multiphoton dissociation dynamics of brcl and the brcl cation · multiphoton dissociation dynamics...
TRANSCRIPT
Multiphoton dissociation dynamics of BrCl and the BrCl1cation
Olivier P. J. Vieuxmaire,w N. Hendrik Nahler,z Richard N. Dixon and
Michael N. R. Ashfold*
Received 19th June 2007, Accepted 27th July 2007
First published as an Advance Article on the web 30th August 2007
DOI: 10.1039/b709222a
Ion imaging methods have enabled identification of three mechanisms by which 79Br1 and 35Cl1
fragment ions are formed following one-color multiphoton excitation of BrCl molecules in the
wavelength range 324.6 4 l 4 311.7 nm. Two-photon excitation within this range populates
selected vibrational levels (v0 ¼ 0–5) of the [X 2P1/2]5ss Rydberg state. Absorption of a third
photon results in branching between (i) photoionization (i.e. removal of the Rydberg electron—
a traditional 2 þ 1 REMPI process) and (ii) p* ’ p excitation within the core, resulting in
formation of one or more super-excited states with O ¼ 1 and configuration [A 2P1/2]5ss. Thefate of the latter states involves a further branching. They can autoionize (yielding BrCl1(X 2P)
ions in a wider range of v1 states than formed by direct 2 þ 1 REMPI). Further, one-photon
absorption by the parent ions resulting from direct ionization or autoionization leads to
formation of Br1 and (energy permitting) Cl1 fragment ions. Alternatively, the super-excited
molecules can fragment to neutral atoms, one of which is in a Rydberg state. Complementary ab
initio calculations lead to the conclusion that the observed [Cl**[3PJ]4s þ Br/Br*] products result
from direct dissociation of the photo-prepared super-excited states, whereas [Br**[3PJ]5p þCl/Cl*] product formation involves interaction between the [A 2P1/2]5ss and [X 2P1/2]5psRydberg potentials at extended Br–Cl bond lengths. Absorption of one further photon by the
resulting Br** and Cl** Rydberg atoms leads to their ionization, and thus their appearance in the
Br1 and Cl1 fragment ion images.
1. Introduction
The potential of velocity map imaging methods for high
resolution studies of the photodissociation dynamics of neu-
tral molecules is becoming ever more widely recognized,1–4 but
the application of these methods to studies of molecular
cations remains relatively rare. Examples include our own
detailed studies of the photofragmentation of vibrational
and spin–orbit state-selected Brþ2 ,5,6 BrCl1,7,8 and DCl19
cations, investigations of OCS1 photofragmentation by Liu
and coworkers,10 of the photolysis of C2H41 by Suits’ group11
and of CF3I1 by Aguirre and Pratt.12
The present paper describes detailed investigations of the
speed and angular distributions of the Br1 and Cl1 products
formed following one-color multiphoton excitation of BrCl;
the ensuing analysis will serve to highlight the rich variety of
fragment ion formation mechanisms. The parent excitation
wavelengths were chosen so as to be two photon resonant with
successive vibrational levels of the first (n ¼ 5) member of the
nss ’ 6p Rydberg series of BrCl. This Rydberg excitation
takes the form of two short vibronic progressions, separated
by the spin–orbit splitting of the 2P ion core (B2070 cm�1). It
proves convenient to persist with the previously introduced
labelling scheme for these progressions, viz. a5(v0, 0)
(i.e. [2P3/2]5ss, v0 ’ X1S1, v00 ¼ 0) and b5(v0, 0) ([2P1/2]5ss,
v0 ’ X 1S1, v00 ¼ 0).13 In the case of the b5(v0) levels, the
requisite photon energies are such that absorption of just one
further photon enables parent ion formation via a process
that conserves both the vibrational (v) and core spin–orbit
(O) quantum numbers of the resonance enhancing level.
Only in the case of the b5(v0 ¼ 0) level (populated via the
b5(0, 0) transition), however, does such a 2 þ 1 resonance
enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) process give a
significant parent ion yield.7,8 Br1 and/or Cl1 fragment ions
dominate the ion yields measured at all other wavelengths.
One of the goals of the current paper is to rationalize this
observation.
Such a dominance of fragment (rather than parent) ions
following one-color REMPI of diatomic molecules is not
without precedent. Related observations have been reported
for the cases of H2,14,15 NO,16,17 O2
18 and Cl2,19,20 and a range
of fragment ion formation mechanisms proposed. These in-
clude: (i) dissociation of super-excited states of the parent
molecule (formed, in the present case, at the energy of three
absorbed photons), followed by photoionization of one of the
resulting neutral fragments; (ii) photodissociation of the par-
ent ions that are formed by autoionization of such super-
excited states; and (iii) (generally unintended) photodissocia-
tion of parent ions formed by the direct REMPI process.
These various routes to forming fragment ions are illustrated
in Fig. 1, to aid the ensuing discussion. [Note that in our
School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK BS8 1TS.E-mail: [email protected]; Fax: (117)-9250612; Tel: (117)-9288312/3w Lehrstuhl fur Theoretische Chemie, Technische UniversitatMunchen, Lichtenbergstraße 4, D-85747 Garching, Germany.z Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Califor-nia Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007 Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 | 5531
PAPER www.rsc.org/pccp | Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
previous imaging studies of the fragmentation of state-selected
BrCl1 cations,7,8 a second (independently tunable) laser pulse
was introduced, deliberately, in order to enable detailed
investigation of process (iii).] Fig. 1 also serves to illustrate
the rich variety of possible product combinations. Four-
photon absorption, resonance enhanced at the two photon
energy by the various b5(v0) levels of BrCl, provides sufficient
energy to form Br1 fragment ions in all of their 3PJ spin–orbit
states and in the 1D2 excited state. Four-photon excitation via
the b5(v0 ¼ 0) level provides only enough energy to form
ground state Cl1(3P2) fragment ions, but all three 3PJ states of
Cl1 are energetically allowed when exciting via the higher
b5(v0) levels. Additional richness is provided by the fact that
the neutral co-fragments (Cl or Br) each have 2P ground states.
In most cases, the energy provided by absorption of four
photons will be sufficient that these can also be formed in
either spin–orbit state.
