!are!specially!affected.!

Article!32!

Any!Member!of!the!United!Nations!which!is!not!a!member!of!the!Security!Council!or!any!state!which!is!not!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations,!if!it!is!a!party!to!a!dispute!under!consideration!

by!the!Security!Council,!shall!be!invited!to!participate,!without!vote,!in!the!discussion!relating!

to! the!dispute.!The!Security!Council! shall! lay!down!such!conditions!as! it!deems! just! for! the!participation!of!a!state!which!is!not!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations.!

!

CHAPTER&VI:&PACIFIC&SETTLEMENT&OF&DISPUTES&

Article!33!

1.!The!parties!to!any!dispute,!the!continuance!of!which!is!likely!to!endanger!the!maintenance!

of! international!peace!and!security,!shall,! first!of!all,!seek!a!solution!by!negotiation,!enquiry,!mediation,! conciliation,! arbitration,! judicial! settlement,! resort! to! regional! agencies! or!

arrangements,!or!other!peaceful!means!of!their!own!choice.!

2.! The! Security!Council! shall,!when! it! deems!necessary,! call! upon! the!parties! to! settle! their!

dispute!by!such!means.!

Article!34!

The! Security! Council! may! investigate! any! dispute,! or! any! situation! which! might! lead! to!

international!friction!or!give!rise!to!a!dispute,!in!order!to!determine!whether!the!continuance!

of! the!dispute!or!situation! is! likely! to!endanger! the!maintenance!of! international!peace!and!security.!

!

!

! 12!

Article!35!

1.!Any!Member!of! the!United!Nations!may!bring!any!dispute,!or!any!situation!of! the!nature!

referred!to!in!Article!34,!to!the!attention!of!the!Security!Council!or!of!the!General!Assembly.!

2.! A! state! which! is! not! a!Member! of! the! United! Nations!may! bring! to! the! attention! of! the!Security!Council!or!of!the!General!Assembly!any!dispute!to!which!it!is!a!party!if!it!accepts!in!

advance,!for!the!purposes!of!the!dispute,!the!obligations!of!pacific!settlement!provided!in!the!

present!Charter.!

3.! The! proceedings! of! the! General! Assembly! in! respect! of! matters! brought! to! its! attention!

under!this!Article!will!be!subject!to!the!provisions!of!Articles!11!and!12.!

Article!36!

1.!The!Security!Council!may,!at!any!stage!of!a!dispute!of!the!nature!referred!to!in!Article!33!or!

of!a!situation!of!like!nature,!recommend!appropriate!procedures!or!methods!of!adjustment.!

2.!The!Security!Council! should! take! into!consideration!any!procedures! for! the!settlement!of!the!dispute!which!have!already!been!adopted!by!the!parties.!

3.! In!making!recommendations!under! this!Article! the!Security!Council! should!also! take! into!

consideration! that! legal! disputes! should! as! a! general! rule! be! referred! by! the! parties! to! the!International!Court!of!Justice!in!accordance!with!the!provisions!of!the!Statute!of!the!Court.!

Article!37!

1.!Should!the!parties!to!a!dispute!of!the!nature!referred!to!in!Article!33!fail!to!settle!it!by!the!

means!indicated!in!that!Article,!they!shall!refer!it!to!the!Security!Council.!

2.!If!the!Security!Council!deems!that!the!continuance!of!the!dispute!is!in!fact!likely!to!endanger!the!maintenance! of! international! peace! and! security,! it! shall! decide!whether! to! take! action!

under!Article!36!or!to!recommend!such!terms!of!settlement!as!it!may!consider!appropriate.!

Article!38!

Without!prejudice! to! the!provisions!of!Articles!33! to!37,! the!Security!Council!may,! if! all! the!

parties! to! any! dispute! so! request,! make! recommendations! to! the! parties! with! a! view! to! a!pacific!settlement!of!the!dispute.!

!

CHAPTER&VII:&ACTION&WITH&RESPECT&TO&THREATS&TO&THE&PEACE,&BREACHES&OF&THE&PEACE,&AND&ACTS&OF&AGGRESSION&!

Article!39!!

The!Security!Council! shall!determine! the!existence!of!any! threat! to! the!peace,!breach!of! the!

peace,!or!act!of!aggression!and!shall!make!recommendations,!or!decide!what!measures!shall!

!

! 13!

be!taken!in!accordance!with!Articles!41!and!42,!to!maintain!or!restore!international!peace!and!

security.!!

Article!40!

!In!order!to!prevent!an!aggravation!of!the!situation,!the!Security!Council!may,!before!making!

the!recommendations!or!deciding!upon!the!measures!provided!for!in!Article!39,!call!upon!the!parties! concerned! to! comply! with! such! provisional! measures! as! it! deems! necessary! or!

desirable.! Such! provisional! measures! shall! be! without! prejudice! to! the! rights,! claims,! or!

position!of! the!parties! concerned.!The!Security!Council! shall! duly! take!account!of! failure! to!comply!with!such!provisional!measures.!

!

Article!41!!

The!Security!Council!may!decide!what!measures!not!involving!the!use!of!armed!force!are!to!be!employed! to! give! effect! to! its! decisions,! and! it! may! call! upon! the! Members! of! the! United!

Nations! to! apply! such! measures.! These! may! include! complete! or! partial! interruption! of!

economic! relations! and! of! rail,! sea,! air,! postal,! telegraphic,! radio,! and! other! means! of!communication,!and!the!severance!of!diplomatic!relations.!

!

Article!42!!

Should! the! Security! Council! consider! that! measures! provided! for! in! Article! 41! would! be!inadequate!or!have!proved!to!be!inadequate,!it!may!take!such!action!by!air,!sea,!or!land!forces!

as!may!be!necessary!to!maintain!or!restore!international!peace!and!security.!Such!action!may!

include!demonstrations,!blockade,!and!other!operations!by!air,!sea,!or!land!forces!of!Members!of!the!United!Nations.!

!Article!43!

!

1.! All! Members! of! the! United! Nations,! in! order! to! contribute! to! the! maintenance! of!international!peace!and!security,!undertake!to!make!available!to!the!Security!Council,!on! its!

call!and!in!accordance!with!a!special!agreement!or!agreements,!armed!forces,!assistance,!and!

facilities,! including!rights!of!passage,!necessary!for!the!purpose!of!maintaining! international!peace!and!security.!

!2.Such!agreement!or!agreements!shall!govern!the!numbers!and!types!of!forces,!their!degree!of!

readiness!and!general!location,!and!the!nature!of!the!facilities!and!assistance!to!be!provided.!

!3.!The!agreement!or!agreements!shall!be!negotiated!as!soon!as!possible!on!the!initiative!of!the!

Security! Council.! They! shall! be! concluded! between! the! Security! Council! and! Members! or!

between!the!Security!Council!and!groups!of!Members!and!shall!be!subject! to!ratification!by!the!signatory!states!in!accordance!with!their!respective!constitutional!processes.!

!Article!44!

!

When!the!Security!Council!has!decided!to!use!force!it!shall,!before!calling!upon!a!Member!not!represented! on! it! to! provide! armed! forces! in! fulfilment! of! the! obligations! assumed! under!

!

! 14!

Article!43,!invite!that!Member,!if!the!Member!so!desires,!to!participate!in!the!decisions!of!the!

Security!Council!concerning!the!employment!of!contingents!of!that!Member's!armed!forces.!!

Article!45!

!In!order!to!enable!the!United!Nations!to!take!urgent!military!measures,!Members!shall!hold!

immediately!available!national!airAforce!contingents!for!combined!international!enforcement!action.! The! strength! and! degree! of! readiness! of! these! contingents! and! plans! for! their!

combined!action!shall!be!determined!within!the!limits!laid!down!in!the!special!agreement!or!

agreements! referred! to! in! Article! 43,! by! the! Security! Council! with! the! assistance! of! the!Military!Staff!Committee.!

!

Article!46!!

Plans! for! the! application! of! armed! force! shall! be! made! by! the! Security! Council! with! the!assistance!of!the!Military!Staff!Committee.!

!

Article!47!!

1.! There! shall! be! established! a! Military! Staff! Committee! to! advise! and! assist! the! Security!

Council! on! all! questions! relating! to! the! Security! Council's! military! requirements! for! the!maintenance! of! international! peace! and! security,! the! employment! and! command! of! forces!

placed!at!its!disposal,!the!regulation!of!armaments,!and!possible!disarmament.!!

2.!The!Military!Staff!Committee!shall!consist!of!the!Chiefs!of!Staff!of!the!permanent!members!

of! the! Security! Council! or! their! representatives.! Any! Member! of! the! United! Nations! not!permanently! represented! on! the! Committee! shall! be! invited! by! the! Committee! to! be!

associated!with! it!when! the! efficient! discharge! of! the! Committee's! responsibilities! requires!the!participation!of!that!Member!in!its!work.!

!

3.! The! Military! Staff! Committee! shall! be! responsible! under! the! Security! Council! for! the!strategic! direction! of! any! armed! forces! placed! at! the! disposal! of! the! Security! Council.!

Questions!relating!to!the!command!of!such!forces!shall!be!worked!out!subsequently.!

!4.! The! Military! Staff! Committee,! with! the! authorization! of! the! Security! Council! and! after!

consultation!with!appropriate!regional!agencies,!may!establish!regional!subAcommittees.!!

Article!48!

!1.!The!action!required!to!carry!out!the!decisions!of!the!Security!Council!for!the!maintenance!of!

international!peace!and!security!shall!be!taken!by!all!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations!or!by!

some!of!them,!as!the!Security!Council!may!determine.!!

2.! Such! decisions! shall! be! carried! out! by! the! Members! of! the! United! Nations! directly! and!through!their!action!in!the!appropriate!international!agencies!of!which!they!are!members.!

!

!!

!

!

! 15!

Article!49!

!The!Members!of! the!United!Nations!shall! join! in!affording!mutual!assistance! in!carrying!out!

the!measures!decided!upon!by!the!Security!Council.!

!Article!50!

!If! preventive!or! enforcement!measures! against! any! state! are! taken!by! the! Security!Council,!

any!other!state,!whether!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations!or!not,!which!finds!itself!confronted!

with!special!economic!problems!arising! from!the!carrying!out!of! those!measures!shall!have!the!right!to!consult!the!Security!Council!with!regard!to!a!solution!of!those!problems.!

!

Article!51!!

Nothing!in!the!present!Charter!shall!impair!the!inherent!right!of!individual!or!collective!selfAdefence!if!an!armed!attack!occurs!against!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations,!until!the!Security!

Council!has!taken!measures!necessary!to!maintain!international!peace!and!security.!Measures!

taken!by!Members!in!the!exercise!of!this!right!of!selfAdefence!shall!be!immediately!reported!to!the! Security! Council! and! shall! not! in! any!way! affect! the! authority! and! responsibility! of! the!

Security! Council! under! the! present! Charter! to! take! at! any! time! such! action! as! it! deems!

necessary!in!order!to!maintain!or!restore!international!peace!and!security.!&&CHAPTER&VIII:&REGIONAL&ARRANGEMENTS&

Article!52&

1.! Nothing! in! the! present! Charter! precludes! the! existence! of! regional! arrangements! or!

agencies!for!dealing!with!such!matters!relating!to!the!maintenance!of!international!peace!and!

security!as!are!appropriate!for!regional!action!provided!that!such!arrangements!or!agencies!and!their!activities!are!consistent!with!the!Purposes!and!Principles!of!the!United!Nations.&

2.!The!Members!of!the!United!Nations!entering!into!such!arrangements!or!constituting!such!

agencies!shall!make!every!effort!to!achieve!pacific!settlement!of! local!disputes!through!such!regional! arrangements! or! by! such! regional! agencies! before! referring! them! to! the! Security!

Council.&

3.!The!Security!Council!shall!encourage!the!development!of!pacific!settlement!of!local!disputes!

through!such!regional!arrangements!or!by! such! regional!agencies!either!on! the! initiative!of!the!states!concerned!or!by!reference!from!the!Security!Council.&

4.!This!Article!in!no!way!impairs!the!application!of!Articles!34!and!35.&

Article!53!

1.! The! Security! Council! shall,! where! appropriate,! utilize! such! regional! arrangements! or!

agencies!for!enforcement!action!under!its!authority.!But!no!enforcement!action!shall!be!taken!under! regional! arrangements! or! by! regional! agencies! without! the! authorization! of! the!

Security! Council,! with! the! exception! of! measures! against! any! enemy! state,! as! defined! in!

!

! 16!

paragraph!2!of!this!Article,!provided!for!pursuant!to!Article!107!or!in!regional!arrangements!

directed!against!renewal!of!aggressive!policy!on!the!part!of!any!such!state,!until!such!time!as!the! Organization! may,! on! request! of! the! Governments! concerned,! be! charged! with! the!

responsibility!for!preventing!further!aggression!by!such!a!state.!

2.! The! term! enemy! state! as! used! in! paragraph! 1! of! this! Article! applies! to! any! state!which!

during!the!Second!World!War!has!been!an!enemy!of!any!signatory!of!the!present!Charter.!

Article!54!

The! Security! Council! shall! at! all! times! be! kept! fully! informed!of! activities! undertaken!or! in!

contemplation!under! regional!arrangements!or!by! regional!agencies! for! the!maintenance!of!

international!peace!and!security.!

&

CHAPTER&IX:&INTERNATIONAL&ECONOMIC&AND&SOCIAL&COCOPERATION&

Article!55!

With!a!view!to!the!creation!of!conditions!of!stability!and!wellAbeing!which!are!necessary!for!peaceful! and! friendly! relations! among! nations! based! on! respect! for! the! principle! of! equal!

rights!and!selfAdetermination!of!peoples,!the!United!Nations!shall!promote:!

a.!higher!standards!of!living,!full!employment,!and!conditions!of!economic!and!social!progress!and!development;!

b.!solutions!of!international!economic,!social,!health,!and!related!problems;!and!international!

cultural!and!educational!cooperation;!and!

c.! universal! respect! for,! and!observance!of,! human! rights! and! fundamental! freedoms! for! all!without!distinction!as!to!race,!sex,!!!!language,!or!religion.!

Article!56!

All! Members! pledge! themselves! to! take! joint! and! separate! action! in! coAoperation!with! the!

Organization!for!the!achievement!of!the!purposes!set!forth!in!Article!55.!

Article!57!

1.!The!various!specialized!agencies,!established!by!intergovernmental!agreement!and!having!

wide!international!responsibilities,!as!defined!in!their!basic!instruments,!in!economic,!social,!cultural,! educational,! health,! and! related! fields,! shall! be! brought! into! relationship!with! the!

United!Nations!in!accordance!with!the!provisions!of!Article!63.!

2.! Such! agencies! thus! brought! into! relationship! with! the! United! Nations! are! hereinafter!referred!to!as!specialized!agencies.!

!

!

! 17!

Article!58!

The! Organization! shall! make! recommendations! for! the! coAordination! of! the! policies! and!

activities!of!the!specialized!agencies.!

Article!59!

The!Organization!shall,!where!appropriate,! initiate!negotiations!among!the!states!concerned!for! the! creation! of! any! new! specialized! agencies! required! for! the! accomplishment! of! the!

purposes!set!forth!in!Article!55.!

Article!60!

Responsibility!for!the!discharge!of!the!functions!of!the!Organization!set!forth!in!this!Chapter!shall!be!vested!in!the!General!Assembly!and,!under!the!authority!of!the!General!Assembly,!in!

the!Economic! and! Social! Council,!which! shall! have! for! this! purpose! the!powers! set! forth! in!

Chapter!X.!

!

CHAPTER&X:&THE&ECONOMIC&AND&SOCIAL&COUNCIL&COMPOSITION&!Article!61!

