mughal reviewpaper

7/30/2019 Mughal ReviewPaper

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RESEARCH ESSAY

HIST 214: Lahore Architecture

2013-10-0148

BILAL SHAHID

INSTRUCTOR: NADHRA SHAHBAZ

DATE: 04.05.12


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Mughal architecture has been adorned with a number of decorative motifs, elements and

other members of surface and structural ornamentation. Each aspect of the patronage by Mughal

emperors is worth an appreciation and the form they gave to the local indigenous art and

architecture appeared in the buildings they built and those later constructed by their successors

who ruled the Indian Subcontinent. The use of local Indian elements and symbols was

widespread in Mughal era, including the use of Gujrati, Bengali and other local techniques of

embellishments and the elements themselves. One of the widespread features in Mughal

architecture is the use of perforated screens orjalis. Even within the Mughal regime, there

appears to be a strong evidence of the use of the same element with different variations in terms

of the way it was designed with geometric and other patterns. However, it was only until Shah

Jahan that jalis appeared with an entirely different outlook. There is a trend in the way geometric

patterns injaliwork were replaced by floral and vegetal motifs in Shah Jahans period.

Traditionally,jalis had been used widely in India to allow the daylight and cool breeze

flow in through the perforations while preventing onlookers from viewing the indoors of private

and some public buildings. Another reason whyjalis were constructed was for the royal ladies

to watch public events without breaking theirpurdah or veil (Brown 295).

This architectural practice of carving stone screens existed in both Islamic and Indian

architecture. In Islamic architecture, it was readily adopted because it lacked representation and

iconography and allowed viewers, especially women, to look outward without being observed

(Harris 143). However, in India,jalis originated in the region of Jaisalmar, Rajasthan and since

the 7th century B.C


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An excellent work ofjali exists in the window of a 16th

century Sidi Said Mosque at

Ahmadabad. In the qibla wall or the wall facing Mecca, there are window screens forming the

image of a tree in the stone tracery.

Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque

Jalis have also been used chiefly for saints tombs and for decorating holy shrines. The

tomb of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej, outside Ahmadabad with its brass panels as latticed

screens on the faade became a forerunner for the construction ofShaikh Salims tomb at

Fatehpur Sikri (Asher 10). The fine perforated white marble screens which complete the marble

casing and enclose the interior square chamberof Shaikh Salims tomb also provide a passage to

allow for circumambulation of the grave, a common practice at saints shrines (Ziad 192).


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Catherine Asher mentions in her bookArchitecture of Mughal India that the exquisitely carved

brackets and jalis belong to the Indo-Islamic architectural traditions of Gujrat and that Gujrati

trained artisans were brought to Fatehpur Sikri to work on the tomb (56).

The fact that it employed similar techniques and bears close resemblance to the earlier

tomb of Gujrat makes us believe that the Mughals used the best local craftsmen from the region

where stone carving of monolithicjalis could have possibly originated. Only stone screens and

formal gardens define any kind of commemorative space (Brand 332).

Earlier when the use of jalis was a key feature used only to embellish saints tombs, the

Mughals started using it in their palatial buildings The tomb of Jahanara built before 1681 in

Delhi has marble screens that protect the simple slab tomb without a superstructure (Ruggles

115).


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Source: This sandstone facade of a Jaisalmer town house or "haveli" is typical of the house-fronts of the wealthy

Rajput nobles and merchants. The "havelis" of Jaisalmer are particularly noted for the ornate carving on their "jalis" &

facades. Asian Art Department, AGNSW, 1998.

The delicate pearl-white mausoleum is located on the far side of the broad courtyard

facing the Buland Darwaza, the enormous gateway built to commemorate the victory at Gujrat.

The tomb itself became a focal point of the city with the khanqah (residential compound for

spiritual study) built for Salim Chishti (Ziad 191). According to Schimmel, this small white

jewelis also mentioned in Badaunis account on Fatehpur Sikri, written in 1571, when the

chronicler tells us about Akbar laying the foundation of a new shrine (286).


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The tomb was constructed out of reverence since the Chishtiyya remained for centuries

the most influential order and even Babur himself endorsed Chishti saints by visiting their

shrines (Ziad 65). The sheikh lived his life as an ascetic and it was in 1568 when Akbar heard of

him and asked him to pray for a son, whom he later named Salim after Shaikhs name (Tillotson

121). The shaikhpredicted the birth of three sons and Jahangirs birth stimulated Akbars

religious interest and out of gratitude he erected a sanctuary at the very heart of his own dream

city (Ziad 62). This shows how faithful Akbar was to the Chishtis despite that he had adopted

policies to build his power in India and this view is also endorsed in Alams article where he

describes that Chishtis had an edge at the time of Akbar (1).

After its completion, the shrine was a grand building of its type in Akbars period. With

the setting of this example, the shrine building as a royal tradition was also introduced. This

feature of the shrine is unique in Indian Muslim art and is much more valid for its own vigor and

its perfection than for the symbolism which Akbar wanted to inscribe in stone for posterity.