The present imaging studies reveal that each of pathways
(i)–(iii) contribute to the fragment ion images observed
following multiphoton excitation of BrCl, but to differing
extents in the Cl1 and Br1 forming channels. Analogies are
noted with previously reported multiphoton imaging studies
of Cl2, resonance enhanced at the two photon energy by low
v0 vibrational levels of its first ([2Pg]4ss) Rydberg state.20
We also see that certain of the velocity sub-groups evident
within the Cl1 and Br1 fragment ion images obtained follow-
ing excitation via the b5(v0) levels of BrCl exhibit unusually
modulated angular distributions. Such recoil anisotropies
are shown to be characteristic of three-photon excitation
to, and dissociation of, super-excited states, with subsequent
one-photon ionization enabling detection of the Rydberg
atoms that result.21 Given the ground state symmetry
(1S1), and that of the predissociated state providing re-
sonance enhancement at the two photon energy (1P), the
observed angular anisotropy allows determination of the
symmetry of the super-excited state (O ¼ 1, most probably1P) populated en route to these particular products. This,
in turn, provides clues as to the electronic promotion(s)
leading to formation of these super-excited state(s), and the
mechanisms of their subsequent fragmentation. The study
serves to provide a particularly clear illustration of both the
advantages, and of the potential complications, associated
with the use of REMPI as a means of preparing state-selected
molecular ions.
2. Experimental method and ab initio calculations
The velocity map ion imaging experiment in Bristol has been
described previously.7,8,22 A skimmed, pulsed molecular beam
containing BrCl (in a Br2/Cl2 mixture) seeded in Ar was directed
at the centre of the detector (i.e. along the z axis). The skimmed
beam was crossed at right angles by the frequency doubled
output of a pulsed dye laser (Spectra-Physics GCR-250 Nd-
YAG laser plus Sirah Cobra Stretch dye laser, yielding an
output bandwidth o0.1 cm�1 in the visible) which propagated
along the x axis and was focused into the interaction volume
with a 20 cm focal length plano-convex lens. Ultraviolet (UV)
excitation frequencies were chosen so as to be resonant, at the
two-photon energy, with the b5(v0 ¼ 0–5) levels of BrCl;
wavelengths (in air) and the corresponding vacuum wavenum-
bers were measured using a wavemeter (Coherent, Wave-
Master). The polarisation vector, e, of the UV radiation was
usually arranged to be perpendicular to the molecular beam axis
and parallel to the front face of the detector (i.e. e // y), but the
radiation could also be circularly polarized by application of an
appropriate voltage to a Pockel’s cell inserted in the UV beam
path. Excitation via the b5(v0 ¼ 3) level was investigated using
both linearly and circularly polarized radiation. The resulting
ions were extracted, along z, under velocity map imaging
conditions. The ion cloud impinged on the front face of a
position sensitive detector (a pair of microchannel plates and a
phosphor screen) mounted 860 mm downstream from the
interaction volume. This was read out by a CCD camera
equipped with a fast intensifier (Photonic Science) that was
gated to the time-of-flight (TOF) appropriate for 79Br1 or35Cl1 ions. Each ion image resulting from a single laser shot
was processed with an event counting, centroiding algorithm
provided with the commercial camera software DaVis
(LaVision) running on a PC, and the resulting counts
accumulated for, typically, 104 laser shots. The accumulated
fragment ion images were analysed by reconstructing the
3-D velocity distribution as described previously23 using
an algorithm based on the filtered back projection method of
Sato et al.24
High-level ab initio calculations for the various singlet
valence and Rydberg states of BrCl deemed most relevant to
the current investigation were performed using the MOLPRO
2002 electronic structure package.25 As in our previous studies
on BrCl1,8 these calculations were carried out in the abelian
C2n sub-group of the full CNn point group at the
CASSCF/MRCI level. The extended molecular orbitals of
the Rydberg states required use of the aug-cc-pVTZ basis
set.26,27 The active space consisted of 14 electrons occupying
the usual valence orbitals, (10s)(11s)(12s)(5p)(6p)(13s), towhich 2 extra s orbitals were added in order to describe the
lowest Rydberg orbitals of interest.
Fig. 1 Illustration of the various fragmentation pathways for form-
ing atomic ions following one-color multiphoton excitation of jet-
cooled BrCl molecules, resonance enhanced at the two-photon energy
by the b5(v0 ¼ 0–5) levels.
5532 | Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007
3. Results
3.135Cl
1fragment imaging
35Cl1 ion images were recorded at six different wavelengths,
chosen to be resonant (at the two photon energy) with the
b5(v0 ¼ 0–5, v00 ¼ 0) transitions. Fig. 2 shows an illustrative
image, obtained following excitation via the b5(3, 0) transition
(~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1). Cl1 velocity distributions were obtained
by integrating the reconstructed 3-D speed distribution over
all angles. These were then converted into total kinetic energy
release (TKER) distributions, assuming an (isotope averaged)
mass mBr ¼ 79.904 amu for the neutral partner fragment. Also
shown in Fig. 2 are the TKER distributions derived from such
images for the Cl1 þ Br products formed when exciting at
~n ¼ 30 807.0, 31 066.4, 31 318.5, 31 568.4, 31 818.3 cm�1 and
32 075.3 cm�1, i.e. via the b5(v0 ¼ 0–5) levels. All of the major
features evident in these spectra can be assigned in terms of
dissociation mechanisms (i) and (iii). These are now consid-
ered in turn.
3.1.1 Dissociation of super-excited states. Super-excited
states are here defined as electronically excited states of the
neutral molecule lying at energies above the ionization poten-
tial of BrCl. As discussed more fully below, generation of the
super-excited states relevant to the present work is best
envisaged in terms of two-photon excitation to the
[2P1/2]5ss Rydberg state, followed by a further one-photon
p* ’ p excitation within the 2P1/2 core.
In the case of 35Cl1 images formed by absorbing three
photons of wavenumber ~n, the TKER (in cm�1) associated
with any given products from dissociation of a super-excited
state will be given by the energy conserving relation:
TKER ¼ 3~n �D0ðBr�ClÞ � EðCl��Þ � EðBr=Br�Þ; ð1Þ
where D0(Br�Cl) is the dissociation energy of BrCl [18 027
cm�1 (ref. 28)]. Table 1 lists TKERs (in cm�1) calculated for
all combinations of [Br þ Cl**] and [Br* þ Cl**] products for
which TKER 4 0 at the various 3~n energies used here, i.e.
combinations for which
3~n �D0ðBr�ClÞ4EðCl��Þ þ EðBr=Br�Þ: ð2Þ
Cl** denotes a Rydberg state of atomic chlorine, with term
value E(Cl**),29 that can be ionized by absorption of one
further photon with wavenumber ~n. All Cl** states identified
in the present study have electronic configuration
[Ne]3s23p4(3P)4s1. Energy conservation requires that the part-
ner bromine atom is formed in its ground (2P3/2, henceforth
Br) or spin–orbit excited (2P1/2, Br*) state. The TKER spectra
in Fig. 2 have been arranged so that a given [Br/Br* þ Cl**]
product channel aligns vertically; assignments of the various
active channels are indicated above the uppermost TKER
spectrum.