!

1.!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!consist!of!fiftyAfour!Members!of!the!United!Nations!elected!by!the!General!Assembly.!

!2.! Subject! to! the! provisions! of! paragraph! 3,! eighteen!members! of! the! Economic! and! Social!

Council!shall!be!elected!each!year!for!a!term!of!three!years.!A!retiring!member!shall!be!eligible!

for!immediate!reAelection.!!

3.!At!the!first!election!after!the!increase!in!the!membership!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council!

from!twentyAseven!to!fiftyAfour!members,!in!addition!to!the!members!elected!in!place!of!the!nine!members!whose!term!of!office!expires!at! the!end!of! that!year,! twentyAseven!additional!

members! shall! be! elected.! Of! these! twentyAseven! additional!members,! the! term!of! office! of!nine!members!so!elected!shall!expire!at!the!end!of!one!year,!and!of!nine!other!members!at!the!

end!of!two!years,!in!accordance!with!arrangements!made!by!the!General!Assembly.!

!4.!Each!member!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!have!one!representative.!

!

FUNCTIONS&and&POWERS&!

Article!62!!

1.!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!may!make!or!initiate!studies!and!reports!with!respect!to!

international! economic,! social,! cultural,! educational,! health,! and! related! matters! and! may!make! recommendations! with! respect! to! any! such! matters! to! the! General! Assembly! to! the!

Members!of!the!United!Nations,!and!to!the!specialized!agencies!concerned.!

!

! 18!

!

2.!It!may!make!recommendations!for!the!purpose!of!promoting!respect!for,!and!observance!of,!human!rights!and!fundamental!freedoms!for!all.!

!

3.!It!may!prepare!draft!conventions!for!submission!to!the!General!Assembly,!with!respect!to!matters!falling!within!its!competence.!

!4.! It!may! call,! in! accordance!with! the! rules! prescribed! by! the!United!Nations,! international!

conferences!on!matters!falling!within!its!competence.!

!Article!63!

!

1.! The! Economic! and! Social! Council! may! enter! into! agreements! with! any! of! the! agencies!referred!to!in!Article!57,!defining!the!terms!on!which!the!agency!concerned!shall!be!brought!

into!relationship!with!the!United!Nations.!Such!agreements!shall!be!subject!to!approval!by!the!General!Assembly.!

!

2.!It!may!coAordinate!the!activities!of!the!specialized!agencies!through!consultation!with!and!recommendations! to! such!agencies!and! through!recommendations! to! the!General!Assembly!

and!to!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations.!

!Article!64!

!1.!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!may!take!appropriate!steps!to!obtain!regular!reports!from!

the!specialized!agencies.!It!may!make!arrangements!with!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations!

and!with!the!specialized!agencies!to!obtain!reports!on!the!steps!taken!to!give!effect!to!its!own!recommendations!and!to!recommendations!on!matters!falling!within!its!competence!made!by!

the!General!Assembly.!!

2.!It!may!communicate!its!observations!on!these!reports!to!the!General!Assembly.!

!Article!65!

!

The!Economic!and!Social!Council!may! furnish! information! to! the!Security!Council! and! shall!assist!the!Security!Council!upon!its!request.!

!Article!66!

!

1.!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!perform!such!functions!as!fall!within!its!competence!in!connection!with!the!carrying!out!of!the!recommendations!of!the!General!Assembly.!

!

2.! It! may,! with! the! approval! of! the! General! Assembly,! perform! services! at! the! request! of!Members!of!the!United!Nations!and!at!the!request!of!specialized!agencies.!

!3.!It!shall!perform!such!other!functions!as!are!specified!elsewhere!in!the!present!Charter!or!as!

may!be!assigned!to!it!by!the!General!Assembly.!

!&&

!

! 19!

VOTING&!Article!67!

!

1.Each!member!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!have!one!vote.!!

2.!Decisions!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!be!made!by!a!majority!of!the!members!present!and!voting.!

!

PROCEDURE!!

Article!68!

!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!set!up!commissions!in!economic!and!social!fields!and!

for! the!promotion!of!human!rights,!and!such!other!commissions!as!may!be!required! for! the!performance!of!its!functions.!

!

Article!69!!

The!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!invite!any!Member!of!the!United!Nations!to!participate,!

without!vote,!in!its!deliberations!on!any!matter!of!particular!concern!to!that!Member.!!

Article!70!!

The! Economic! and! Social! Council! may! make! arrangements! for! representatives! of! the!

specialized! agencies! to! participate,! without! vote,! in! its! deliberations! and! in! those! of! the!commissions!established!by!it,!and!for!its!representatives!to!participate!in!the!deliberations!of!

the!specialized!agencies.!!

Article!71!

!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!may!make!suitable!arrangements!for!consultation!with!nonA

governmental!organizations!which!are! concerned!with!matters!within! its! competence.! Such!

arrangements!may! be!made!with! international! organizations! and,!where! appropriate,! with!national!organizations!after!consultation!with!the!Member!of!the!United!Nations!concerned.!

!Article!72!

!

1.! The! Economic! and! Social! Council! shall! adopt! its! own! rules! of! procedure,! including! the!method!of!selecting!its!President.!

!

2.!The!Economic!and!Social!Council!shall!meet!as!required!in!accordance!with!its!rules,!which!shall! include! provision! for! the! convening! of! meetings! on! the! request! of! a! majority! of! its!

members.!!

!

&&&

!

! 20!

CHAPTER&XI:&DECLARATION&REGARDING&NONCSELFCGOVERNING&TERRITORIES&!Article!73!

!

Members!of!the!United!Nations!which!have!or!assume!responsibilities!for!the!administration!of!territories!whose!peoples!have!not!yet!attained!a!full!measure!of!selfAgovernment!recognize!

the! principle! that! the! interests! of! the! inhabitants! of! these! territories! are! paramount,! and!accept! as! a! sacred! trust! the! obligation! to! promote! to! the! utmost,! within! the! system! of!

international! peace! and! security! established! by! the! present! Charter,! the! wellAbeing! of! the!

inhabitants!of!these!territories,!and,!to!this!end:!!

!a.! to! ensure,! with! due! respect! for! the! culture! of! the! peoples! concerned,! their! political,!

economic,! social,! and! educational! advancement,! their! just! treatment,! and! their! protection!against!abuses;!

!b.!to!develop!selfAgovernment,!to!take!due!account!of!the!political!aspirations!of!the!peoples,!

and! to! assist! them! in! the! progressive! development! of! their! free! political! institutions,!

according!to!the!particular!circumstances!of!each!territory!and!its!peoples!and!their!varying!stages!of!advancement;!

!

c.!to!further!international!peace!and!security;!!

d.! to! promote! constructive! measures! of! development,! to! encourage! research,! and! to! coAoperate!with! one! another! and,!when! and!where! appropriate,!with! specialized! international!

bodies! with! a! view! to! the! practical! achievement! of! the! social,! economic,! and! scientific!

purposes!set!forth!in!this!Article;!and!!

e.! to! transmit! regularly! to! the! SecretaryAGeneral! for! information! purposes,! subject! to! such!limitation! as! security! and! constitutional! considerations! may! require,! statistical! and! other!

information!of!a! technical!nature!relating! to!economic,! social,!and!educational!conditions! in!

the! territories! for! which! they! are! respectively! responsible! other! than! those! territories! to!which!Chapters!XII!and!XIII!apply.!

!

Article!74!!

Members! of! the! United! Nations! also! agree! that! their! policy! in! respect! of! the! territories! to!which!this!Chapter!applies,!no!less!than!in!respect!of!their!metropolitan!areas,!must!be!based!

on!the!general!principle!of!goodAneighbourliness,!due!account!being!taken!of!the!interests!and!

wellAbeing!of!the!rest!of!the!world,!in!social,!economic,!and!commercial!matters.!

!

CHAPTER&XII:&INTERNATIONAL&TRUSTEESHIP&SYSTEM&

Article!75&

The!United!Nations!shall!establish!under!its!authority!an!international!trusteeship!system!for!

the! administration! and! supervision! of! such! territories! as! may! be! placed! thereunder! by!

!

! 21!

subsequent! individual! agreements.! These! territories! are! hereinafter! referred! to! as! trust!

territories.!

Article!76!

The!basic!objectives!of!the!trusteeship!system,!in!accordance!with!the!Purposes!of!the!United!Nations!laid!down!in!Article!1!of!the!present!Charter,!shall!be:!

a.!to!further!international!peace!and!security;!

b.!to!promote!the!political,!economic,!social,!and!educational!advancement!of!the!inhabitants!

of! the! trust! territories,! and! their! progressive! development! towards! selfAgovernment! or!independence!as!may!be!appropriate!to!the!particular!circumstances!of!each!territory!and!its!

peoples!and!the!freely!expressed!wishes!of!the!peoples!concerned,!and!as!may!be!provided!by!

the!terms!of!each!trusteeship!agreement;!

c.! to! encourage! respect! for! human! rights! and! for! fundamental! freedoms! for! all! without!distinction! as! to! race,! sex,! language,! or! religion,! and! to! encourage! recognition! of! the!

interdependence!of!the!peoples!of!the!world;!and!

d.!to!ensure!equal!treatment!in!social,!economic,!and!commercial!matters!for!all!Members!of!the! United! Nations! and! their! nationals,! and! also! equal! treatment! for! the! latter! in! the!

administration!of!justice,!without!prejudice!to!the!attainment!of!the!foregoing!objectives!and!

subject!to!the!provisions!of!Article!80.!

Article!77!

1.!The!trusteeship!system!shall!apply!to!such!territories!in!the!following!categories!as!may!be!placed!thereunder!by!means!of!trusteeship!agreements:!!

a.!territories!now!held!under!mandate;!

b.!territories!which!may!be!detached!from!enemy!states!as!a!result!of!the!Second!World!War;!

and!

c.! territories! voluntarily! placed! under! the! system! by! states! responsible! for! their!administration.!

2.! It! will! be! a! matter! for! subsequent! agreement! as! to! which! territories! in! the! foregoing!

categories!will!be!brought!under!the!trusteeship!system!and!upon!what!terms.!

Article!78!

The! trusteeship! system! shall! not! apply! to! territories! which! have! become! Members! of! the!United! Nations,! relationship! among! which! shall! be! based! on! respect! for! the! principle! of!

sovereign!equality.!

!

!

! 22!

Article!79!

The! terms! of! trusteeship! for! each! territory! to! be! placed! under! the! trusteeship! system,!

including!any!alteration!or!amendment,!shall!be!agreed!upon!by!the!states!directly!concerned,!including!the!mandatory!power!in!the!case!of!territories!held!under!mandate!by!a!Member!of!

the!United!Nations,!and!shall!be!approved!as!provided!for!in!Articles!83!and!85.!

Article!80!

1.!Except!as!may!be!agreed!upon!in! individual! trusteeship!agreements,!made!under!Articles!77,!79,!and!81,!placing!each!territory!under!the!trusteeship!system,!and!until!such!agreements!

have!been!concluded,!nothing!in!this!Chapter!shall!be!construed!in!or!of!itself!to!alter!in!any!

manner! the! rights! whatsoever! of! any! states! or! any! peoples! or! the! terms! of! existing!international! instruments! to! which! Members! of! the! United! Nations! may! respectively! be!

parties.!

2.! Paragraph! 1! of! this! Article! shall! not! be! interpreted! as! giving! grounds! for! delay! or!

postponement! of! the! negotiation! and! conclusion! of! agreements! for! placing! mandated! and!other!territories!under!the!trusteeship!system!as!provided!for!in!Article!77.!

Article!81!

The! trusteeship! agreement! shall! in! each! case! include! the! terms! under! which! the! trust!

territory! will! be! administered! and! designate! the! authority! which! will! exercise! the!administration! of! the! trust! territory.! Such! authority,! hereinafter! called! the! administering!

authority,!may!be!one!or!more!states!or!the!Organization!itself.!

Article!82!

There!may!be!designated,!in!any!trusteeship!agreement,!a!strategic!area!or!areas!which!may!include!part!or!all!of!the!trust!territory!to!which!the!agreement!applies,!without!prejudice!to!

any!special!agreement!or!agreements!made!under!Article!43.!

Article!83!

1.!All!functions!of!the!United!Nations!relating!to!strategic!areas,!including!the!approval!of!the!

terms!of!the!trusteeship!agreements!and!of!their!alteration!or!amendment!shall!be!exercised!by!the!Security!Council.!

2.!The!basic!objectives!set!forth!in!Article!76!shall!be!applicable!to!the!people!of!each!strategic!

area.!

3.! The! Security! Council! shall,! subject! to! the! provisions! of! the! trusteeship! agreements! and!without!prejudice! to!security!considerations,!avail! itself!of! the!assistance!of! the!Trusteeship!

Council! to! perform! those! functions! of! the! United! Nations! under! the! trusteeship! system!

relating!to!political,!economic,!social,!and!educational!matters!in!the!strategic!areas.!

!

!

! 23!

Article!84!

It!shall!be!the!duty!of!the!administering!authority!to!ensure!that!the!trust!territory!shall!play!

its!part!in!the!maintenance!of!international!peace!and!security.!To!this!end!the!administering!authority!may!make!use!of!volunteer!forces,!facilities,!and!assistance!from!the!trust!territory!

in!carrying!out!the!obligations!towards!the!Security!Council!undertaken!in!this!regard!by!the!

administering! authority,! as!well! as! for! local! defence! and! the!maintenance!of! law!and!order!within!the!trust!territory.!

Article!85!

1.!The!functions!of!the!United!Nations!with!regard!to!trusteeship!agreements!for!all!areas!not!

designated!as!strategic,!including!the!approval!of!the!terms!of!the!trusteeship!agreements!and!of!their!alteration!or!amendment,!shall!be!exercised!by!the!General!Assembly.!

2.!The!Trusteeship!Council,!operating!under!the!authority!of!the!General!Assembly!shall!assist!

the!General!Assembly!in!carrying!out!these!functions.!

!

CHAPTER&XIII:&THE&TRUSTEESHIP&COUNCIL&

COMPOSITION!

Article!86!

1.!The!Trusteeship!Council!shall!consist!of!the!following!Members!of!the!United!Nations:!

a.!those!Members!administering!trust!territories;!

b.! such! of! those!Members!mentioned! by! name! in! Article! 23! as! are! not! administering! trust!territories;!and!

c.!as!many!other!Members!elected! for! threeAyear! terms!by! the!General!Assembly!as!may!be!

necessary!to!ensure!that!the!total!number!of!members!of! the!Trusteeship!Council! is!equally!divided!between!those!Members!of!the!United!Nations!which!administer!trust!territories!and!

those!which!do!not.!

2.!Each!member!of! the!Trusteeship!Council!shall!designate!one!specially!qualified!person!to!

represent!it!therein.!

FUNCTIONS&and&POWERS&

Article!87!

The!General!Assembly!and,!under!its!authority,!the!Trusteeship!Council,!in!carrying!out!their!

functions,!may:!

a.!consider!reports!submitted!by!the!administering!authority;!

!

! 24!

b.!accept!petitions!and!examine!them!in!consultation!with!the!administering!authority;!

c.!provide!for!periodic!visits!to!the!respective!trust!territories!at!times!agreed!upon!with!the!

administering!authority;!and!

d.!take!these!and!other!actions!in!conformity!with!the!terms!of!the!trusteeship!agreements.!

Article!88!

The!Trusteeship!Council!shall!formulate!a!questionnaire!on!the!political,!economic,!social,!and!educational! advancement! of! the! inhabitants! of! each! trust! territory,! and! the! administering!

authority!for!each!trust!territory!within!the!competence!of!the!General!Assembly!shall!make!an!annual!report!to!the!General!Assembly!upon!the!basis!of!such!questionnaire.!

VOTING&

Article!89!

1.!Each!member!of!the!Trusteeship!Council!shall!have!one!vote.!

2.!Decisions!of!the!Trusteeship!Council!shall!be!made!by!a!majority!of!the!members!present!

and!voting.!

PROCEDURE&

Article!90!

1.! The!Trusteeship!Council! shall! adopt! its! own! rules! of! procedure,! including! the!method!of!selecting!its!President.!

2.! The!Trusteeship!Council! shall!meet! as! required! in! accordance!with! its! rules,!which! shall!

include!provision!for!the!convening!of!meetings!on!the!request!of!a!majority!of!its!members.!

Article!91!

The!Trusteeship!Council!shall,!when!appropriate,!avail!itself!of!the!assistance!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council!and!of! the!specialized!agencies! in!regard! to!matters!with!which! they!are!

respectively!concerned.!

!

CHAPTER&XIV:&THE&INTERNATIONAL&COURT&OF&JUSTICE&

Article!92!

The!International!Court!of!Justice!shall!be!the!principal!judicial!organ!of!the!United!Nations.!It!shall!function!in!accordance!with!the!annexed!Statute,!which!is!based!upon!the!Statute!of!the!

Permanent!Court!of!International!Justice!and!forms!an!integral!part!of!the!present!Charter.!

!

! 25!

Article!93!

1.!All!Members!of!the!United!Nations!are!ipso!facto!parties!to!the!Statute!of!the!International!

Court!of!Justice.!

2.!A!state!which!is!not!a!Member!of!the!United!Nations!may!become!a!party!to!the!Statute!of!the!International!Court!of!Justice!on!conditions!to!be!determined!in!each!case!by!the!General!

Assembly!upon!the!recommendation!of!the!Security!Council.!

Article!94!

1.! Each! Member! of! the! United! Nations! undertakes! to! comply! with! the! decision! of! the!International!Court!of!Justice!in!any!case!to!which!it!is!a!party.!

2.!If!any!party!to!a!case!fails!to!perform!the!obligations!incumbent!upon!it!under!a!judgment!

rendered!by!the!Court,!the!other!party!may!have!recourse!to!the!Security!Council,!which!may,!

if! it!deems!necessary,!make!recommendations!or!decide!upon!measures! to!be! taken! to!give!effect!to!the!judgment.!

Article!95!

Nothing!in!the!present!Charter!shall!prevent!Members!of!the!United!Nations!from!entrusting!

the! solution! of! their! differences! to! other! tribunals! by! virtue! of! agreements! already! in!existence!or!which!may!be!concluded!in!the!future.!

Article!96!

a.!The!General!Assembly!or!the!Security!Council!may!request!the!International!Court!of!Justice!

to!give!an!advisory!opinion!on!any!legal!question.!

b.!Other!organs!of!the!United!Nations!and!specialized!agencies,!which!may!at!any!time!be!so!authorized!by!the!General!Assembly,!may!also!request!advisory!opinions!of!the!Court!on!legal!

questions!arising!within!the!scope!of!their!activities.!

!

CHAPTER&XV:&THE&SECRETARIAT&

Article!97!

The! Secretariat! shall! comprise! a! SecretaryAGeneral! and! such! staff! as! the! Organization!may!require.! The! SecretaryAGeneral! shall! be! appointed! by! the! General! Assembly! upon! the!

recommendation! of! the! Security! Council.! He! shall! be! the! chief! administrative! officer! of! the!Organization.!

Article!98!

The!SecretaryAGeneral!shall!act!in!that!capacity!in!all!meetings!of!the!General!Assembly,!of!the!

Security!Council,!of!the!Economic!and!Social!Council,!and!of!the!Trusteeship!Council,!and!shall!

!

! 26!

perform!such!other!functions!as!are!entrusted!to!him!by!these!organs.!The!SecretaryAGeneral!

shall!make!an!annual!report!to!the!General!Assembly!on!the!work!of!the!Organization.!

Article!99!

The!SecretaryAGeneral!may!bring!to!the!attention!of!the!Security!Council!any!matter!which!in!his!opinion!may!threaten!the!maintenance!of!international!peace!and!security.!

Article!100!

1.! In! the! performance! of! their! duties! the! SecretaryAGeneral! and! the! staff! shall! not! seek! or!

receive! instructions! from! any! government! or! from! any! other! authority! external! to! the!Organization.! They! shall! refrain! from! any! action! which! might! reflect! on! their! position! as!

international!officials!responsible!only!to!the!Organization.!

2.! Each! Member! of! the! United! Nations! undertakes! to! respect! the! exclusively! international!

character! of! the! responsibilities! of! the! SecretaryAGeneral! and! the! staff! and! not! to! seek! to!influence!them!in!the!discharge!of!their!responsibilities.!

Article!101!

1.!The!staff!shall!be!appointed!by!the!SecretaryAGeneral!under!regulations!established!by!the!

General!Assembly.!

2.!Appropriate!staffs!shall!be!permanently!assigned! to! the!Economic!and!Social!Council,! the!Trusteeship!Council,!and,!as!required,!to!other!organs!of!the!United!Nations.!These!staffs!shall!

form!a!part!of!the!Secretariat.!

3.!The!paramount!consideration! in! the!employment!of! the!staff!and! in! the!determination!of!

the!conditions!of!service!shall!be!the!necessity!of!securing!the!highest!standards!of!efficiency,!competence,!and!integrity.!Due!regard!shall!be!paid!to!the!importance!of!recruiting!the!staff!

on!as!wide!a!geographical!basis!as!possible.!

!

CHAPTER&XVI:&MISCELLANEOUS&PROVISIONS&

Article!102&

1.!Every!treaty!and!every!international!agreement!entered!into!by!any!Member!of!the!United!Nations!after!the!present!Charter!comes!into!force!shall!as!soon!as!possible!be!registered!with!

the!Secretariat!and!published!by!it.&

2.!No!party! to!any!such! treaty!or! international!agreement!which!has!not!been!registered! in!accordance! with! the! provisions! of! paragraph! 1! of! this! Article! may! invoke! that! treaty! or!

agreement!before!any!organ!of!the!United!Nations.&

!

!

! 27!

Article!103!

In!the!event!of!a!conflict!between!the!obligations!of!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations!under!

the! present! Charter! and! their! obligations! under! any! other! international! agreement,! their!obligations!under!the!present!Charter!shall!prevail.!

Article!104!

The!Organization!shall!enjoy!in!the!territory!of!each!of!its!Members!such!legal!capacity!as!may!

be!necessary!for!the!exercise!of!its!functions!and!the!fulfilment!of!its!purposes.!

Article!105!

1.! The!Organization! shall! enjoy! in! the! territory! of! each! of! its!Members! such! privileges! and!immunities!as!are!necessary!for!the!fulfilment!of!its!purposes.!

2.!Representatives!of!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations!and!officials!of!the!Organization!shall!

similarly!enjoy!such!privileges!and!immunities!as!are!necessary!for!the!independent!exercise!

of!their!functions!in!connexion!with!the!Organization.!

3.!The!General!Assembly!may!make!recommendations!with!a!view!to!determining!the!details!of! the! application! of! paragraphs! 1! and!2! of! this!Article! or!may!propose! conventions! to! the!

Members!of!the!United!Nations!for!this!purpose.!

&

CHAPTER&XVII:&TRANSITIONAL&SECURITY&ARRANGEMENTS&

Article!106!

Pending!the!coming! into! force!of!such!special!agreements!referred!to! in!Article!43!as! in!the!opinion! of! the! Security! Council! enable! it! to! begin! the! exercise! of! its! responsibilities! under!

Article! 42,! the! parties! to! the! FourANation!Declaration,! signed! at!Moscow,! 30!October! 1943,!and! France,! shall,! in! accordance! with! the! provisions! of! paragraph! 5! of! that! Declaration,!

consult!with!one!another!and!as!occasion!requires!with!other!Members!of!the!United!Nations!

with! a! view! to! such! joint! action! on! behalf! of! the!Organization! as!may! be! necessary! for! the!purpose!of!maintaining!international!peace!and!security.!

Article!107!

Nothing! in! the! present! Charter! shall! invalidate! or! preclude! action,! in! relation! to! any! state!

which! during! the! Second! World! War! has! been! an! enemy! of! any! signatory! to! the! present!Charter,!taken!or!authorized!as!a!result!of!that!war!by!the!Governments!having!responsibility!

for!such!action.!

!

&&&

!

! 28!

CHAPTER&XVIII:&AMENDMENTS&

Article!108!

Amendments! to! the! present! Charter! shall! come! into! force! for! all! Members! of! the! United!

Nations!when!they!have!been!adopted!by!a!vote!of!two!thirds!of!the!members!of!the!General!Assembly! and! ratified! in! accordance! with! their! respective! constitutional! processes! by! two!

thirds! of! the!Members! of! the! United! Nations,! including! all! the! permanent!members! of! the!

Security!Council.!

Article!109!

1.!A!General!Conference!of! the!Members!of! the!United!Nations!for!the!purpose!of!reviewing!

the!present!Charter!may!be!held!at!a!date!and!place! to!be! fixed!by!a! twoAthirds!vote!of! the!

members!of!the!General!Assembly!and!by!a!vote!of!any!nine!members!of!the!Security!Council.!Each!Member!of!the!United!Nations!shall!have!one!vote!in!the!conference.!

2.!Any!alteration!of!the!present!Charter!recommended!by!a!twoAthirds!vote!of!the!conference!

shall!take!effect!when!ratified!in!accordance!with!their!respective!constitutional!processes!by!two!thirds!of!the!Members!of!the!United!Nations!including!all!the!permanent!members!of!the!

Security!Council.!

3.! If! such! a! conference! has! not! been! held! before! the! tenth! annual! session! of! the! General!

Assembly!following!the!coming!into!force!of!the!present!Charter,! the!proposal!to!call!such!a!conference! shall! be! placed! on! the! agenda! of! that! session! of! the! General! Assembly,! and! the!

conference! shall! be! held! if! so! decided! by! a! majority! vote! of! the! members! of! the! General!

Assembly!and!by!a!vote!of!any!seven!members!of!the!Security!Council.!

!

CHAPTER&XIX:&RATIFICATION&AND&SIGNATURE&

Article!110!

1.! The! present! Charter! shall! be! ratified! by! the! signatory! states! in! accordance! with! their!

respective!constitutional!processes.!

2.!The!ratifications!shall!be!deposited!with!the!Government!of! the!United!States!of!America,!

which!shall!notify!all!the!signatory!states!of!each!deposit!as!well!as!the!SecretaryAGeneral!of!the!Organization!when!he!has!been!appointed.!

3.!The!present!Charter!shall!come!into!force!upon!the!deposit!of!ratifications!by!the!Republic!

of!China,!France,!the!Union!of!Soviet!Socialist!Republics,!the!United!Kingdom!of!Great!Britain!and! Northern! Ireland,! and! the! United! States! of! America,! and! by! a! majority! of! the! other!

signatory!states.!A!protocol!of!the!ratifications!deposited!shall!thereupon!be!drawn!up!by!the!

Government!of!the!United!States!of!America!which!shall!communicate!copies!thereof!to!all!the!signatory!states.!

!

! 29!

4.!The!states!signatory!to!the!present!Charter!which!ratify!it!after!it!has!come!into!force!will!

become!original!Members!of!the!United!Nations!on!the!date!of!the!deposit!of!their!respective!ratifications.!

Article!111!

The! present! Charter,! of!which! the! Chinese,! French,! Russian,! English,! and! Spanish! texts! are!

equally! authentic,! shall! remain! deposited! in! the! archives! of! the! Government! of! the! United!

States!of!America.!Duly!certified!copies!thereof!shall!be!transmitted!by!that!Government!to!the!Governments!of!the!other!signatory!states.!

IN! FAITH! WHEREOF! the! representatives! of! the! Governments! of! the! United! Nations! have!

signed!the!present!Charter.!DONE!at!the!city!of!San!Francisco!the!twentyAsixth!day!of!June,!one!thousand!nine!hundred!and!fortyAfive.!

&&&

PART&II&&

&INTERNATIONAL&PRESS&&Selection& of& articles& from& Peterson& Institute& for& International& Economics,& BBC& News,&International&Crisis&Group,&Chatham&House&Report,&The&Guardian,&The&Global& Journal,&EurActive,&The&Washington&Post,&CNN,&Brookings,&The&Red&Cross,&Reuters&

!

1.&Peterson&Institute&for&International&Economics&&US&Should&Work&with&the&Asian&Infrastructure&Investment&Bank&

China's! decision! to! create! a! new! development! bank! for! Asia! is! proving! a! highly! divisive!

enterprise.!The!Asian!Infrastructure!Investment!Bank!(AIIB),!due!to!open!its!doors!later!this!

year,!has!sparked!deep!divisions!between!Beijing!and!Washington.!The!latter!argues!that!the!bank! will! undermine! existing! international! institutions! and! that! it! will! be! a! vehicle! for! a!

broader!expression!of!Chinese!strategic!interests.!Now!the!AIIB!has!also!become!a!source!of!

major! discord! between! the! United! States! and! some! of! its! chief! allies,! including! the! United!Kingdom,! which! has! decided! to! become! a! founder! member! of! the! new! institution.! That!

sparked!an!angry!response!in!Washington,!a!sorry!development!that!reflects!the!huge!mistake!

the! United! States! has! made! in! opposing! a! bank! aimed! at! helping! to! meet! Asia's! need! for!trillions!of!dollars!of! investment! in! energy,!power,! transportation,! telecommunications,! and!

other!infrastructure!sectors.!

China! and! 20! other! Asian! countries! agreed! in! October! to! establish! the! AIIB.! Beijing! will!provide! the! bulk! of! capital,! and! founding! members! include! India,! the! second! largest!

shareholder,! as! well! as! two! Gulf! Arab! states,! Kuwait! and! Qatar.! A! number! of! nonregional!

countries!were!invited!to!be!founder!members,!an!offer!rejected!by!the!United!States,!which!

!

! 30!

then!lobbied!allies,!including!Australia,!South!Korea,!the!United!Kingdom,!and!other!European!

states,!not!to! join.!Washington!argues!there!is!no!need!for!a!new!development!lender,!given!the!World!Bank!and!the!Asian!Development!Bank.!There!are!dark!mutterings!in!DC!that!AIIB's!

Chinese! leadership! may! ignore! international! lending! norms! and! support! projects! that!

promote!Chinese!political,!or!even!military,!interests.!

The!United!States!is!wrong!to!adopt!this!position.!President!Barack!Obama!has!called!for!more!Asian! infrastructure! investment.!The! existing! institutions! are!only! scratching! the! surface!of!

those! needs! and! have! adopted! different! priorities! in! recent! years.! Competition! is! good! for!development!lending!as!well!as!other!markets.!Concerns!about!backsliding!from!standards!on!

transparency,!procurement,!and!anticorruption!are!justified,!but!the!way!to!address!them!is!to!

join!the! institution!and!work! from!within;! it! is!nonsense!to!argue!that!carping! from!outside!will! be! more! effective.! Most! importantly,! this! issue! represents! a! fresh! skirmish! in! the!

inevitable! competition! for! leadership! of! the! world! economy! in! the! 21st! century.! As! the!

incumbent!power,!the!United!States!naturally!wants!China!to!support!the!international!rules!and!institutions!that!it!has!led!for!70!years.!As!the!rising!power,!China!naturally!challenges!a!

status!quo!it!had!no!role!in!creating!and!wants!to!begin!shaping!a!modified!order!itself.!