3.1.2 Dissociation of BrCl1 molecular ions. The hetero-
nuclear BrCl1 cation can dissociate via either channel (3) or
(4), yielding distinguishable cation products:
BrCl þ þ hn ! Br þ þ Cl ð3Þ
! Brþ Cl þ: ð4Þ
Our previous multiphoton imaging studies of BrCl focused on
Br1 product formation.7,8 Since the ionization potential (IP)
of Cl (104 591 cm�1) is greater than that of Br (95 284.8
cm�1),29 process (4) requires use of shorter photon wave-
lengths than are needed for products (3). The TKERs
(in cm�1) associated with Cl1 ion formation following
one-photon dissociation of BrCl1 at an excitation wavenum-
ber ~n are given by:
TKER ¼ ~n �DiðBr þ � ClÞ � EðCl þÞ � EðBr=Br�Þ � 9306:2
ð5Þ
Fig. 2 Cl1 ion image obtained following excitation via the b5(3, 0)
transition (~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1) of BrCl with e aligned vertically (double
headed white arrow), together with TKER distributions of the Cl1 þBr/Br* fragments derived from images such as that shown in (a)
following excitation via b5(v0) levels with v0 ¼ 0 (~n ¼ 30 807.0 cm�1),
1 (~n ¼ 31 066.4 cm�1), 2 (~n ¼ 31 318.5 cm�1), 3 (~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1), 4
(~n ¼ 31 818.3 cm�1) and 5 (~n ¼ 32 075.3 cm�1). The TKER spectra are
plotted on a common dispersion and positioned so that a given
product channel aligns vertically, but the o2000 cm�1 part of the
v0 ¼ 4 spectrum is plotted on a �3 expanded vertical scale. Assign-
ments of the various [Cl** þ Br/Br*] product channels are indicated
by the comb festooned above the spectra. Selected peaks at low TKER
due to one photon dissociation of BrCl1(2P1/2, v1) parent ions
yielding [Cl1(3PJ) þ Br(2P3/2)] fragments are indicated by their asso-
ciated (v1: J) values on the relevant spectra.
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where Di(Br1–Cl) is the dissociation energy for a BrCl1
molecular ion with internal (spin–orbit and/or vibrational)
energy Ei dissociating via channel (3), E(Cl1) and E(Br) are the
term values of the Cl1 and Br fragments, respectively, and
9306.2 cm�1 is the difference in the threshold energies for
fragmentations (3) and (4). To form Cl1 ions via process (4),
the photon wavenumber must thus satisfy the condition:
~n � DiðBrþ�ClÞ þ 9306:2: ð6Þ
The wavenumber of the photon used to induce BrCl1 dis-
sociation in the present one-color experiments is dictated by
the energy of the state of neutral BrCl resonant at the two
photon energy. Given the propensity for preserving both the
vibrational and core spin–orbit quantum numbers during the
third photon ionization step, it follows that ~n in eqn (6) will be
correlated with Ei and thus Di. From the six excitation
wavenumbers used here, the lowest ~n for which we should
expect 35Cl1 fragment ion formation via dissociation of the
Table 1 List of energetically accessible dissociation channels from super-excited states of BrCl following absorption of three photons withwavenumber ~n. Br/Br* and Cl/Cl* represent atoms with ground state electronic configurations in, respectively, their ground (2P3/2) and spin–orbitexcited (2P1/2) states. Br** and Cl** indicate Rydberg states, with configurations � � �4s24p4[2S11LJ]5s
1 or � � �4s24p4[2S11LJ]5p1, and
� � �3s23p4[2S11LJ]4s1, respectively. For compactness, only the term symbol of the core and the outer electron are listed in the first two columns.
Columns 3–5 give the term values of the respective atomic products, and their sum. Bold characters indicate all those product combinations thatare accessible, energetically, following absorption of three ~n photons, i.e. which satisfy the inequality shown in eqn (2) using the particularresonance enhancing b5(v
0, 0) transition indicated in column 6. Fragmentation channels observed as being open in the present work are shown inbold font
Br term Cl term E(Br)/cm�1 E(Cl)/cm�1 E(total)/cm�1 b5(v0, 0) 3~n � D0(Br � Cl)/cm�1
Br Cl 0 0 0Br Cl* 0 882.4 882.4Br* Cl 3685.2 0 3685.2Br* Cl* 3685.2 882.4 4567.6[3P2]5s;
4P5/2 Cl 63 436.5 0 63 436.5[3P2]5s;
4P5/2 Cl* 63 436.5 882.4 64 318.8[3P2]5s;
4P3/2 Cl 64 907.2 0 64 907.2[3P2]5s;
4P3/2 Cl* 64 907.2 882.4 65 789.5Br1(3P2) Cl�(1S0) 95 284.2 �29 151.9 66 132.3[3P1]5s;
4P1/2 Cl 66 883.9 0 66 883.9[3P1]5s;
4P1/2 Cl* 66 883.9 882.4 67 766.2[3P1]5s;
2P3/2 Cl 67 183.6 0 67 183.6[3P1]5s;
2P3/2 Cl* 67 183.6 882.4 68 065.9(3P0)5s;
2P1/2 Cl 68 970.2 0 68 970.2Br1(3P1) Cl�(1S0) 98 420.6 �29 151.9 69 268.7(3P0)5s;
2P1/2 Cl* 68 970.2 882.4 69 852.6Br1(3P0) Cl�(1S0) 99 121.7 �29 151.9 69 969.8Br [3P]4s; 4P5/2 0 71 958.4 71 958.4Br [3P]4s; 4P3/2 0 72 488.6 72 488.6Br [3P]4s; 4P1/2 0 72 827.0 72 827.0Br [3P]4s; 2P3/2 0 74 225.9 74 225.8 (0, 0) 74 394.0[3P2]5p;
4P5/2 Cl 74 672.3 0 74 672.3Br [3P]4s; 2P1/2 0 74 865.7 74 865.7[3P2]5p;
4P3/2 Cl 75 009.1 0 75 009.1 (1, 0) 75 169.5
[3P2]5p;
4D7/2 Cl 75 521.5 0 75 521.5
[3P2]5p;
4P5/2 Cl* 74 672.3 882.4 75 554.7
Br* [3P]4s; 4P5/2 3685.2 71 958.4 75 643.6[3P2]5p;
4D5/2 Cl 75 697.1 0 75 697.1[3P2]5p;
4P1/2 Cl 75 814.0 0 75 814.0[1D]5s; 2D5/2 Cl 75 890.3 0 75 890.3[3P2]5p;
4P3/2 Cl* 75 009.1 882.4 75 891.5 (2, 0) 75 907.2
[1D]5s; 2D3/2 Cl 75 908.5 0 75 908.5Br* [3P]4s; 4P3/2 3685.2 72 488.6 76 173.8[3P2]5p;
4D7/2 Cl* 75 521.5 882.4 76 403.9Br* [3P]4s; 4P1/2 3685.2 72 827.0 76 512.3[3P2]5p;
4D5/2 Cl* 75 697.1 882.4 76 579.4 (3, 0) 76 680.6[3P2]5p;
4P1/2 Cl* 75 814.0 882.4 76 696.4
[3P2]5p;
4D3/2 Cl 76 743.1 0 76 743.1
[1D]5s; 2D5/2 Cl* 75 890.3 882.4 76 772.7[1D]5s; 2D3/2 Cl* 75 908.5 882.4 76 790.9 (4, 0) 77 398.2Br�(1S0) Cl1(3P2) �27 129.0 104 590.2 77 461.2[3P2]5p;
4D3/2 Cl* 76 743.1 882.4 77 625.4Br* [
3P]4s;
2P3/2 3685.2 74 225.8 77 911.1
[3P1]5p;
2S1/2 Cl 78 076.0 0 78 076.0
Br�(1S0) Cl1(3P1) �27 129.0 105 286.2 78 157.2 (5, 0) 78 202.2Br1(1D2) Cl�(1S0) 107 373.3 �29 151.9 78 221.4Br�(1S0) Cl1(3P1) �27 129.0 105 586.7 78 457.7Br* [3P]4s; 2P1/2 3685.2 74 865.7 78 550.9[3P1]5p;
2S1/2 Cl* 78 076.0 882.4 78 958.4Br1(3P2) Cl(2P3/2) 95 284.2 0 95 284.2Br(2P3/2) Cl1(3P2) 0 104 590.2 104 590.2
5534 | Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007
REMPI-generated BrCl1 molecular ions is ~n ¼ 31 318.5 cm�1,
exciting the b5(2, 0) band and thus favoring formation of
BrCl1(2P1/2, v1 ¼ 2) parent ions.
Consistent with such expectations, the TKER distribution
measured at ~n ¼ 31 318.5 cm�1 shows two slow peaks at
TKER values that match none of those predicted for the
dissociation of the super-excited BrCl** molecules. These
peaks are assignable to Cl1(3P2) ions formed via dissociation
process (4), from BrCl1 cations in their 2P1/2, v1 ¼ 2 and v1 ¼
3 states, respectively, and are labeled as such in Fig. 2 using the
convention (v1: J). The peak-to-peak separation (485 cm�1) is
reasonable for successive v1 levels of BrCl1(X), matching well
with the reported spacing between v0 ¼ 2 and v0 ¼ 3 levels of
the resonance enhancing b5 Rydberg state (B500 cm�1, ref.
13). Four slow peaks are evident in the TKER spectrum
measured at ~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1 (b5(3, 0) transition). The more
intense peaks derive from ions with v1 ¼ 3 (as expected on
Franck–Condon grounds), and reveal formation of Cl1 ions in
both the ground (J ¼ 2) and first excited spin–orbit (J ¼ 1)
states, while the two weaker features are attributable to
formation of ground state products following dissociation
from 2P1/2 parent cations with v1 ¼ 4 and 2. Weak peaks
attributable to dissociation of 2P1/2 parent cations with v1 ¼ 4
and 3 were observed following excitation at ~n ¼ 31 818.3 cm�1
(b5(4, 0) transition), but no features attributable to parent ion
photolysis were identifiable in images recorded at ~n ¼ 32 075.3
cm�1 (b5(5, 0) transition).
No features attributable to Cl1 products from the photo-
dissociation of BrCl1(2P3/2) cations are identified, nor do we
see any peaks consistent with Cl1 þ Br� ion-pair formation.
3.1.3 Recoil angular anisotropy. As the illustrative image in
Fig. 2 shows, the various Cl1 product velocity sub-groups
exhibit anisotropic angular distributions, some of which show
an unusual degree of modulation. The angular distribution of
each well-resolved product channel in this and all other images
recorded with linearly polarized laser radiation were fitted in
terms of expression (7)
PðyÞ ¼ 1
4p1þ
Xn¼2;4;6
bnPnðcosyÞ" #
; ð7Þ
where y is the angle between the laser polarization and the
fragment recoil velocity vector, bn are anisotropy parameters
and Pn are nth order Legendre polynomials. Fig. 3 shows
angular distributions of 35Cl1 products arising in the multi-
photon excitation and dissociation of BrCl at ~n ¼ 31 568.3
cm�1 (b5(3, 0) transition). The distributions shown in Fig. 3a
and 3b are for Cl1 ions arising as a result of one photon
ionization of Cl**(2P3/2) fragments formed by three-photon
excitation to, and dissociation of, a super-excited state using
(a) linearly (i.e. as in the image shown in Fig. 2) and (b)
circularly polarized laser radiation. By energy conservation
arguments, the partner fragment is known to be a ground
(2P3/2) state Br atom. The former image, in particular, is
noteworthy, showing maximum intensity at y B 33 and 1471.