The! United! States! has! correctly! urged! China! to! exercise! leadership! consistent! with! its!expanding! power! and! to! provide!more! resources! to! support! development! and! other! global!

goals.!When!the!Chinese!move!in!those!directions,!as!they!are!doing!with!the!AIIB,!it!is!shortA

sighted! and!hypocritical! for! the!United! States! to! seek! to! block! them.!This! is! especially! true!when!the!Obama!administration!has!not!persuaded!Congress!in!four!years!to!adopt!legislation!

to! provide! enhanced! roles! for! China! and! other! emerging! economies! in! the! International!Monetary!Fund,!as!agreed!by!all!other!countries,!and!has!opposed!increasing!the!capital!of!the!

Asian!Development!Bank.!This!US!hostility!reinforces!the!Chinese!view!that!US!strategy!is!to!

contain!and!suppress! it,! so! increasing!rather! than!decreasing! the!prospect!of!uncooperative!Chinese! behavior.! The!United!Kingdom! and! other!US! allies,! by! contrast,! are!wise! to! accept!

China's!invitation!to!join.!The!United!States!should!reverse!course.!It!should!join!the!bank!and!

persuade!Congress!to!provide!the!small!amounts!needed!to!fund!a!minority!share.! It!should!bless!the!desire!of!its!friends!in!Asia!and!Europe!to!join!to!help!counter!any!untoward!Chinese!

actions.!And!it!should!encourage!the!World!Bank!and!the!other!current!multilateral!lenders!to!cooperate!closely!with!the!new!institution.!The!AIIB!initiative!can!then!play!a!positive!role!in!

the! world! economy! and! capitalize! on! China's! growing! willingness! to! exercise! constructive!

global!leadership.!

!

2.&Peterson&Institute&for&International&Economics&&North&Korean&Nuclear&Weapons&Inventories&Update&

As! the! North! Korea! community! ponders! the! likelihood! of! another! satellite! launch,! David!

Albright! has! issued! a! timely! new! report! estimating!North! Korea’s! nuclear! capabilities.! The!

opacity! of! the! system! and! the! absence! of! an! onAtheAground! presence! since! the! ejection! of!

inspectors! in! 2008! make! any! such! effort! fraught.! But! Albright! does! as! careful! a! job! as! is!probably! possible—providing! ranges! and! hypothesized! distributions—and! reminds! us! that!

the!capability!continues!to!expand.!The!report!can!be!summarized!by!combining!several!of!his!tables!into!the!one!below.!

!

! 31!

!

As! is! typical! for!such!estimates,! there!are! three!headline!numbers:! total! fissile!material;! the!

nuclear!weapons!equivalent!of!that!fissile!material;!and!a!total!device/weapon!estimate!that!

includes!a!discount!factor!for!the!fact!that!all!fissile!material!is!not!typically!weaponized!(for!example,!Albright!estimates!that!70!percent!of!plutonium!has!gone!into!actual!devices,!which!

seems!high! although! certainly!plausible).! The! estimates!of! current! stocks!of! fissile!material!

have!to!make!a!judgment!on!the!early!1990s!discrepancies!between!North!Korean!and!IAEA!claims!and!estimate!the!material!used!during!the!nuclear!tests!in!2006,!2009,!and!2013.!(For!a!

comprehensive! timeline!of!North!Korea’s!nuclear!program,!see!here).!Albright!and!his! team!recognize! that! point! predictions! are! not! that! helpful! so! he! provides! qualitative! confidence!

intervals! for!some!data!(plutonium)!and!distributions!(such!as! the!one!below,!generated!by!

Crystal!Ball!software)!and!standard!deviations!of!others!(those!marked!above!as!reporting!the!medians).!

On!plutonium,!the!ultimate!source!is!the!declaration!provided!by!the!North!Koreans!following!

the! decision! to! freeze! the! program! in! 2007! and! estimates! on!what! has! been! extracted! and!used!since.!The!numbers! in! the!2008!declaration!are!not! in! the!public!domain,!but!Albright!

has!talked!to!enough!of!the!principles!to!converge!on!an!estimate!of!30A34!kilograms,!with!a!

high!estimate!of!another!8A10!kilos!(but!with!low!confidence).!Some!additional!plutonium!was!probably!separated!after!the!collapse!of!the!Six!Party!Talks!in!2008,!but!a!substantial!portion!

of!this!was!probably!used!up!in!the!2009!and!2013!tests.!!Although!the!reactor!was!restarted!and!has!been!running!periodically!again!since!2013,!it!has!not!been!operational!long!enough!

to!generate!additional!plutonium!in!that!time!period.!

Estimates!with!respect!to!HEU!are!looser!for!the!simple!reason!that!we!don’t!know!how!many!

sites!have! spinning! cascades.!Thanks! to! the!visit!of! a! Stanford! team! in!2010!we!know!with!reasonably!high!certainty!that!there!is!enrichment!going!on!at!Yongbyon.!But!the!size!of!the!

facility! sparked! strong! suspicion! that! there!might! be! another! site,! typically! thought! of! as! a!

pilot!plant!which!could!be!smaller,!equivalent!to!or!even!larger!than!Yongbyon.!!The!result!is!not!only!widely!divergent!estimates,!but!wider!confidence!intervals!around!each.!With!respect!

to! the! weapons! equivalent! estimates,! Albright! assumes! 2A5! kilos! for! a! plutonium!weapon.!Again,! estimates!with! respect! to! devices! using!weaponsAgrade!uranium! (WGU)! show!wider!

confidence!intervals!because!of!the!possibility!that!WGU!could!be!combined!with!plutonium!

or!used!on! its!own.! In! the! latter! case,! the!amount!of!WGU!needed! could!be!as!high!as!27.5!kilos;!again,!this!is!the!value!of!providing!the!distributions!given!that!this!number!could!also!

be!as!low!as!15!kilos.!

!

! 32!

!

What!ultimately!matters!is!not!whether!North!Korea!has!10!or!15!nuclear!weapons!but!their!

capacity! to!deploy!them.!Albright!argues!that! it! is! likely! that! the!North!Koreans!can!already!build!a!warhead!which!can!fit!atop!a!Nodong!missile!with!a!range!of!less!than!800!miles,!but!

the!reliability!of!such!a!product!is!still!dubious.!As!ranges!go!up,!reliability!goes!down.!In!fact,!

in!an!interesting!post!at!38North,!John!Shilling!argues!that!the!satellites!may!be!just!satellites,!and!not!necessarily!a!stalking!horse!for!an!ICBM!capability.!

This!short!summary!can’t!do! justice! to! the!care! that!Albright!puts! into!walking! through! the!

background!to!the!program!and!the!assumptions!that!undergird!the!analysis;!this! is!a!really!useful!report!not!only!for!the!estimates!but!as!a!tour!of!the!entire!North!Korean!nuclear!effort.!

In! the! end,! the! findings! are! about! what! we! would! expect:! that! the! country! had! the! fissile!

material! to!produce!a!dozen!or!so!devices;! it! is!continuing! to!work!on!both!routes! to! fissile!material;!and!is!simultaneously!working!to!mount!a!device!on!a!warhead,!which!could!well!be!

a!more!substantial!constraint!than!the!devices!themselves.!The!bigger!uncertainties!are!not!in!

these! estimates! of!material! capabilities,! but!what! North! Korea! thinks! it! is! buying!with! the!program.! A! deterrent?! A! tool! for! coercive! bargaining?! A! prestige! project! that! bolsters! the!

legitimacy! of! the! Kim! dynasty?! But! one! thing! is! certain:! given! the! stated! commitment! to!maintain!their!program!in!the!April!2013!byungjin!line,!the!farther!down!the!road!they!go,!the!

more!difficult!it!will!be!to!roll!it!back.!

&&3.&International&Crisis&Group&&&Abbas'&Bum&Bombshell&

When!Palestinian!President!Mahmoud!Abbas!announced!his!intention!to!drop!a!bombshell!in!

his!speech!this!Wednesday!at!the!UN!General!Assembly,!Palestinians!and!Israelis!shrugged.!No!

one!believed!that!the!man!who!had!spent!the!last!four!decades!urging!the!Palestinian!national!movement!to!accept!Israel,!renounce!violence,!and!seek!a!peaceful!accommodation!was!about!

to!reverse!course.!The!only!credible!threat!he!could!make!was!to!resign,!leaving!Israel!with!a!

less!accommodating!successor.!Indeed,!that! is!the!one!threat!he!consistently!wields—and!to!great!effect,!eliciting!worried!inquiries!from!Israeli,!European,!and!U.S.!officials.!The!leader!of!

the!Palestinian!national!movement!has! thus! found!himself! in! the!curious!position!of!having!

!

! 33!

his!supposed!enemies!more!concerned!about!his!welfare!than!are!his!own!people,!twoAthirds!

of!whom!just!told!a!leading!pollster!that!they!wanted!him!to!resign.!

The!disaffection!with!Abbas! is!not!personal.! It! is!a!rejection!not!of! the!man!but!of!his! failed!political! program! of! cooperating! with! Israel! to! reach! a! negotiated! twoAstate! settlement.! It!

stems!from!a!belief!that!Abbas!is!politically!naive,!having!followed!a!strategy!of!giving!Israel!

what! it!most!desires—full!Palestinian!security!collaboration—not! in!exchange! for!an!end!to!the!occupation!but!as!a!prologue!to!it.!The!program!stays!fixed,!even!when!the!epilogue!never!

comes.!Through! the! stubborn!pursuit!of! this! strategy,! the! leader!of! an!ostensible! liberation!movement! has! come! to! be! seen! as! such! an! asset! by! his! occupier! that! Israel! considers! his!

resignation!a!national!security!threat.!Although!the!80AyearAold!leader’s!threats!to!resign!may!

have!lost!credibility!a!long!time!ago,!biology!will!surely!fulfill!the!promises!that!an!appetite!for!power! cannot.! When! Abbas! does! depart,! Israelis! and! especially! Palestinians! will! have! an!

opportunity! to! set! a! new! course.! In! anticipation! of! that! eventuality,! leading! Israeli! and!

Palestinian!politicians!have!proposed!several!alternatives!to!Abbas’!strategy.!Few!of!them!are!remotely!plausible!at!present,!and!most!are!less!promising!even!than!the!strategy!now!widely!

recognized!as!a!failure.!

No#peace#

Among!Israelis,!the!alternatives!include!enfranchisement!of!Palestinians!in!the!West!Bank!and!Jerusalem!(but!not!in!Gaza)!in!a!single!state!that!would!retain!its!Jewish!character;!small,!OsloA

like! interim! steps! that! could! be! sufficient! to! occupy! the! diplomatic! community,! distract!

Palestinian! elites! from! their! longAterm!objectives,! and! halt! pressure! on! Israel! to! take!more!meaningful!steps! to!end!the!occupation;!and!annexation!of! Jerusalem!and!parts!of! the!West!

Bank,! leaving! the! remainder!of! the! territory!under!Palestinian!or! Jordanian! control.!Among!Palestinians,! the!alternatives! include!a! single! state!with!equal! rights! for! all! citizens;! a! longA

term! truce! between! Israel! and! a! future! Palestinian! state;! and! unilateral! steps! designed! to!

increase! Palestinian! leverage! and! induce! greater! Israeli! concessions! or! further! Israeli!territorial!withdrawals.!

None! of! these! alternatives! yet! threatens! to! supplant! the! negotiated! twoAstate! paradigm,!

although!some!could!become!supplements!to! it.!The!three!principal!parties!to!the!conflict—Israelis,! Palestinians,! and! Americans—are! not! actually! reAevaluating! their! approach! to! the!

IsraeliAPalestinian!conflict,! as!U.S.!President!Barack!Obama!promised! to!do! following! Israeli!

Prime! Minister! Benjamin! Netanyahu’s! March! 2015! campaign! vow! not! to! allow! the!establishment!of!a!Palestinian!state.!Instead,!they!are!seeking!faceAsaving!ways!to!set!the!stage!

for!yet!another!round!of!finalAstatus!negotiations.!

European!and!American!diplomats!still!cling!to!the!possibility!of!a!breakthrough!in!bilateral!talks,!even!as!they!have!become!pessimistic!about!the!prospects!of!achieving!one!under!the!

current!Israeli!and!Palestinian!leaderships.!The!default! Israeli!position,!embraced!by!figures!

as! disparate! as!Netanyahu,! former! Foreign!Minister!Avigdor! Lieberman,! de! jure! opposition!leader! Yitzhak!Herzog,! and! de! facto! opposition! leader! Yair! Lapid,! is! to! seek!Arab! partners,!

who,!Israeli!leaders!hope,!could!be!included!in!future!talks.!Such!partners!would!bring!Israel!a!

degree!of!added!normalization!in!its!relations!with!Arab!states!while!potentially!adding!Arab!pressure! on! Palestinians! to! adopt! more! conciliatory! positions.! A! preliminary! step! in! this!

direction!was!taken!when!Saudi!Arabia,!Egypt,!and!Jordan!were! invited!to!attend!a!meeting!this!week!of!the!Quartet!on!the!Middle!East!(the!United!States,!the!EU,!the!UN,!and!the!Russian!

!

! 34!

Federation)! that! is! tasked!with!mediating! the! IsraeliAPalestinian!peace!process.! The!default!

position!of!Palestinian! leaders,!meanwhile,!has!been! to! take!small,!halting!steps! to! increase!pressure!on! Israel,!while!quietly! seeking!a! resumption!of!negotiations!on! terms! that!would!

not!open!them!to!intolerable!levels!of!domestic!criticism.!

For! all! the! talk! of! the! end! of! the! twoAstate! solution,! Israelis! and! Palestinians! have! not!

abandoned! the!wellAtrodden!path! charted!out!at! the!Madrid!peace! conference! in!1991.!Nor!has! either! leadership! faced! significant!public!pressure! to!do! so.!Majorities! in!both! societies!

continue! to! express! support! for! a! twoAstate! solution,! albeit! on! terms! that! are! mutually!exclusive.! Many! Israelis! still! believe! that! they! can! make! a! peace! agreement! without!

establishing! a! Palestinian! capital! in! Jerusalem.! Meanwhile,! many! Palestinians! are! still!

convinced! that! they! can! achieve! peace! without! putting! severe! restrictions! on! refugee!compensation!and!return.!Both!sides!imagine!that!the!other!might!come!to!accept!their!moral!

claims,! recognize! the! validity! of! parts! of! their! narrative,! and! relinquish! demands! for!

sovereignty!over!the!Haram!alASharif/Temple!Mount.!

The!alternative!proposal! that!has!gained!by! far! the!most!media!attention—coexistence! in!a!

single!state—has!not!for!a!moment!been!acceptable!to!Israelis!and!Palestinians!in!positions!of!

real! power.! Such! a! solution! would! not! resolve! some! of! the! most! fundamental! disputes!between! the! parties:! Israel’s! refusal! to! permit! significant! numbers! of! refugees! to! return;!

Palestinian!demands!for!Israeli!acknowledgment!of!responsibility!for!the!refugee!problem;!a!

dearth! of! resources! to! compensate! Palestinian! and! Jewish! refugees;! Palestinian! desire! for!equal!rights,!including!in!the!Law!of!Return,!which!grants!the!right!of!citizenship!to!any!Jew;!

Israel’s! demand! that! it! be! recognized! as! the! nationAstate! of! the! Jewish! people;! and! dueling!Palestinian!and!Israeli!claims!on!the!Haram!alASharif/Temple!Mount.!Even!the!one!issue!that!

it!is!claimed!that!a!oneAstate!alternative!would!resolve—territory—would!remain!in!dispute!

so!long!as!significant!numbers!of!Israeli!oneAstate!advocates!sought!to!exclude!Gaza.!For!the!time!being,!then,!neither!two!states!nor!one!can!bring!to!both!peoples!a!lasting!peace,!let!alone!

a! sense!of! justice.!What!each!society! can!strive! for,! in! the! interim,!are! improvements!on!an!

unjust!and!illiberal!status!quo.!

Armistice#now#

Since!the!end!of!World!War!II,!peace!settlements!that!have!resolved!the!basic!issues!in!dispute!

between! combatants! have! been! exceedingly! rare.! Yet! for! a! quarter! century,! Israeli! and!

Palestinian!negotiators!have!sought!just!that:!a!comprehensive!solution,!resolving!not!just!the!basic!issues!but!all!outstanding!conflicts!between!the!parties.!In!so!doing,!they!have!made!the!

odds! of! peace! that! much! slimmer.! The! intentions! behind! this! approach! may! have! been!

laudable,!but,!in!practice,!it!has!allowed!Israel’s!occupation!to!continue!indefinitely,!so!long!as!a! solution! that! resolved! all! competing! claims! was! not! found.! In! this! way,! a! veto! over!

Palestinian!statehood!was!granted!to!any!Israeli!or!Palestinian!negotiator!who!could!suggest!a!demand,!no!matter!how!unjustified,!that!the!other!side!would!not!meet.!

There! has,! however,! been! an! alternative! available! to! the! parties! all! along:! establishing! a!

Palestinian!state!that!would!negotiate!a! longAterm!truce!with!Israel,!much!like!the!armistice!

agreements!that!Israel!forged!after!the!1948!war.!Nothing!would!preclude!a!longAterm!truce!from! serving! as! the! basis! of! a! future! comprehensive! peace! agreement,! just! as! armistice!

agreements!with!Egypt!and!Jordan!did!not!prevent!these!two!states!from!later!reaching!peace!agreements!with! Israel.! Any! longAterm!pact! could! leave! unresolved!many! of! the! competing!

!

! 35!

demands!of!the!two!parties,!especially!the!refugee!issue!and!sovereignty!over!the!Haram!alA

Sharif/Temple! Mount,! while! granting! each! a! significant! reduction! in! conflict! as! well! as! an!improvement!of!the!arrangements!put!in!place!by!the!Oslo!Accords.!

At!present,!most! Israeli! and!Palestinian! leaders!oppose! this! approach,!preferring! the! status!

quo!so!long!as!its!costs!remain!relatively!low.!Israeli!leaders!see!little!incentive!to!make!largeA

scale! territorial! withdrawals! without! simultaneously! achieving! an! end! to! the! conflict;! at!present,! the! political! costs! of! territorial! withdrawal! are! much! higher! than! those! of!

maintaining!the!current!scope!of!military!occupation.!The!Palestine!Liberation!Organization,!meanwhile,! fears! that!by!agreeing! to!a! temporary!solution! it!will,! as!with!Oslo,! sign!on! to!a!

permanent! one,! which! would! erase! much! of! its! leverage! and! reduce! pressure! on! Israel.!

Palestinians! outside! the! PLO,! by! contrast,! have! not! rejected! the! idea.! Hamas! has! for!many!years!called!for!a!longAterm!truce!between!two!states!based!on!the!preA1967!borders.!It!did!so!

out!of!a!belief,!shared!by!many!on!the!Israeli!right,! that!certain! issues,!and! in!particular! the!

refugee! problem,! cannot! be! resolved! right! now.! Hamas’! acceptance! of! an! armistice! could!dramatically!narrow!the!odds!and!scope!of!violent!obstruction,!which!would!undoubtedly!be!

of!much!greater!scale! in! the!event!of!a!comprehensive!agreement.! Instead!of!reaching!a! full!peace! agreement! that! violent! parties! in! both! societies! would! strongly! oppose,! Israelis! and!

Palestinians! would! avert! the! most! painful! concessions! and! ensure! more! widespread!

acceptance!of!a! long!period!of!calm.!Unfortunately! for!both!communities,!a!shift! toward!the!sort! of! nonAcomprehensive! ceaseAfire! agreement! that! has! ended! most! violent! conflicts! in!

recent!decades! is! unlikely! so! long! as! the!present! system! is!not!disrupted,!whether! through!renewed! violence,! a! collapse! of! the! Palestinian! Authority! and! Israeli! reoccupation! of!West!

Bank! city! centers,! the!withdrawal!of! aid! to! the!Palestinians,! the! establishment!of! a!popular!

movement!that!would!rival!or!supplant!the!PLO,!or,!in!the!future,!sanctions!against!Israel.!For!now,! these! possibilities! seem! distant! or! improbable,! not! least! because! of! Israeli! and!

Palestinian! Authority! cooperation! to! thwart! them.! Indeed,! it! is! no! coincidence! that! the!

Palestinians!who!are!making!the!greatest!efforts!to!raise!the!costs!of!Israel’s!occupation!are!those! outside! the! Palestinian! Authority’s! control:! protesting! Jerusalemites,! hungerAstriking!

prisoners,!militants!in!Gaza,!demonstrators!against!settlements!and!the!separation!barrier!in!parts! of! the!West! Bank! that! are! outside! of! Palestinian! Authority! jurisdiction,! and! the! BDS!

(Boycott,! Divestment! and! Sanctions)!movement,! which! is! driven! largely! by! the! Palestinian!

diaspora.!The!success!of!these!groups!raises!the!costs!of!the!status!quo!not!just!for!Israel!but!for!a!PLO!that!is!increasingly!dismissed!as!ineffectual,!inactive,!and!irrelevant.!So!far,!the!pace!

at! which! these! costs! have! mounted! is! too! slow! to! elicit! a! significant! policy! shift.! But!

determined!effort!by!Palestinians,!Israelis,!and!their!financial!and!diplomatic!supporters!may!one! day! render! the! costs! of! occupation! greater! than! those! of! territorial! withdrawal.! Israel!

might!then!view!a!Palestinian!state!as!an!escape!from!something!worse.!At!that!point,!a!longAterm!truce!could!offer!benefits!to!both!Israelis!and!Palestinians,!without!either!party!having!to!

concede!what!it!currently!will!not.!Until!then,!Netanyahu!can!go!on!repeating!his!talking!point!

that!“no!one!makes!peace!with!the!weak.”!And!Abbas,!at!his!own!peril,!can!go!on!ignoring!it.!

&&&&&&

!

! 36!

4.&Chatham&House&Report&&&Cyber&Security&at&Civil.&Nuclear&Facilities&Understanding&the&Risks&

Background:#the#Nature#of#the#Threats#

Recent! highAprofile! cyber! attacks! on! nuclear! facilities! have! raised! new! concerns! about! the!

vulnerability!of!nuclear!power!plants.!In!2010,!the!emergence!of!the!Stuxnet!worm!heralded!

the!advent!of!a!new!era!in!cyber!warfare.!In!a!cyber!attack!on!the!Natanz!nuclear!enrichment!facility! and! Bushehr! nuclear! power! plant! in! Iran,! the! Stuxnet! worm! caused! the! partial!

destruction! of! around! 1,000! centrifuges! (Shubert,! 2011).! This! was! the! most! highly!sophisticated! publicly! known! cyber! attack! on! a! nuclear! facility! to! date,! demonstrating! an!

unprecedented! level! of! technical! capabilities.! On! a! lesser! scale,! South! Korea’s! stateArun!

nuclear!operator!was!the!subject!of!a!cyber!attack! in!December!2014which!saw!the!theft!of!sensitive!information,!including!the!blueprints!of!at!least!two!nuclear!reactors!and!electrical!

flow! charts! (Kim! and! Cho,! 2014).! NonAcyber! securityArelated! serious! incidents,! such! as! the!damage!inflicted!on!the!Fukushima!Daiichi!nuclear!power!plant!by!the!magnitude!9.0!Tōhoku!

earthquake!and!subsequent!tsunami!on!11!March!2011!(von!Hippel,!2011),!serve!as!a!stark!

reminder!of!the!economic!and!social!consequences!of!a!major!disruption!to!or!disablement!of!a! nuclear! power! plant’s! essential! systems,! in! this! case! the! reactor! cooling! systems.! Over!

100,000!people!within!a!radius!of!20!km!were!evacuated!and!those!within!a!radius!of!20–30!

km!were! instructed! to! shelter! before! later! being! advised! to! evacuate! on! a! voluntary! basis.!Restrictions!were!placed!on!the!distribution!and!consumption!of!food!and!the!consumption!of!

drinking! water! (IAEA,! 2015).! Large! areas! of! prime! agricultural! land! continue! to! be!uninhabitable;!and!the!nuclear!operator!and!the!Japanese!government!still!have!to!cope!with!

the!task!of!controlling!the!radiation!release!and!clearing!the!radioactive!contamination.!The!

wider! consequences! of! the! accident! included! the! shutdown! of! all! nuclear! power! plants! in!Japan! at! the! time,! leading! to! significant! energy! supply! problems! for! the! population.! The!

ramifications!were!felt!elsewhere!too:!for!example,!the!German!federal!government!ordered!

the!shutdown!of!eight!of! the!17!German!nuclear!reactors!and! immediately!pledged! to!close!the!rest!by!2022!(Breidthardt,!2011).!

The#range#of#threat#actors#

The!primary!set!of!threat!actors!that!pose!a!cyber!risk!to!nuclear!facilities!can!be!divided!into!

four!broad!categories:!hacktivists;!cyber!criminals;!states!(governments!and!militaries);!and!nonAstate! armed! groups! (terrorists).! Hacktivists! such! as! radical! fringe! antiAnuclear! power!

groups! might! carry! out! a! cyber! attack! on! a! nuclear! facility! to! raise! awareness! of!

vulnerabilities.!Their!goal!is!sabotage!or!disruption,!so!such!attacks!would!be!likely!to!involve!defacements!of!websites!or!lowAlevel!attacks!on!the!business!network!intended!to!embarrass!

an! operator! rather! than! cause! a! dangerous! incident.! Cyber! criminal! groups! are! becoming!increasingly!skilled.!Organized!criminal!groups!might!steal!confidential!information!belonging!

to!a!nuclear! facility! and! then!blackmail! the! facility! into!paying!a! ransom! to!prevent! it! from!

being! released.! Their! primary! aim! is!monetary! profit.! The! threat! from! state! actors! ranging!from!intelligence!agencies!to!militaries!and!stateAsponsored!groups!is!on!the!rise!(McConnell!

et! al.,! 2014).! These! types! of! attackers! tend! to! instigate! longAterm! campaigns! aimed! at!infiltrating!the!critical!infrastructure!of!other!countries.!Currently!the!activities!of!states!occur!

more!in!the!area!of!cyber!espionage!than!cyber!conflict.!According!to!Source!1:!‘At!present,!the!

motivations!are!primarily!commercial,!aimed!at!the!theft!of!sensitive,!confidential!proprietary!

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data!that!will!give!the!country!an!advantage.’!Yet!in!the!longer!term,!the!unintended!escalation!

of! cyber! skirmishes! into! cyber! conflict! is! a! concern.! These! same! infiltration! campaigns! are!also! aimed! at! acquiring! cyber! capabilities! against! the! critical! infrastructure! of! other! states,!

including!nuclear!plants,!in!the!event!of!a!conflict.!In!such!a!case,!the!intent!of!an!attack!might!

be! to! endanger! human! or! environmental! safety! or,! at! the! very! least,! to! create!widespread!confusion! and! fear! among!an! adversary’s!population.!Terrorists! or!nonAstate! armed!groups!

are! a! growing! challenge.! Some! radical! extremist! groups! have! already! acquired! significant!capability!in!the!use!of!social!media!and,!with!sufficient!financial!resources,!could!develop!the!

capability!to!carry!out!a!cyber!attack!on!a!nuclear!plant!or!employ!a!‘hack!for!hire’!company!to!

do!this!(BBC,!2011).!For!example,!ISIS!(Islamic!State!of!Iraq!and!Syria),!with!its!sophisticated!use!of!Facebook!and!websites! for! recruiting!purposes,! could!potentially!pose! such!a! threat.!

According!to!Source!10:!Radical!extremism!is!also!a!serious!risk,!so!we!can!consider!it!at!least!

equal![to!a]!governmental!hack!attack.!If!an!attacker!really!wants!to!penetrate!or!infiltrate!the!network,!it!is!a!question!of!time!and!money.!Such!groups!might!wish!to!build!up!a!picture!to!

support! a! later! coordinated! attack! intended! to! sabotage! the! plant! or! to! remove! nuclear!material.!Or!they!might!wish!to!use!cyber!means!in!order!to!cause!physical!destruction.!

Potential#physical#targets#and#impacts#

There!are!a!number!of!ways!in!which!cyber!attacks!might!affect!nuclear!facilities.!Some!of!the!

most! important! targets! are! detailed! below.! The! most! basic! attacks! will! target! business!

networks!–!the!corporate!networks!belonging!to!the!ownerAoperators!of!nuclear!facilities!that!contain!the!information!needed!to!manage!the!business!dimension!of!the!plant.!Most!attacks!

on!these!networks!will!be!aimed!at!the!theft!of!confidential!corporate!data!that!can!be!used!to!garner! financial! benefit.! Others!might! be! carried! out! for! reconnaissance! purposes,! to! steal!

operational!information!that!can!be!used!to!conduct!a!more!harmful!attack!at!a!later!date.!Or,!

as!business!networks!are!typically!connected!to!the!nuclear!facility,!some!attacks!on!business!networks!could!serve!as!a!route!for!attacks!on!the!facility’s!industrial!control!systems.!A!cyber!

attack! that! took!one!or!more!nuclear! facilities! offline! could,! in! a! very! short! time,! remove! a!

significant! base! component! to! the! grid,! causing! instability.! More! sophisticated! attacks! on!nuclear! plants! involve! the! targeting! of! industrial! control! systems! themselves! and! have! the!

potential!to!be!the!most!harmful.!Within!the!plant!itself,!the!industrial!control!systems!are!the!most! important,! notably! SCADA! systems.!While! highly! complex,! these! can! be! thought! of! as!

having! just! three! parts.! The! first! consists! of! the! computers! that! control! and!monitor! plant!

operations,!and!that!send!signals!which!physically!control!the!second!part.!This!comprises!the!field!devices,!such!as!programmable!logic!controllers,!which!control!the!sensors,!motors!and!

other! physical! components! of! the! plant.! The! third! part! consists! of! the! human–machine!interface!(HMI)!computers!which!display!userAfriendly!data!on!operations!and!often!run!using!

Windows!programmes.!Some!possible!attack!scenarios!might! include! the! following.!A!cyber!

attack! on! a! nuclear! plant! could! cause! a! widespread! loss! of! power.! Nuclear! reactors! using!water! in! their!primary!cooling!circuit!are!designed! to!give!a!high! level!of!protection! to! that!

water,!but! the!water!supply! that!cools! the! turbines!which! in! turn!generate! the!electricity! is!

not!so!well!protected.!Without!that!water!supply,!the!turbine!could!be!tripped!and!electricity!generation!halted,!with!a!serious!impact!on!the!power!grid.!In!countries!that!rely!on!nuclear!

energy,!power!provided!by!nuclear!plants!is!considered!to!be!the!‘base!load’,!or!a!steady!and!constant! source! of! supply.! Other! sources! of! power! generation,! for! example! gasAfired!

electricity! generation,! can! be!more! responsive! to! demand! and! so! can! be! adjusted! to!meet!

peaks!in!demand!and!to!reduce!supply!when!there!is!a!lower!requirement!for!power.!Thus!a!cyber!attack!that!took!one!or!more!nuclear!facilities!offline!could,!in!a!very!short!time,!remove!