The product recoil anisotropy will be determined by three-
photon excitation to the super-excited state. In the language of
ref. 21, the b5(3, 0) transition is a two photon P ’’ S
excitation. The super-excited state(s) of BrCl populated at the
three-photon energy could thus have S,P or D symmetry. The
general forms of the recoil anisotropy observed under both
linear and circular excitations follow curves B in Fig. 4 and 5
of ref. 21, showing that the dissociating super-excited state(s)
populated at the three photon energy have P symmetry
(i.e. O ¼ 1). P(y) in such a case varies as sin2y cos4y (for
linearly polarized excitation), or sin4y (1 þ cos2y) when using
circularly polarized light. The best-fit values of the anisotropy
parameters (eqn (7)) used to fit the angular distributions in
Fig. 3a and 3b are, respectively: b2 ¼ 1.77 � 0.01, b4 ¼ �0.82� 0.01 and b6 ¼ �0.87 � 0.01, and b2 ¼ �1.15 � 0.07, b4 ¼
Fig. 3 Angular distributions of 35Cl1 products formed by multi-
photon excitation and dissociation of BrCl at ~n ¼ 31 568.3 cm�1
(b5(3, 0) transition). (a) and (b) are for Cl1 ions created by one photon
ionization of Cl**(2P3/2) atoms formed (along with Br(2P3/2) co-
fragments) by three-photon excitation to, and dissociation of, a
super-excited state using (a) linearly and (b) circularly polarized laser
radiation. (c) is for the Cl1(3P2) ions formed (together with Br(2P3/2)
co-products) by linearly polarized, one photon dissociation of
BrCl1(2P1/2, v1 ¼ 3) parent cations. The smooth curve through each
data set is the line of best-fit using eqn (7) and the bn values listed in
the text.
This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007 Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 | 5535
0.13 � 0.09 and b6 ¼ 0.05 � 0.10, where the quoted un-
certainties are 1s values from fitting the 101 r y r 1701 data
in terms of eqn (7) with n r 6. Similar recoil anisotropies,
characterized by a b2 4 þ1 and negative b4 and b6 values arefound for all Cl** þ Br(2PJ) products formed following
linearly polarized excitation via b5(v0, 0) transitions with
1 r v0 r 4. [Cl** þ Br(2PJ)] products formed when exciting
at the lowest and highest wavenumbers (resonant with the
b5(0, 0) and b5(5, 0) transitions) display recoil anisotropies
with b4 and b6 values closer to zero, however, and b2 values
close to þ1 and þ2, respectively.30 All show some deviation
from the limiting values calculated21 for such aP’P’’ Sexcitation; these almost certainly reflect the breakdown of one
or more of the assumptions implicit in deriving the limiting
anisotropy values. For example, the resonance enhancing
b5(v0) levels are predissociated (i.e. have a finite lifetime).
The b5(v0, 0) bands thus have a rotational contour and, as
shown by Dixon,21 the choice of ~n will determine the mix of J0
in the coherent superposition state created by the initial two-
photon absorption and the degree to which rotation degrades
their spatial anisotropy prior to absorption of the third
photon.
The angular distribution shown in Fig. 3c is for the
[Cl1(3P2) þ Br(2P3/2)] products from linearly polarized, one
photon dissociation of BrCl1(2P1/2, v1 ¼ 3) parent cations at
~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1 (the innermost bar one of the more intense
rings evident in the image shown in Fig. 2). The best-fit to this
distribution in terms of eqn (7) yields: b2 ¼ 1.65 � 0.01, b4 ¼�0.20 � 0.01 and b6 ¼ �0.11 � 0.01. Similar anisotropy
parameter values were measured for the [Cl1(3P1) þ Br(2P3/2)]
spin–orbit excited products arising in this same dissociation,
and for the [Cl1(3P2) þ Br(2P3/2)] products formed from
BrCl1(2P1/2, v1 ¼ 3) parent cations formed when exciting at
~n ¼ 31 318.5 cm�1. These anisotropy parameter values are
broadly reminiscent of those we have reported previously for
the case of Br1 fragments arising from photolysis of BrCl
(X 2P1/2, v1 ¼ 0) cations8 and, as in that case, we attribute the
non-limiting value of b2 and the non-zero best-fit values of b4and b6 to the effects of (i) some residual alignment of the
parent cation introduced by the multiphoton preparation step
at the instant of the final A 2P ’ X2P excitation, and (ii)
partial saturation of this latter transition at the intensities
required to drive the initial multiphoton excitation.
3.279Br
1fragment imaging
79Br1 ion images were also recorded at wavenumbers appro-
priate for two-photon excitation via each of the b5(v0, 0) (0 r
v0 r 5) bands. Fig. 4 shows the 79Br1 image measured at ~n ¼31 568.4 cm�1 (b5(3, 0) transition). Image analysis reveals
contributions from all three of the fragment ion formation
mechanisms depicted in Fig. 1. As for the Cl1 products,
velocity distributions obtained from the reconstructed 3-D79Br1 recoil distributions were converted into TKER distribu-
tions (assuming mCl ¼ 35.453 amu). Fig. 4 also provides an
overview of the TKER distributions obtained when exciting
via each of b5(v0) (0 r v0 r 5) levels. It proves convenient to
consider the various Br1 forming channels in a different order
to those yielding Cl1 (above).
3.2.1 Dissociation of BrCl1 molecular ions. The TKERs (in
cm�1) of products arising through channel (3) are given by:
TKER ¼ ~n �DiðBrþ�ClÞ � EðBr þÞ � EðCl=Cl�Þ; ð8Þ
where E(Br1) and E(Cl/Cl*) are the respective term values of
the Br1 and Cl fragments. Analysis of the image obtained by
imaging 79Br1 fragments following excitation at ~n ¼ 30 807
cm�1 (b5(0, 0) transition) has been reported previously.7 Most
of the resolved structure was rationalized in terms of one
photon dissociation of BrCl1(X 2PO, v1 ¼ 0) cations to a
range of [Br1(3PJ) þ Cl(2PJ)] limits. In contrast to the Cl1
image analysis above, some Br1 products clearly derive from
photolysis of parent ions with O ¼ 3/2. Measurement and
analysis of the complementary photoelectron image recorded
at this same wavenumber served to reinforce the conclusion
that a fraction (B16%) of the parent ions are formed in the
X 2P3/2 spin–orbit state.7
The earlier analysis failed to account fully for the signal at
higher velocities, however. As the lower panels in Fig. 4 show,
the velocity distributions derived from images recorded when
exciting via higher b5(v0, 0) transitions are less well-resolved,
but have a qualitatively similar appearance. The peaks of the
respective distributions shift to higher TKER, and maximize
at TKER values appropriate for [Br1(3P2) þ Cl(2P3/2)] pro-
duct formation following dissociation of BrCl1(X 2P1/2) ca-
tions with v1 ¼ v0. However, the detailed form of the
distributions, especially at high TKER, requires that BrCl1
cations with v1 a v0 contribute as well. Analysis of the Cl1
images provided term values for the v1 ¼ 0–3 levels of BrCl1
with sufficient accuracy to allow estimation of the term values
for higher v1 levels of the parent ion. The combs superposed
above the various spectra in Fig. 4 indicate predicted TKERs
for the [Br1(3P2) þ Cl/Cl*] products arising from dissociation
of BrCl1(X 2P) cations with O ¼ 1/2 and 3/2. Peaks appearing
at the low TKER end of the main feature (e.g. the peaks at
B3300 and 4900 cm�1 in the case of excitation via the b5(1)
level) are attributable to dissociations with v1 ¼ v0 yielding
Br1(3PJ) products with J ¼ 1 or 0.
3.2.2 Dissociation of super-excited states. As Fig. 4
showed, TKER spectra obtained by monitoring 79Br1 ions
formed by excitation via all b5(v0 4 0) levels show additional
sharp features at low TKER. Three of these, with 1 r v0 r 3,
are illustrated in greater detail in Fig. 5. As in the case of Cl1,
many of these can be unambiguously associated with one
photon ionization of Rydberg atoms (Br** in this case)
formed by dissociation of super-excited states at the energy
of three absorbed photons. As before, to appear in the TKER
spectrum a given Br** product state must satisfy the relations
3~n �D0ðBr�ClÞ4EðBr��Þ � EðCl=Cl�Þ ð9Þ
Table 1 also lists term values for the various possible [Br** þCl/Cl*] product limits, ordered in terms of increasing wave-
number. The dashed vertical lines in Fig. 5 indicate the active
product channels. The populated Br** Rydberg states all have
the (dominant) configuration [Ar]4s23d104p4(3PJ)5p. Most
converge to the ground (3P2) state of Br1, but excitation at
~n ¼ 32 076.4 cm�1 (via the b5(5) level) provides just sufficient
energy to form, and to observe, a 5p Rydberg state converging
5536 | Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007
to the first spin–orbit excited core [Ar]4s23d104p4(3P1).
Dissociation channels leading to Br** states with configura-
tion [Ar]4s23d104p4(3PJ)5s are open at all 3~n wavenumbers
investigated, as are one or more states with configuration
[Ar]4s23d104p4(1D)5s when exciting via b5 levels with
v0 Z 2, but no such products have been identified in any of
the measured images. Neither are any peaks consistent with
Br1 þ Cl� ion-pair formation.
3.2.3 Recoil angular anisotropy.Anisotropy parameters for
the most intense part of the outer ring (arising via process (3))
in 79Br1 images obtained when exciting via the b5(0) level have
been reported previously.8 As in the corresponding one
photon dissociation yielding Cl1 ions (process (4)), b2 4 1
and b4 and b6 are close to zero. Attempts to extract meaningful
anisotropy parameters from 79Br1 images recorded following
excitation via b5(v0 4 0) levels were thwarted by the density
of active product channels and the limited available image
resolution.
4. Discussion
The resonance enhancing b5 levels of BrCl have dominant
configuration � � �p4p*3[2P]5ss.13 Direct 2 þ 1 REMPI via this
state leads to loss of the Rydberg electron and formation of
ground (X 2P) state BrCl1 cations. The present data reveal
significant probability for an alternative electron excitation,
Fig. 479Br1 image measured at ~n ¼ 31 568.4 cm�1 (b5(3, 0)
transition) with e aligned vertically (as shown by the double headed
white arrow), along with TKER distributions of the [Br1 þ Cl/Cl*]
fragments derived by analyzing 79Br1 ion images obtained by exciting
via b5(v0) levels with v0 ¼ 0 (~n ¼ 30 807.0 cm�1), 1 (~n ¼ 31 065.5 cm�1),
2 (~n ¼ 31 311.4 cm�1), 3 (~n ¼ 31 569.2 cm�1), 4 (~n ¼ 31 808.4 cm�1) and
5 (~n ¼ 32 076.4 cm�1). As in Fig. 2, the TKER spectra are plotted on a
common dispersion and positioned so that a given product channel
aligns vertically. Combs festooned above the spectra indicate the
TKERs expected for [Br1(3P2) þ Cl/Cl*] products arising from one
photon induced photodissociation of BrCl1(2PO, v1) parent ions at
the relevant ~n wavenumber. Each comb is labeled (O: J) to enable
identification of the spin–orbit states of the cation and the Cl
fragment. The long (- - - -) and short (� � �� � �) dashed vertical lines
distinguish products from dissociation of parent ions with O¼ 3/2 and
1/2, respectively.
Fig. 5 Detailed view of low energy part of the TKER spectra
obtained by monitoring 79Br1 ions formed by excitation via b5(v0)
levels with 1 r v0 r 3, plotted on a common dispersion and arranged
so that a given [Br** þ Cl/Cl*] product channel aligns vertically. Br**
products formed in association with Cl and Cl* products are distin-
guished by long (- - - -) and short (� � �� � �) dashed vertical lines,
respectively.
This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007 Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 | 5537
forming one (or more) super-excited states of BrCl at the
energy of three absorbed photons. The most likely candidate
for this excitation is a p*’ p promotion within the core, with
the outer electron remaining in the same Rydberg orbital. This
particular core excitation was found to be dominant in transi-
tion dipole moment calculations performed from the ground
state to various excited states of the BrCl1 molecular ion,8 and
the discussion that follows is based on such an assignment. We
note that the analogous one-photon pg* ’ pu core promotion
has been invoked to explain the formation of core-excited
Rydberg states in the multiphoton excitation of Cl2 molecules
via the corresponding two-photon resonant intermediate state
21Pg(� � �pu4pg*34ssg).19 We now consider the various frag-
mentation mechanisms in turn.
4.1 Dissociation of super-excited states
The super-excited state(s) populated at the three photon
energy are deduced to have O ¼ 1 (from the measured recoil
anisotropies) and assumed to have dominant electronic con-
figurations 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) and to be members of Rydberg
series converging to the A 2P(� � �p3p4) state of BrCl1. Ab initio
calculations show that the A 2P state of the ion correlates with
the asymptotic products [Br(2P) þ Cl1(3P)].8 In a diabatic
picture, the parent - product correlation accompanying
Rydberg state dissociation should follow that of the corre-
sponding ion. On this basis, we assume that the1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited state(s) correlate diabatically
to the products [Br(2P) þ Cl**(3P)4s]. Readers should be
aware of the potential ambiguity introduced by the Rydberg
numbering scheme; the orbital labelled as 5ss in BrCl, the 5s
orbital in atomic Br and the 4s atomic orbital in atomic Cl are
the lowest s Rydberg orbitals in the respective species. [Br(2PJ)
þ Cl**((3P)4s; 2PJ)] and [Br(2PJ) þ Cl**((3P)4s; 4PJ)] atomic
products are indeed identified following excitation via all b5(v0)
levels (see Fig. 2), consistent with three photon induced
dissociation following excitation to the repulsive inner limb
of the 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited state potential(s).