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a!significant!base!component!to!the!grid,!causing!instability.!According!to!Source!27:!In!the!US,!

it’s!very!easy!to!have!this!ripple!effect!because!if!those!plants!go!off!the!grid!quickly!enough,!it’s! a! pretty! significant! percentage! of! the! grid’s! base! load! that! all! of! a! sudden! disappears,!

which!causes!the!entire!grid!to!become!burdened.!If!you!did!that!to!a!reasonable!number!of!

those!larger!substations,!you!could!cause!a!significant!grid!event.!The!consequences!of!a!loss!of!power!could!be!severe.! In! theory,!a!cyber!attack!on!a!nuclear!plant!could!bring!about!an!

uncontrolled!release!of! ionizing!radiation.!An!adversary!with!sufficient! technical!knowledge!and!adequate!resources!could!mount!an!attack!on!a!nuclear!power!plant!that!could!trigger!the!

release! of! significant! quantities! of! ionizing! radiation.! All! nuclear! power! plants! need! offsite!

power! to! operate! safely! and! all! have! a! standby! generator! system!which! is! designed! to! be!activated!when!a!loss!of!mains!power!occurs.!Attacks!on!the!offsite!power!supply!and!the!onA

site! backup! system! could! create! some! of! the! effects! that! occurred! following! the! 2011!

earthquake!and!tsunami!at!Fukushima!Daiichi,!although!multiple!failures!of!the!many!safety!features!at!modern!nuclear!power!plants!would!also!need!to!occur!at! the!same!time!as!that!

loss!of!offsite!power!and!the!disruption!of!standby!generators.!

The!risk!of!simultaneous!attacks!is!also!a!concern.!It!is!possible!that!different!types!of!attacks!could!be!launched!simultaneously!against!a!nuclear!plant:! for!example,!a!cyber!attack!might!

be!planned!to!occur!concurrently!with!a!physical,!perhaps!armed,!intrusion!on!the!same!plant.!

Alternatively,!there!could!be!a!concerted!simultaneous!cyber!attack!on!a!nuclear!facility!and!on!other!types!of!critical!infrastructure!such!as!regional!water!systems,!the!electrical!grid!or!

banking!systems.!

!

5.&The&Guardian&&The&Kyoto&protocol&is&not&quite&dead&

As#phase#one#of#the#agreement#comes#to#an#end,#the#entrenched#positions#of#countries#must#now#be#reconsidered.#

At!recent!climate!change!conferences,!a!coffin!has!been!paraded!through!the!halls!of!delegates!covered!in!a!shroud!and!attended!by!mourners.!The!name!on!the!shroud:!Kyoto.&It!is!now!15!years!since!the!Kyoto!protocol!was!signed!–!the!first!international!agreement!stipulating!cuts!to!global!greenhouse!gases!–!but!the!end!is!in!sight.!Phase!one!of!the!agreement!comes!to!an!

end! next! month! but! while! a! handful! of! countries! will! begin! phase! two,! the! international!

community!has!not!been!able!to!come!up!with!a!replacement.&The!culmination!of!five!years!of!hard!negotiations!by!more!than!180!governments,!the!agreement!was!prompted!by!warnings!

from!scientists!that!burning!fossil!fuels!disrupts!the!natural!climate!systems.!Under!its!terms,!developed! countries! including! the! US! and! the! EU!would! have! to! cut! their! emissions! by! an!

average!of!5%!by!2012,!compared!with!1990!levels.!Developing!countries!were!not!obliged!to!

make!cuts,!but!were!to!benefit!from!cash!from!rich!nations!to!help!them!avoid!a!highAcarbon!route!to!prosperity.!Globally,!emissions!have!increased!by!around!50%!since!1990,!although!

that!growth!has!come!mostly!in!poorer!countries!that!did!not!sign!up!to!Kyoto!–!notably!China!

whose!emissions!went!up!286.6%!from!2.5m!metric!tonnes!to!9.7m!metric!tonnes.&

Signed! amid! scenes! of! jubilation! in! Japan,! the! protocol! was! hailed! as! a! breakthrough! that!could! set! the! world! on! a! new! lowAcarbon! path! –! but! its! imminent! demise! was! predicted!

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almost! from! the! start.! The! US! signed! the! protocol,! but! with! stiff! opposition! from! both!

Congress! and! Senate,! never! ratified! it.! Russia! refused! to! ratify! for! seven! years,! in! effect!consigning! the! treaty! to! the! scrapheap! of! history! until! a! sudden! change! of! heart! in! 2004.!

Canada! reneged! on! its! obligations! under! the! treaty! and! pulled! out! a! year! ago.! Developing!

countries!complained!that!the!protocol!did!not!go!far!enough,!and!failed!to!provide!promised!funding! for! them! to! cut! emissions.! By! 2009,! when! the! UN! convened! a! landmark! climate!

summit!in!Copenhagen,!Kyoto!was!being!derided!as!a!failure.!Global!emissions!have!continued!to!grow,!reaching!record! levels! last!year.!According! to! the! International!Energy!Agency,! the!

world! is! on! track! for! 6C! of! warming! –! levels! that! would! cause! chaos! –! if! current! trends!

continue.!

But! has! the! Kyoto! agreement! been! such! a! failure?! "The! Kyoto! protocol,! with! all! its!imperfections,!was!an!important!first!step!in!international!climate!policy.!It!marked!a!historic!

breakthrough!in!negotiations!–!unfortunately!one!of!the!very!few,"!says!Rolf!Wuestenhagen,!

professor! at! the! University! of! St! Gallen.! Although! emissions! overall! have! not! come! down,!those!of!some!countries!have!fallen!sharply.!The!EU!is!on!track!to!meet!its!target!of!an!8%!cut,!

and!Japan!has!reduced!its!carbon,!though!that!has!been!interrupted!by!the!closure!of!nuclear!plants! [following! the! Fukushima! disaster].! The! US,! though! not! part! of! Kyoto,! has! seen! its!

emissions!fall!to!levels!not!seen!since!1992.!In!the!past!few!years,!it!has!been!emissions!from!

developing!countries!–!especially!China!–!not!covered!by! the!agreement! that!have!been! the!main! contribution! to! greenhouse! gas! rises.! The! UN! will! not! calculate! the! exact! emissions!

reductions!produced!by!the!treaty!for!another!two!years.!But!the!effect!of!Kyoto!goes!beyond!bare! statistics.! "Kyoto! certainly! produced! emissions! reductions,! but! that! was! not! the! only!

achievement,"!says!Joan!MacNaughton,!of!the!World!Energy!Council.!"It!kept!people's!minds!

on!the!question!of!climate!change,!and!it!put!in!place!a!carbon!trading!system!that!has!been!very! important! in! providing! a! model! for! emissions! cuts."! Under! the! clean! development!

mechanism! (CDM),! projects! in! poor! countries! that! cut! carbon,! such! as! windfarms! or! solar!

panels,! are! awarded! credits! for! every! tonne! of! carbon! avoided.! These! can! be! sold! to! rich!countries! to! help! them! meet! their! Kyoto! targets.! The! CDM! has! produced! more! than! 1bn!

credits,!generating!$216bn!for!poor!countries,!including!China!and!India,!and!helping!spread!lowAcarbon!technology.!

Putting!Kyoto!in!a!coffin!is!premature.!More!than!30!countries!–!including!the!EU,!Australia,!

Norway!and!Switzerland!–!are!pledged!to!continue!it!beyond!2012,!with!fresh!commitments!

to!carbon!cuts.!At!Doha,!countries!will!try!to!negotiate!a!new!global!and!legally!binding!treaty!to!be!signed!in!2015!and!come!into!force!in!2020.!The!world!has!changed!enormously!since!

1997,!and!the!entrenched!positions!of!countries!–!developed!v!developing!–!at!the!UN!climate!talks!have!failed!to!keep!up.!In!1997,!the!US!was!the!unrivalled!key!player.!The!world's!biggest!

economy!and!biggest!emitter,!it!could!make!or!break!any!agreement.!Its!cold!war!rival,!Russia,!

had! seen! its! economy! –! and! emissions! –! collapse! after! the! fall! of! communism.!The!EU!was!struggling!with!the!prospect!of!absorbing!former!Soviet!bloc!countries,!with!their!inefficient!

economies!and!high!emissions.!Since!then,!many!of!these!positions!have!reversed.!As!China's!

economic!boom!raised!more!people!out!of!poverty!than!the!rest!of!the!world!combined,!it!also!made! the! country! the! world's! biggest! emitter! of! greenhouse! gases! and! second! biggest!

economy!–!and! it! is!on! track! to!overtake! the!US! for! that! crown!within!a! few!years.!The!US,!meanwhile,! has! seen! emissions! fall! to! 1992! levels,! because! of! the! boom! in! shale! gas.! This!

reversal!has!huge!repercussions!for!the!talks.!Kyoto!is!not!quite!dead,!but!the!certainties!that!

held!true!when!it!was!forged!certainly!are.!

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6.&The&Global&Journal&&&Who&Owns&the&Arctic?&A&Stocktaking&of&Territorial&Disputes&

For!a! long! time!the!Arctic!region!has!been!viewed!as!barren!wasteland! far! from!civilization!

due!to!its! inaccessibility!arising!from!layers!of!thick!ice.!As!a!consequence,!territorial!claims!

have!been!relatively!limited.!Today!the!situation!is!different.!The!recent!Arctic!melt,!which!is!said!to!have!reduced!the!sea!ice!by!as!much!as!50%!as!compared!with!the!1950s!according!to!

the! U.S.! National! Snow! and! Ice! Data! Center! (NSIDC),! and! the! fast! moving! development! of!transport! and! exploitation! technologies!make! the! Arctic! region!more! accessible! than! ever.!

This,!in!turn,!has!led!to!a!new!scramble!for!territory!and!resources!among!five!Arctic!States,!

namely! Canada,! Denmark,! Norway,! Russia! and! the! U.S..! They! are! rushing! to! claim!undeveloped! and,! in! some! cases,! unseen! territory! in! order! to! exploit! natural! resources!

estimated! to! be! worth! hundreds! of! billions! of! dollars.! Although! detailed! scientific! data! on!

what! lies! under! the! Arctic! Ocean! is! still! rare,! mineral! deposits! in! the! Arctic! seabed! are!estimated! to! hold! 25%! of! the! world’s! current! oil! and! natural! gas! reserves.! Experts! also!

highlight!the!value!of!other!resources!such!as!coal,!iron!or!copper!that!may!lie!in!abundance.!But,!considering!that!an!ArcticAspecific!legal!regime!is!lacking,!the!expected!new!access!to!the!

Arctic!does!not!only!open!up!new!opportunities!for!exploitation!but!also!for!heated!territorial!

disputes!concerning!the!question:!Who!owns!the!Arctic!and,!as!a!consequence,! is!entitled!to!the!resources!in!the!Arctic!seabed?!

Legal#Status#Quo#–!For!some!parts!of!the!Arctic!region!international!law!provides!a!clear!and!largely!undisputed!answer!to!this!question.!In!fact,!the!current!international!legal!framework!for! the! world’s! oceans,! the! United! Nations! Convention! on! the! Law! of! the! Sea! (UNCLOS),!

divides! the!sea! into!various! legal!zones!measured! from!the!relevant!coastal!State’s!baseline!

(also!described!as!the!lowAwater!line!along!the!coast)!with!the!State’s!sovereignty!decreasing!with!increasing!distance!from!the!coast.!These!zones!are!referred!to!as!the!Territorial!Sea!(up!

to! 12! nautical!miles! (nm)! from! the! baseline),! the! Contiguous! Zone! (up! to! 24! nm)! and! the!

Exclusive!Economic!Zone!(up!to!200!nm)!(EEZ).!Here,! the!right! to!exploit!natural!resources!lying!in!the!seabed!belongs!to!the!coastal!State!(see!in!particular!Article!56(1)(a)!UNCLOS).!

However,! any!exploitation!of! the! seabed!beyond! the!200!nm!EEZ! is!highly! controversial.! In!

this! area,! commonly! referred! to! as! the! High! Sea,! no! State! has! the! right! to! autonomously!exploit! natural! resources! but! has! to! apply! to! and! cooperate!with! the! International! Seabed!

Authority!which!acts!on!behalf!of!mankind!as!a!whole!(see!in!particular!Articles!137,!153,!157!

UNCLOS),! unless! the! coastal! State! proves! that! the! respective! resources! lie! within! its!continental! shelf.! The! continental! shelf! is! a!maritime! area! consisting! of! the! seabed! and! its!

subsoil!attributable!to!an!individual!coastal!State!as!a!natural!prolongation!of!its!land!territory!and!can,!exceptionally,!extend!a!State’s!right!to!exploitation!beyond!the!200!nm!of!its!EEZ.!It!is!

on!this!possible!extension!that!the!Arctic!States!base!their!territorial!claims.!Yet,! in!order!to!

establish!the!outer!limits!of!such!a!continental!shelf!a!State!has!to!issue!an!application!to!the!Commission!on!the!Limits!of!the!Continental!Shelf!(CLCS)!providing!supporting!scientific!and!

technical! data! as! soon! as! possible! but! in! any! case!within! 10! years! after! entry! into! force! of!

UNCLOS!for!that!State!(see!Article!4!UNCLOS!Annex!II).!Article!76(5)!UNCLOS!provides!that!the!outer!edge!of!this!continental!shelf!shall!not!exceed!350!nm!from!the!baseline!or!100!nm!

from!the!2,500!meter!isobath,!whichever!is!more!favorable!to!the!applicant!State.!The!latter!criterion!is!particularly!significant!in!light!of!the!overall!flat!nature!of!the!Arctic!Ocean!(most!

parts! are! no! deeper! than! 2,500!meters).! However,! there! is! one! exception! to! this! rule!with!

!

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respect!to!“submarine!ridges”:!if!the!continental!shelf!covers!parts!of!such!a!ridge,!it!cannot!be!

extended!to!more!than!350!nm!from!the!coast!no!matter!where!the!2,500!meter!isobaths!falls.!This! issue! lies! at! the! heart! of! the! dispute! over! the! remaining! Arctic! territory! where! in!

particular!the!definition!of!the!Lomonosov!and!AlphaAMendeleev!ridges!as!“submarine!ridges”!

(or!instead!as!“submarine!elevations”!which!are!natural!components!of!the!continental!shelf!and!do!not!fall!under!the!limit!of!350!nm)!is!disputed.!

Russia! and!Norway! are! so! far! the! only! States! that! have! submitted! an! extended! continental!

shelf!claim!to!the!CLCS.!Hence,!it!currently!remains!unclear!which!of!the!Arctic!States,!if!any!at!all,!will!succeed!in!establishing!the!outer!limits!of!their!continental!shelves!beyond!their!200!

nm!EEZs!and!with!it!the!right!to!exploit!the!resources!lying!in!the!Arctic!seabed!in!this!area.!

Now,!where!does! that! leave!us! in! relation! to! the! territorial! future!of! the!Arctic?!Even! if! the!CLCS!receives!all!applications! in!the!future,! its!decisions,! in!all! likelihood,!will!not!provide!a!

final!and!binding!resolution!of!all!Arctic!disputes.!This!is!already!indicated!by!the!fact!that!one!

of!the!Arctic!States,!namely!the!U.S.,!is!not!a!member!of!UNCLOS!and,!therefore,!not!bound!by!its!provisions!and!consequently!has!not!submitted!an!application!to!the!CLCS.!Apart!from!this,!

the!CLCS!is!also!not!a!forum!that!is!capable!of!providing!final!and!binding!solutions.!The!CLCS,!made!up!of!scientists,!merely!gives!recommendations!that!may!provide!scientific!determinacy!

on!the!delineation!of!a!State’s!extended!continental!shelf!but!do!not!lead!to!a!legally!binding!

delimitation,!leaving!the!ultimate!determination!of!the!maritime!boundary!to!the!submitting!State.! In! fact,!Article!9!UNCLOS!Annex! II! states! expressly! that! the!CLCS’s! recommendations!