The Br1 images (Fig. 3) reveal selective formation of
Br**(3P)5p Rydberg atoms. Ab initio calculations for the
singlet Rydberg states of BrCl provide a rationale for this
observation as well. Specifically, as Fig. 6a shows, the poten-
tial curves for the 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited states are
crossed, near their minima, by the long range part of Rydberg
state potentials with configuration � � �p4p35ps—that converge
to the X 2P ground state ion. BrCl1(X 2P) correlates with the
ground state atomic products [Br1(3P) þ Cl(2P)]. Using the
same logic as previously, Rydberg states built on this core (e.g.
states with configuration � � �p4p35ps) should correlate diaba-
tically with the corresponding Br** Rydberg atom products
(i.e. [Br**(3P)5p þ Cl(2P)] in this case). It should be noted that
the curve shown in Fig. 6a for the (X 2P1/2)5ps Rydberg state
is simply the ab initio potential for the (X 2P1/2)5ss state,
uplifted in energy to match the experimentally reported 13
origin for the 1P(� � �p4p35ps) state. Nonetheless, we can be
confident that the (A 2P1/2)5ss and (X 2P1/2)5ps potentials
cross, given that the asymptotic limits associated with the
former lie below those of the latter (Table 1). The Br**
fragments observed in the Br1 images can thus be understood
in terms of two photon resonance enhanced three photon
excitations to the same 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited state(s)
as implicated in Cl** atom formation, followed by Rydberg–
Rydberg interaction in the crossing region between the
(A 2P1/2)5ss and (X 2P1/2)5ps potentials.
4.2 Dissociation of molecular ions
Our previous photodissociation studies of Brþ25,6 and BrCl1
cations7,8 relied on direct ionization of the resonance enhan-
cing Rydberg state level to generate the required state-selected
parent molecular ions. However, as the previous sub-section
shows, two photon resonance enhanced, three photon excita-
tion of BrCl also results in population of super-excited1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) Rydberg states. These states lie at energies
above the threshold for forming ground state BrCl1 cations.
Autoionization of these super-excited states thus offers
Fig. 6 (a) Ab initio potential energy curves (spin–orbit averaged) relevant to the present one-color multiphoton excitation studies of BrCl,
resonance enhanced at the two photon energy by levels of the b5 [(X 2P1/2)5ss] state. (The curve shown for the (X 2P1/2)5ps Rydberg state is
simply the (X 2P1/2)5ss potential, raised in energy to match the experimentally reported origin for the 1P(� � �p4p35ps) state.) The asymptotic limits
are as follows: (a) Br þ Cl; (b) Br**(5s) þ Cl; (c) Br**(5p)þ Cl; (d) Br þ Cl**(4s) and (e) Br1 þ Cl, and the shaded bar illustrates the energy range
sampled by three-photon absorption in the present work. (b) Schematic illustration of the competition between dissociation and electronic
autoionization following excitation to one or both of the 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited state(s).
5538 | Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007
another route for generating parent cations in their ground
(2P) electronic state.
The TKERs of the [79Br1 þ Cl] and [Br þ 35Cl1] fragments
resulting from one photon dissociation of BrCl1 (eqns (5) and
(8)) depend not just on the respective product term values but
also on the vibrational energy content of the parent ion
(through the value of Di(Br1–Cl)). Image analysis allows
estimation of the relative contributions from different parent
v1 levels; the distribution of v1 state populations so derived
can give insights into the parent ion formation mechanism(s).
The ionization step in a direct 2 þ 1 REMPI process will
normally show a strong propensity for Dv ¼ v1 � v0 ¼ 0
transitions, because of the very similar equilibrium geometries
of the intermediate Rydberg state and the corresponding ionic
state.31 The excitation wavenumbers used in this work have
been chosen to enable resonance enhanced excitation via
successive b5(v0) levels. If all BrCl1 cations were formed by
direct 2 þ 1 REMPI, the choice of v0 should dictate their v1
quantum number, and thus Di(Br1–Cl). One photon dissocia-
tion should then yield a comparatively simple TKER spec-
trum, with just a single peak for each active [Br1/Cl1(3PJ) þCl/Br(2PJ)] product channel. Such expectations are reasonably
satisfied in TKER spectra obtained by monitoring Br1 ions
when exciting via the b5(0) level but, as Fig. 4 showed, TKER
spectra recorded at higher wavenumbers (i.e. via b5(v’ 4 0)
levels) indicate population of (and dissociation from) a wider
spread of v1 levels, stretching up to the highest v1 quantum
numbers permitted by energy conservation (assuming three
photon absorption).
Electronic autoionization32 offers a route to forming BrCl1
cations in a range of v1 levels. It can occur when, as here, a
Rydberg state belonging to a series converging to an excited
state of the ion (i.e. the 1,3P super-excited states) couples with
the continuum of a lower electronic state of the same ion (i.e.