“shall! not! prejudice! matters! relating! to! delimitation! of! boundaries! between! States! with!opposite! or! adjacent! coasts”! (similarly! Article! 76(10)! UNCLOS).! Thus,! the! CLCS! has! no!

mandate! either! to! determine! maritime! boundaries! between! coastal! States! or! to! settle!

disputes,!unless!the!Arctic!States!(including!the!U.S.)!expressly!accept!it.!

In! the! absence! of! such! acceptance,! what! are! other! possible! means! to! resolve! the! Arctic!disputes?! In! principle,! Articles! 279,! 287(1)(aAd)! UNCLOS! oblige! the! parties! to! settle! any!

dispute!between!them!by!peaceful!means;!for!example,!via!the!International!Tribunal!for!the!

Law!of! the!Sea,! the! International!Court!of! Justice!or!arbitral! tribunals.!However,!Article!298!UNCLOS! permits! a! State! to! declare! that! it! does! not! accept! such!methods! of! resolution! for!

disputes! relating! to! continental! shelves.! Canada,! Denmark! and! Russia! have! all! issued!declarations!of!nonAacceptance! in!relation!to! their!respective!Arctic!claims.!Bearing! in!mind!

that! the! U.S.! is! not! bound! by! UNCLOS,! the! dispute! resolution! procedures! of! UNCLOS! are!

currently!only!binding!on!Norway.!

Other# Possible# Solutions# D! For! as! long! as! the! UNCLOS! regime! faces! such! difficulties,! other!possible!ways!of!addressing!the!conflicting!claims!must!be!considered.!Two!possible!solutions!

are!delimitation!through!a!multilateral!agreement!and!mutual!exploitation!of!the!resources!in!the!Arctic!seabed!by!way!of!a! joint!development!agreement.!A!multilateral!agreement!or!an!

“Arctic! treaty”! could! either! be! modelled! after! the! already! existing! Antarctica! treaty! or!

established!as!an!Arctic!treaty!sui!generis.!However,!the!situation!in!the!Arctic!today!appears!to!be!significantly!different!to!the!one!in!the!Antarctic!in!1961,!when!the!treaty!for!its!peaceful!

use!entered! into! force;! for!example,! the!Antarctic!Treaty! is!aimed!at!preventing!exploration!

whereas!Arctic! States! are! eager! to! explore! and! exploit.! Instead! of! a!multilateral! agreement!aiming!at!the!delimitation!of!boundaries,!the!Arctic!States!could!also!enter!into!soAcalled!joint!

development! agreements.! Such! agreements! would! enable! them! to! mutually! share! the!exclusive!rights!as!regards!natural!resources!in!the!contested!areas!without!abandoning!their!

claims!and,!thus,!also!without!the!need!for!a!final!resolution!of!all! legal!issues.!Interestingly,!

!

! 42!

joint!development! agreements!might! also! just!provide! the!necessary! flexibility!when! facing!

such! a! multitude! of! very! complex! claims! (they! cannot! only! be! divided! into! different!categories,!such!as!oil!and!gas,!fisheries!and!navigation,!but!also!be!split!unevenly!between!the!

parties!within!these!categories).!

Conclusion# &# Perspective# D! The! expected! new! access! to! the! Arctic! has! also! led! to! a! new!scramble! for! so! far! unclaimed! territory! and! resources! estimated! to! be! worth! hundreds! of!billions! of! dollars! among!Canada,!Denmark,!Norway,!Russia! and! the!U.S..!While! each!Arctic!

State’s! right! to! exploit! the! seabed’s! natural! resources! within! its! 200! nm! EEZs! is! largely!undisputed,!ownership!of!the!resources!beyond!the!200!nm!EEZ!is!highly!controversial.!Here,!

the!disputes! focus!on! the!Arctic!States’! continental! shelf,!which!can,! exceptionally,! extend!a!

State’s!right!to!exploitation!of!resources!lying!in!the!seabed!beyond!the!200!nm!of!its!EEZ.!In!principle,! international! law!provides!for!several!ways!to!resolve!such!disputes!either!within!

the!existing!UNCLOS!regime!or!independently!of!it.!However,!at!this!point!in!time!the!Arctic!

States! are! neither! entitled! nor! seem! willing! to! commit! to! any! final! and! binding! way! of!resolving!their!disputes!since!it!is!still!unclear!to!what!extent!(if!at!all)!any!of!the!Arctic!States!

will!succeed!in!scientifically!proving!the!existence!of!a!continental!shelf!beyond!their!200!nm!EEZ.! In! the! authors’! opinion! it! is! only! when! all! Arctic! States! are! more! aware! of! the!

persuasiveness! of! their! continental! shelf! claims! that! there! will! be! a! turn! from! posing! the!

question,! “Who! owns! the! Arctic?”,! towards! beginning! to! find! the! answer.! A! starting! point!could!be!in!2014,!when!Denmark,!as!the!last!of!the!Arctic!States!(also!a!member!of!UNCLOS),!

is! supposed! to! submit! its! application! and! the! CLCS,! thereafter,! issues! its! (scientific)!recommendations.!!

!

7.&EurActive&&&EU&leaders&adopt&'flexible'&energy&and&climate&targets&for&2030&

EU! leaders! Thursday! night! (23! October)! committed! by! 2030! to! reduce! greenhouse! gas!

emissions!by! at! least! 40%,! and! increase! energy! efficiency! and! renewables! by! at! least! 27%.!French!President!François!Hollande!said!the!deal!would!send!a!clear!message!to!big!polluters!

such!as!China!and!the!United!States!ahead!of!UN!talks!in!Paris!next!year!to!agree!global!legally!

binding! greenhouse! gas! emissions.!A! special! "flexibility! clause"!was! added! to! the! final! text,!making! it!possible! for! the!European!Council! to!return!to! the!targets!after! the!UN!summit! in!

December!2015.!But!Hollande!told!reporters!that!the!clause!was!not!dependent!on!the!Paris!

talks,!as!the!Council!can!revisit!the!targets!anytime.!Hollande,!who!will!host!the!negotiations,!said!it!was!a!“conclusive!and!definitive”!agreement.!It!was!essential!a!deal!was!reached!before!

the!Paris!summit!next!year,!he!said.!!

Efficiency# and# renewables# targets# watered# down.& But! the! efficiency! and! renewables! targets!were!watered!down.!The!European!Commission!had!called!for!an!efficiency!goal!of!30%.!That!

was!reduced!to!27%!across!the!EU.!The!EU!level!target!is!not!legally!binding!at!the!national!

level! or! EU! level! and! will! be! reviewed! in! 2020! “having! in! mind”! a! 30%! EUAlevel! target,!according!to!the!summit!conclusions.&The!renewables!target!of!at!least!27%!is!binding!at!EUAwide! level! but,! after! opposition! from! countries! such! as! the! United! Kingdom,! it! will! not! be!binding!at!national! level.!All! three! targets!are! compared! to!1990! levels.&German!Chancellor!Angela!Merkel! also!noted! that! the! climate! agreement!has!made! the!EU! capable! of! being! an!

important!player!on!the!international!stage.!She!said!that!the!binding!target!of!at! least!27%!

!

! 43!

renewables!was!particularly!important!to!Germany!and!that!those!member!states,!that!want!

to!do!more,!are!able!to!do!so!under!this!agreement.!

Merkel!stressed!that!while!the!40%!emissions!reduction!target!is!going!to!be!broken!down!to!individual!member!states!based!on!their!GDP!per!capita,!those!countries!that!will!have!lower!

targets!would!have!to!do!more!in!other!areas.!Free!allowances!of!carbon!emissions!to!poorer!

countries! will! continue! after! 2020! to! offset! competition! from! countries! not! subject! to! EU!climate!laws.!The!deal!was!condemned!by!groups!such!as!Greenpeace!and!Oxfam!as!being!too!

weak.! “It! is! shocking! that! business! leaders! called! for! more! ambitious! targets! than! those!agreed!by!EU!leaders,”!Oxfam!said.!Polish!Prime!Minister!Ewa!Kopacz!said!the!deal!would!not!

cost!her!country.!Poland!was!the!country!that!mostly!opposed!ambitious!climate!goals,!fearing!

for!its!coal!power!plants.!

Interconnectivity#

Agreement!was!also!reached!on!increasing!the!interconnectivity!of!Europe’s!energy!markets.!Interconnectivity! is! an! important! part! of! the! EU’s! plans! for! Energy! Union,! which! is! partly!

intended!to!wean!some!member!states!off!their!dependence!on!Russian!gas.!Merkel!said!the!EU!is!sending!gas!to!Ukraine!by!reverse!energy!flows,!but!this!would!stop!if!it!began!to!hurt!

the!EU.!Spain!and!Portugal!were!pushing!for!a!binding!obligation!for!member!states!to!make!

15%! of! their! national! generation! capacity! available! to! other! EU! nations.! They! have! long!argued!that!they!have!been!prevented!from!selling!their!surplus!renewable!energy!to!France,!

which!they!accuse!of!protecting!its!nuclear!industry.!Instead,!EU!leaders!renewed!their!2002!

commitment!to!increase!energy!trading!through!electricity!connectors!to!10%!by!2020.!Built!into! that! is! a! commitment! to! subsequently! up! that! percentage! to! 15%.! The! agreement!

specifically! names! soAcalled! "energy! islands"! –! Spain! Portugal! and! the! Baltic! states.! They!should!have!the!highest!priority,!according!to!the!conclusions.!Malta,!Cyprus!and!Greece!also!

needed!special!attention,!EU!leaders!agreed.!

Energy#security#

Regarding!energy! security! in! the! context!of! the!Ukraine! crisis,!EU! leaders!endorsed! further!

actions! to! reduce! the! EU's! energy! dependence! and! increase! its! energy! security! for! both!electricity!and!gas.!Without!going!into!detail,!EU!leaders!agreed!to!implement!critical!projects!

of! common! interest! in! the! gas! sector,! such! as! the! NorthASouth! corridor,! the! Southern! Gas!Corridor,!and!the!promotion!of!a!new!gas!hub!in!Southern!Europe.!Also!mentioned!were!key!

infrastructure! projects! enhancing! Finland's! and! the! Baltic! States'! energy! security.! These!

countries! were! singled! out! as! the!most! vulnerable! in! the! case! of! a! complete! disruption! of!Russian! gas! supplies.! The! Commission! was! also! tasked! to! set! up! task! forces! on! specific!

interconnectors!with!member!states!for!the!purpose!of!their!speedy!implementation.!Member!states!are!“encouraged”!to!provide!exAante!information!in!the!field!of!their!energy!agreements!

with!“third!countries”,!which!basically!means!Russia.!!

Monitoring#process#

The!European!Commission!will!monitor! progress! on! the! issue! and!will! report! on! financing!

possibilities.! The! Council! invited! the! executive! to!make! legislative! proposals! on! funding,! if!appropriate.! Asked! if! the! deal! represented! a! genuine! chance! of! attitude! from! the! French,!

Hollande! said! his! country! had! always! understood! where! Spain! and! Portugal! were! coming!

!

! 44!

from.!But!it!was!also!important!to!respect!environmental!law!he!said.!France!has!argued!the!

links!across!the!Pyrenees!could!violate!those!laws.!But!advances!in!technological! innovation!in!the!coming!years!would!minimise!that,!Hollande!said.!

!

8.&The&Washington&Post&&&3&ways&the&Fukushima&nuclear&disaster&is&still&having&an&impact&today&

Four!years!ago,! after!a!devastating! tsunami! left!18,000! Japanese!dead,! Japan! faced!another,!

potentially!bigger,!catastrophe:!300,000!people!had!to!be!evacuated!as!several!reactors!of!the!

Fukushima!Daiichi!nuclear!power!plant!started!to!melt!down!on!March!11,!2011.!In!2015,!has!the! world! forgotten! the! threat! that! was! posed! by! Fukushima?! Here! are! three! ways! the!

disaster!is!still!having!an!impact!today.!

The#Fukushima#disaster#itself#is#far#from#being#over#

Although! about! 6,000! employees! have! returned! to! the! Daiichi! power! plant! to! work! there!daily,! its! ruins! still! pose! a! significant! threat.! Nuclear! radiation! remains! dangerous! in! and!

around! the! destroyed! reactors.! Villages! in! its! proximity! will! remain! a! noAgo! zone! for!

inhabitants! for!an!unpredictably! long! time.!The!nuclear!power!plant! itself! is! far! from!being!secured:! Its! owner! TEPCO! has! so! far! been! unable! to! remove! hundreds! of! fuel! rods! stored!

nearby!because! the!2011!earthquake!destabilized!or!destroyed! large!parts!of! the!buildings.!

Furthermore,! radiation! continues! to! contaminate! underground! water.! Despite! the!contamination! of! large! swaths! of! land,! agricultural! products! and! water! resources,! Japan's!

government!remains!convinced!that!nuclear!energy!will!be!an!inevitable!energy!source!for!the!country!in!the!future.!According!to!some!surveys,!70!percent!of!Japan's!population!opposed!a!

reliance! on! nuclear! energy.! However,! the! Japanese! government! under! the! leadership! of!

Shinzō!Abe!has!decided!to!restart!many!of!the!country's!troubled!nuclear!power!plants.!In!the!wake!of!the!catastrophe!and!the!shutdown!of!several!power!plants,!power!outages!had!forced!

the! nation! to! slow! down! its! economic! output.! Four! years! later,! the! Japanese! government!

seems! to! have! put! economic! growth! above! nuclear! safety:! The! country's! GDP! growth! rate!remains!low,!with!some!analysts!calling!it!"underwhelming!at!best,"!according!to!CNBC.!Abe!

won!a!majority!in!last!December's!general!elections,!despite!his!declared!goal!to!continue!to!rely!on!nuclear!energy! to! fuel! the!economy.!Before!2011,!nuclear!energy!had!accounted! for!

about!a!third!of!Japan's!energy!supply.!

Fukushima#has#provided#opponents#of#nuclear#power#with#strong#arguments#

Industrialized!countries!such!as!the!United!States!or!France!have!seen!consistently!high!levels!

of!support!for!nuclear!energy.!However,!in!other!countries!its!growth!has!drawn!skepticism.!As!The!Post's!Tim!Craig!reported!last!week,!Pakistan!is!constructing!a!nuclear!power!plant!in!

an!area!vulnerable!to!tsunamis!near!Karachi!—!a!city!with!about!20!million!inhabitants.!If!one!of! the!plant's!reactors!were!to!melt!down,! large!parts!of! the!city!would!be!directly!affected.!

India! also! opened! a! nuclear! power! plant! in! Koodankulam! in! 2013,! a! facility! that! is! also!

potentially! threatened! by! tsunamis.! The! opposition! of! citizens! against! such! plans! seems! to!have!proliferated,!amid!the!catastrophic!repercussions!of!Fukushima,!according!to!a!report!by!

German!broadcaster!ARD.!So,!why!do!many!countries!keep!pushing!nuclear!energy?!The!most!

!

! 45!

important! reason! is! its! cheap! and! reliable! production.! Nuclear! power! plants! also! do! not!

immediately! pollute! the! environment!—! although! questions! have! arisen! over! the! safety! of!storage!sites!for!used!fuel!rods.!Hence,!nuclear!energy!can!help!developing!countries!to!keep!

up!with!a!rapid!rise!in!energy!demand,!whereas!the!likelihood!of!a!nuclear!disaster!appears!to!

be! low.!However,! at! least! in! one! case! the! Fukushima!disaster! has! led! to! a!major! decline! in!nuclear!energy.!