one, or other, or both spin–orbit components of the X 2P state
in this case). The case of a molecule autoionizing along the
repulsive part of a potential curve during bond extension has
been investigated, both experimentally and theoretically, for
the cases of H2 and NO.33–36 A key signature of the process is
that autoionization can occur over a time interval that is long
enough to allow significant movement of the nuclei—giving
rise to a non-Franck–Condon vibrational population distribu-
tion within the ground state cation. Weak features attributable
to such Dv a 0 transitions are identifiable in the previously
reported 2 þ1 REMPI-photoelectron image of BrCl recorded
at 30 807.6 cm�1 (i.e. when exciting via the b5(0, 0) transition).7
Fig. 6b illustrates the possible competition between disso-
ciation and autoionization following three photon excitation
to the 1,3P(� � �p3p45ss) super-excited states. We assume
that autoionization of this state can occur at any internuclear
separation up to the stabilization point (i.e. the point at
which the potential curves for the super-excited state and
the ground state ion cross). The classical model of Hazi33
then predicts that the resulting BrCl1(X) ions should
be formed with a smoothly varying vibrational state
population distribution, ranging from v1 ¼ v0 up to
the maximum value of v1 allowed energetically. Such
predictions are wholly consistent with the experimental
observations, whereby we deduce maximal population of
parent ion levels with v1 ¼ v0 (from direct REMPI), supple-
mented by a broader v1 population distribution from auto-
ionization.35Cl1 fragments from dissociation of BrCl1(2P1/2) cations
are observed when exciting via b5 levels with 2 r v0 r 4, but
not v0 ¼ 5. The v0 Z 2 onset is understandable in terms of
energy and Franck–Condon arguments (see section 3.1.2), as
is the non-observation of 35Cl1 fragments from dissociation of
BrCl1(2P3/2) cations. Neither do we observe any obvious
indication of 35Cl1 fragments attributable to dissociation from
a spread of parent v1 states, such as might be formed by
autoionization of the super-excited state, at any of the excita-
tion energies for which the [Br(2P) þ Cl1(3P2)] dissociation
channel is energetically open. The previously reported ab initio
potential curves for BrCl1 provide a possible explanation
for these observations.8 Within the energy range investigated,
the dominant transition moment from low v1 levels of the
ground state ion is to the A 2P state. Diabatically, this state
correlates with [Cl1(3P) þ Br(2P)] products, but the calcula-
tions predict strong avoided crossings, for both spin–orbit
components, with a repulsive 2P state. Adiabatically, there-
fore, the calculations predict that much of the flux excited to
the A 2P state will dissociate to the [Br1(3P1)þ Cl(2P3/2)] limit.
We note, however, that wavepacket calculations using these
same potentials and couplings failed to replicate the observed
[Br1(3PJ) þ Cl(2PJ)] spin–orbit branching fractions,8 so there
must be some remaining uncertainty as to the validity of this
rationale.
A few peaks remain unidentified in the lower energy part of
some of the TKER spectra measured monitoring Br1 ions.
These might arise via one photon excitation of BrCl1(X)
cations to an excited state [e.g. the 2S1(� � �s1p4p*4)state] which the ab initio calculations suggest should
correlate with the dissociation limit [Br1(1D2) þ Cl(2P)].8 This
limit lies 12530.3 cm�1 above that for the ground state
products, and could only be reached by higher v1 parent ions
such as are formed via the autoionization mechanism. Un-
fortunately, the term values of such higher v1 levels are not
known to sufficient accuracy to be able to validate (or refute)
this suggestion.
5. Conclusions
Analysis of the TKER and angular distributions of the 79Br1
and 35Cl1 fragments resulting from one-color multiphoton
excitation of BrCl molecules, resonance enhanced at the two
photon energies by the v0 ¼ 0–5 vibrational levels of the
[X 2P1/2]5ss Rydberg state, has enabled identification of three
distinct fragment ion formation mechanisms. Absorption of a
third photon by [X 2P1/2]5ss Rydberg molecules is shown to
yield two distinct outcomes: (i) photoionization (i.e. removal
of the Rydberg electron—a traditional 2 þ 1 REMPI process)
and (ii) p* ’ p excitation within the core, resulting in
formation of one or more super-excited states with O ¼ 1
and configuration [A 2P1/2]5ss. These latter state(s) lie above
the first ionization limit and can autoionize (yielding
BrCl1(X 2P) ions in a wider range of v1 states than would
be expected by direct 2 þ 1 REMPI), and/or fragment to
This journal is �c the Owner Societies 2007 Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 5531–5541 | 5539
neutral atoms. Further one-photon absorption by the parent
ions formed by 2 þ 1 REMPI or by autoionization results in
formation of Br1 and (energy permitting) Cl1 fragment ions.
One or other atom formed when the super-excited molecule
fragments will itself be in a Rydberg state. Guided by ab initio
potentials, we deduce that [Cl**[3PJ]4s þ Br/Br*] products
arise from direct dissociation of the super-excited state(s),
whereas [Br**[3PJ]5p þ Cl/Cl*] product formation occurs as
a result of interaction between the [A 2P1/2]5ss and
[X 2P1/2]5ps Rydberg potentials at extended Br–Cl bond
lengths. Absorption of one further photon by the resulting
Br** and Cl** Rydberg atoms leads to their ionization, and
thus their appearance in the resulting Br1 and Cl1 fragment
ion images.
The present results, taken together with those reported
previously from similar multiphoton excitation and ionization
studies of Br25,6 and Cl2,
19,20 serve to illustrate both the
advantages, and the potential complications, associated with
REMPI as a means of preparing state-selected molecular ions.
In favorable cases, n þ 1 REMPI via an appropriate
Rydberg state can serve as a clean and efficient route to
forming quantum-state selected molecular ions for subsequent
use in, for example, photodissociation or reaction dynamics
experiments. Such will apply in those cases where the cross-
section for ionizing the Rydberg electron, by one-photon
absorption at the chosen excitation wavelength, far exceeds
that for any alternative photo-excitation process. Multiphoton
excitations can drive multi-electron promotions, however—as
illustrated by the present results. Thus, particularly in cases
where the parent ion shows strong absorption at the chosen
excitation wavelength, the corresponding core excitation may
have a greater cross-section than that for promoting the
Rydberg electron into the continuum. The super-excited states
that result can decay by autoionizing and/or by (pre)disso-
ciating. The (pre)dissociation products may include Rydberg
species, lying at energies within one photon of their ionization
limit. These will be very susceptible to ionization at the
intensities prevailing in most REMPI experiments. Such a
multiplicity of possible ion (and electron) formation channels
is unlikely to be revealed through the traditional parent
REMPI spectrum (in which some selected (or the total)
ion yield is measured as a function of excitation wavelength)
but can, at least in the case of small molecules, be unraveled
by kinetic energy resolving the resulting ions and/or
photoelectrons.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support from the
EPSRC (via the pilot portfolio partnership LASER) and the
Commission of the European Communities [IHP contract
no. HPRN-CT-2002-00183 (PICNIC), and MEIF-CT-2003-
500999 (PHOSPHOR) to NHN]. We are also most grateful
to colleagues J. R. Jones, K. N. Rosser and A. D. Webb,
Drs J. N. Harvey, F. R. Manby and Prof. A. J. Orr-Ewing for
their many and varied contributions to the work described
herein.
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