Germany#has#decided#to#abandon#nuclear#energy#

Only!days!after!the!nuclear!meltdown!in!Fukushima,!it!became!clear!that!the!most!longAlasting!

policy! repercussions!may!not! emerge! in! Japan,! but! far! away! in! Europe.! German!Chancellor!Angela!Merkel,!who!had!previously!defended!nuclear!energy,!rapidly!reversed!her!stance!and!

announced!that!Germany!would!gradually!turn!off!all!nuclear!power!plants!forever.!Nearly!60!

percent! of! Germans! said! in! a! 2011! survey! that! they! considered! it! plausible! that! a! similar!disaster!could!occur!in!their!own!region.!Eight!of!the!country's!17!nuclear!power!plants!were!

shut! down!within!days! after! the! Japanese! catastrophe.! Since! then,! the!German! government!has!worked!on!a! longAterm!strategy! to!make! it! independent! from!nuclear!energy!as!well!as!

coal! in! the! future.! Somehow!surprisingly,!most!Germans!were! skeptical! about! the!ability! to!

replace!nuclear!energy!and!coal!after!the!2011!disaster,!according!to!a!BBC!Globescan!survey.!Some!still! fear!that!abandoning!nuclear!energy!could!cause!a!rise!in!energy!prices!or!power!

outages,!but!support!for!Merkel's!decision!has!always!been!high.!

&9.&CNN&&&Iraq:&ISIS&fighters&close&Ramadi&dam&gates,&cut&off&water&to&loyalist&towns&

Baghdad,!Iraq!(CNN)ISIS!has!closed!off!a!dam!to!the!north!of!the!Iraqi!city!of!Ramadi!AA!seized!

by!its!forces!last!month!AA!cutting!water!supplies!to!proAgovernment!towns!downstream!and!

making!it!easier!for!its!fighters!to!attack!forces!loyal!to!Baghdad,!local!officials!and!residents!

said.!ISIS!militants!are!opening!only!two!or!three!of!the!dam's!26!gates!on!the!Euphrates!River!for!brief!periods!daily,!the!officials!and!residents!said.!The!head!of!the!security!council!in!the!

town!of!Khalidiyah,!Sheikh!Ibrahim!Khalaf!alAFahdawi,!and!two!residents!of!the!nearby!town!of!Habbaniya! told!CNN!on!Thursday! that! this!move!was! to!prevent!river!water!overflowing!

from!ISIS'!side!of!the!dam,!and!also!to!allow!some!water!to!flow!downstream!toward!ISISAheld!

Falluja.! They! added! that! the! level! of!water! in! the! Euphrates!was! now! low! enough! that! the!river!could!be!walked!across,!making!it!easier!for!ISIS!militants!to!cross!and!attack!the!proA

government! towns! of!Husaybah! and!Khalidiyah! as!well! as! the! large! security! forces! base! at!

Habbaniya.!The!banks!of! the!river!are!defended!by! the!Hashd!alAShaabi!paramilitary! forces,!the!same!sources!said,!the!majority!from!the!IraqAbased!Kataeb!Hezbollah!branch.!

Families#flee#conflict#

Iraq's!Federal!Police!announced!late!Thursday!that!800!fighters!from!its!elite!force!have!been!

deployed! to! reinforce! troops! in! Anbar! in! their! operations! against! ISIS.! The! fighters! have!trained! in! sniping,! urban! fighting,! dealing! with! suicide! car! bomb! attacks! and! storming!

fortified!barracks.!The!800!will!be!assigned!to!special!combat!missions!against!ISIS!in!Ramadi!

and!other!areas,!a!statement!from!the!Iraqi!Interior!Ministry!said.!But!residents!of!the!towns!of!Habbaniya,!Husaybah!and!Khalidiyah!continue!to!flee,!fearing!an!ISIS!assault,!according!to!

!

! 46!

officials! and! residents.!Two! residents! said!300! families!had! fled!as! far!north!as! Irbil,! in! the!

KurdishAcontrolled!area!of! Iraq.!There!are!conflicting!reports!as! to!how!many! families!have!fled!Habbaniya!and!surrounding!villages! to! take!refuge! in! the! town!of!Amiriyat!alAFalluja! in!

recent!days,!but!officials! suggest! they!number!at! least! in! the!dozens.!ProAgovernment! tribal!

militias! are! dug! in! there! but! under! frequent! mortar! attack! from! ISIS,! according! to! Iraqi!sources.!A!senior!security!official!told!CNN!the!level!of!the!Euphrates!River!had!dropped!by!1!

meter!(more!than!3!feet)!near!Amiriyat!alAFalluja.!Last!week,!the!Iraqi!government!announced!a!major!operation!by!Iraqi!forces!and!the!Hashd!alAShaabi!paramilitary!forces!to!retake!Anbar!

province.! Ramadi! is! the! capital! of! the! province.! Sectarian! tensions! are! high! over! the! fall! of!

Ramadi.! Some! critics! of! the! often! proAShia! Baghdad! government! suggested! the! regime!was!reluctant! to! arm! Sunni! tribes! against! ISIS! as! it! mistrusts! them! but! also! reluctant! to! send!

adequate!reinforcements!to!fight!for!a!predominantly!Sunni!area.!

Humanitarian#crisis#looms#

The! United! Nations!warned! Thursday! that! a! lack! of! funding! threatens! vital! aid! operations!supporting!more!than!8!million!people!affected!by!the!conflict!in!Iraq.!The!U.N.!humanitarian!

coordinator! for! Iraq,! Lise!Grande,! said! the! aid! operation!was! hanging! by! a! thread! and! that!

catastrophe! looms! if!donors!do!not! immediately!make! funds!available.! "The!crisis! in! Iraq! is!one! of! the! most! complex! and! volatile! anywhere! in! the! world,"! she! said! in! a! statement.!

"Humanitarian!partners!have!been!doing!everything!they!can!to!help.!But!more!than!50%!of!

the!operation!will!be!shut!down!or!cut!back!if!money!is!not!received!immediately."!

&10.&The&Red&Cross&&&Defending&albinos’&rights&to&life&

Superstition!has!led!to!the!killing!of!more!than!60!albinos!in!Burundi!and!Tanzania.!The!Red!

Cross!Red!Crescent!is!backing!government!efforts!to!protect!them,!and!defends!their!right!to!a!

life! in!dignity.!As! the! trial!of!11!Burundians!accused!of! involvement! in! the!killing!of!albinos!and!the!selling!of!their!body!parts!continues!in!Ruyigi,!the!Red!Cross!Red!Crescent!has!made!

the!protection!of!the!most!vulnerable!and!promotion!of!respect!for!humanitarian!values!like!nonAdiscrimination!and!respect!for!diversity!its!highest!priority.!More!than!60!lives!were!lost!

in! a! recent! spate! of! albino!killings! in!Eastern!Africa.! “The!killings! of! albinos!must! stop! and!

their!dignity! restored,”! says!Anseleme!Katyunguruza,! Secretary!General!of! the!Burundi!Red!Cross,! which! is! providing! humanitarian! aid! to! 48! albino! children! and! adults! sheltered! by!

authorities!in!the!township!of!Ruyigi.!At!least!12!albinos!have!been!murdered!in!Burundi!and!

50! in! Tanzania! during! the! past! few!months.! Although! some! 200! people!were! arrested! last!year! on! suspicion! of! murder! in! Tanzania,! none! have! been! convicted.! In! Burundi! last!

November,!however,!two!men!were!jailed!for!life!for!killing!albinos.!

Greed,#superstition#and#murder#

Katyunguruza!talks!about!a!“phenomenon!of!albino!hunting”!that!started!in!August!last!year.!The!demand!came!from!neighbouring!Tanzania!and!is!closely!linked!to!the!economic!boom!in!

the!fishing!and!gold!mining!industries!along!the!shores!of!the!Lake!Victoria.!This!has!turned!

into!a!deadly!business,!with!killers!reportedly!being!paid!between!200!and!5,000!US!dollars!for!their!crime.“In!search!for!profit,!witch!doctors!revived!an!old!superstition!that!the!limbs!

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and! genitals! of! an! albino! can! bring! quicker! and! better! results! to! one’s! enterprise.!We! are!

condemning!and!fighting!this!horrible!form!of!discrimination,”!he!adds.!Red!Cross!volunteers!have! been! helping! the! bereaved! families!with! the! burials! of! the!mutilated! bodies! of! family!

members.!Things!are!so!serious!that!volunteers!often!have!to!pour!concrete!over!the!tombs!to!

prevent! albino! corpses! from! being! exhumed! at! night! by! people! in! search! of! the! 'magical!organs'.#

Family#betrayal!

Many!volunteers!have!taken!the!risk!of!sheltering!in!their!own!houses!people!with!albinism,!

some! of! whom! have! even! been! threatened! by! members! of! their! own! families.! Red! Cross!volunteers! are! driven! by! a! firm! commitment! to! respect! human! dignity! and! protect! people!

from!suffering!and!violence.!The!Red!Cross!strongly!believes! that!all!humans!are!equal!and!

are!not!to!be!discriminated!on!the!basis!of!criteria!such!as!race,!gender!or!living!with!albinism.!“We!are!two!albinos!in!our!family!A!my!younger!brother!and!I.!One!day!our!older!brother!came!

back! from! Tanzania! with! strangers.! At! nightfall,! they! hovered! around! our! house! as! they!watched!us.!Then! they!caught!my!brother!and!killed!him,”!one!albino!child,!on! the!verge!of!

tears,!told!a!Burundi!Red!Cross!volunteer.!His!dead!brother’s!body!parts!were!then!sold!off!for!

300,000! Burundian! francs! (about! 250! US! dollars).! “We! alerted! the! police,! even! though!we!were! threatened.!The!authorities!arrested! [our!older!brother]!but,! for! some!reason,!he!was!

released!shortly!after.!Now!he!is!in!hiding!in!Tanzania,”!he!added.!The!areas!worst!affected!are!

the! communes! of! Bweru,! Nyabitsinda,! Kinyinya,! Gisuru,! Butaganzwa! around! the! town! of!Ruyigi,! not! far! from! the!Tanzanian!border.!The!killings!occur! regularly! in!Tanzania! as!well.!

The!body!parts! are! at!high!demand!among!miners! and! fisherman!around! the!Lake!Victoria!regions!of!Mwanza,!Shinyanga,!Kigoma!and!Mara.!

Red#Cross#protection#and#assistance#

Authorities! in! both! countries! have! offered! protection! to! dozens! of! albinos! in! shelters!

safeguarded!constantly!by! the!police.! In!Ruyigi,! there! is! tight! security!at! the!shelters!where!

the!Red!Cross!is!distributing!food,!digging!latrines!and!providing!other!essential!services.!“We!have!collected!money!and!take!turns! to!visit!our!(albino)! fellow!Burundians.!We!bring!beer!

and! share! it!with! them! since! this! is! sign! of! acceptance! and! solidarity,”! says! one! volunteer,!adding!that!the!Red!Cross!also!encourages!communities!to!help!vulnerable!albinos!returning!

home!by!reconstructing!houses!and!labouring!their!fields.!Activities!encouraging!respect!for!

humanitarian!principles!and!values!have!intensified!in!communities!across!the!affected!areas.!Further!assistance!includes!advocacy!with!local!authorities!in!order!to!sensitize!them!to!the!

plight! of! the! albino.! Schools! have! also! been! approached! to! ensure! that! albino! children! can!

continue!their!studies!in!the!town!of!Ruyigi!and!the!town’s!hospital!has!been!asked!to!allow!free!of!charge!medical!care!for!albino!people!in!need.!Across!the!border,!the!Kabanga!public!

school!for!the!disabled,!near!the!town!of!Kigoma,!on!the!shores!of!Lake!Tanganyika,!provides!refuge!for!some!50!Tanzanian!albino!children!youngsters!and!single!mothers.!Many!have!just!

escaped!their!villages!with!their!lives!and!tell!harrowing!stories!of!killing!and!mutilation.!One!

small! boy! talks! about! his! nonAalbino!mother’s! hand!was! severed! by! albino! hunters! armed!with!machetes!after!she!tried!to!prevent!them!seizing!him.!The!school!has!now!completely!run!

out!of!space,!but!vulnerable!albinos!are!still!being!brought!in!by!the!police!from!as!far!as!200!kilometres!away.!The!Tanzanian!Red!Cross!has!been!able!to!provide!sunblock!cream!as!well!

as! blankets,! mosquito! nets,! soap! and! mattresses! left! over! from! its! programme! to! assist!

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Burundian! and!Congolese! refugees! in! camps!nearby,! including! personal! contributions! from!

volunteers.!

Changing#minds,#saving#lives#

While!eagerly!waiting! to!hear!about! the!outcome!of! the!Ruyigi! trial,! some!displaced!people!with!albinism!are!already!thinking!of!returning!to!their!villages.!When!the!time!is!right,!Red!

Cross! volunteers! will! accompany! them! every! step! of! the! way! and! ensure! that! additional!

discussions! aimed! at! stemming! discrimination! are! being! organized.! A! series! of! training!sessions! focusing! on! the! reintegration! of! albinos! into! their! communities! has! already! taken!

place! and! volunteers! have! tested! not! only! the! acceptance! but! also! the! readiness! of!communities! to! protect! those! who! decide! to! return.! “The! results! were! satisfactory! but!

communities!remain!divided!over!the! issue,”!says!Evariste!Nhimirimana!of! the!Burundi!Red!

Cross.! “We!need! to! continue!our!work!…!we! cannot! expect! that! superstitions!will! be! easily!eradicated.”!The!Red!Cross!plans!to!use!cultural!gatherings!to!explain!to!the!most!suspicious!

that! there! is! nothing! supernatural! about! albinism;! that! in! fact! it! is! a! health! condition! that!cannot! entirely! be! treated.! Focusing! on! dropping! bias,! critical! thinking! and! nonAviolent!

communication! will! be! key! to! influence! behavioural! change! in! the! community.!

Nshimirimana’s! concerns!are!echoed!by!his!Tanzanian!colleague! Julius!Kejo,!who!says:! “We!need!to!change!minds!in!order!to!save!lives.”!

Case#study:#Claiming#back#dignity#

In!Tanzania’s!Pwani!village,!one!man!with!albinism!is!making!history.!Driven!by!a!passion!to!

help!disabled!people! in!his! society,!Hamis!Ngomella! took!on! special! education! training! in!a!college!and!graduated!as!a!teacher!of!children!with!special!needs.!He!is!among!the!few!in!his!

village!to!make!it! to!college.!Hamis! is! the!chairman!of!the!albino!association!and!represents!

the!Red!Cross! in! a! regional! disaster!management! committee.! The!40AyearAold! is! one! of! the!170,000!people!living!with!albinism!in!Tanzania.!But!Hamis!refuses!to!live!in!fear.!The!second!

born!in!a!family!of!three,!he!is!the!only!albino,!and!feels!lucky!to!be!accepted!and!loved!by!his!

parents!and!siblings.!“When!I!was!born,!my!mother!tells!me!that!the!traditional!midwife!made!a!grimace!when!she!saw!me.!No!one!welcomed!the!arrival!of!a!strange!baby.!But!my!mother!

protected! and! kept! me,”! he! says.! Hamis! faced! constant! discrimination! throughout! his!childhood:!society!didn’t!accept!him!and!schoolmates!called!him!names!like!“Mzungu”!which!

means!“white!man”! in!Swahili.!Some!people!even!suspected!his!mother!of!having!slept!with!

white!people,!as! if! this!was!a!shame.!“Disability! is!simply!our!own!invention!A! the!hardship,!things!difficult!to!understand.!Is!a!socioApolitical!issue!rather!than!a!matter!of!health,”!Hamis!

told!his!colleague!Stella!Marialle.!“We!need!to!claim!back!our!dignity,”!he!says.!

#

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