The shrine stands as a luminous pearl in white marble amongst the red sandstone

buildings and as Tillotson rightly mentions that the eye is easily distracted by this marble-clad

structure (121). It has a single-storey square plan, 15 meters squaredand has a large central

dome. A verandah surrounds the main tomb sepulchral chamber in which stands the cenotaph,

covered by a canopy decorated with mother-of-pearl (Fletcher 621). The dome was originally of

red sandstone, and received its marble cladding in 1866 (Tillotson 123). However, according to

the account in The Cambridge History of India, the the original tomb was built of sandstone

and was later renewed (Dodwell 546). The spectacular winding serpentine struts which appear to

support the chajja or the eave on the exterior are an unusual feature; they are duplicated in this

case from those on the small Stonecutters Mosque-an older mosque built on the ridge for


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Salim Chishti (Tillotson 121). However, The use of white marble should be noted, for at this

time white marble was somewhat reserved for saints shrines alone (Ziad 192). For instance, the

white marble links it with the renewal of Sheikh Nizamuddins tomb at Delhi, in the same

material 20 years ago (Ziad 192). According to Lindsay Brown and Amelia Thomas,

Nizamuddins shrines present incarnation dates from 1562 (106). Similar to Shaikh Salims

tomb, it comprises a marble building, with inner tomb enclosed byjalis and so the tombs of both

the Sufi saints share this common feature although Nizamuddins tomb was of originally Delhi

Sultanate period (Brown, Thomas 106). In Mughal vocabulary, white is a reference to the

divine and this explains why white marble structures were limited exclusively for tombs of

pious saints (Kapstein 167).

It is also worth considering that the building in complete lustre of white marble was not

one of the first of its kind in India and had its precedents even before Mughal period. The tomb

derives its plan and overall appearance from earlier ones in Gujrat, for example, the 15th

century

shrine of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu at Sarkhej near Ahmadabad which, like the setting for the tomb

of Shaikh Salim, was a part of the palace of Gujrat Sultans (Ziad 192). This is further reinforced

as Asher and Talbot mention in their book, India before Europe,that the model of juxtaposing

palace and white-stone shrine highlighted the status of the Sufi in supporting the dynastic rule,

was later adopted in 16th

century by Akbar. Just as Shaikh Salim was sort of patron saint of the

Mughal family, Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was a spiritual advisor of the Sultans of Gujrat (Talbot

and Asher 92).

The tomb of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu was built between 1445 and 1451. The tomb chamber

had perforated brassjalis in geometric patterns, and the exterior walls are filled with pierced

stone tracery (Cousens 67). The square tomb, like the one at Fatehpur Sikri, measures 32 metres


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on each side. However, its sanctuary is topped by many domes (Gaur 55). Hence, it must be

noticed that the delicate pierced stone screens of the outer walls of Shaikh Salims tomb, with

their lavish luxuriance, are also found on the tomb at Sarkhej; the magnificently carved

brackets too are a common feature of the architecture of western India (Gaur 55). Here, they

seem to have been intentionally used since Akbar sought to link his rule with the Chishti saint

(Asher 56-7).

At Shaikh Salims tomb, the struts are S-shaped and are of octagon section and terminate

in round leaf-carved knobs. The width of the strut decreases as it approaches the top where it is

crowned by a richly molded capital, diagonally placed in some cases. As the serpentine shape is

obviously frail one, they are reinforced by slender, octagonal stays inserted beneath the twists

and filled with fine stonework. The struts are monolithic-cut out of solid pieces of marble. The

convoluted struts are similar to the brackets that support the temples in Gujrat and Dodwell is

of the view that Mughal craftsmen elaborated this idea in their work (547). So, it is quite

natural that there is a Hindu feeling about it and possibly the architect may have been influenced

by South Indian buildings of 11th

and 12th

centuries as well and it can be seen that Mughals

freely borrowed elements from indigenous temple architecture (Dodwell 547).

Also, the use ofjalis was widespread in 15th

century Gujrat, and the idea was adapted

and refined in Mughal architecture and it may be that thejalisat Shaikh Salims tomb were

added later by Jahangir (Tillotson 123). Considering this aspect, as Tillotson suggests, a

slightly earlier example of similar extensive and exquisitejali-work is the tomb in Gwalior of

Muhammad Ghaus. In Rajput architecture, perforated screens were introduced primarily to

ensure the seclusion of women, but their use in Mughal building is more diverse: in the palatial

buildings they are used as an ornamental motif in the mardana or male apartments; however,


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in thezenana or female buildings, and in tombs they generate an appropriate quiet atmosphere in

the verandah, providing shade at the same time as admitting air (Tillotson 121-3). It is also worth

mentioning here that Tansen, the famous musician at Akabrs court, was a devotee of

Muhammad Ghaus, and it may well be that his mausoleum in Gwalior, with its intricate marble

lattice work, was sponsored by Tansen (Ziad 65). So, this may also link up to explain the

closeness of Shaikh Salims shrine to the tomb of Ghaus and the reason why it bears so much

similarity to it and the resemblance injails can be explained possibly by knowing this valuable

historical information.

A closer look on the similarities the tomb and its design bears with its precedents

explains why the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti was evaluated by Jahangir in terms of the

money Akbar had spent upon it (Mukhia 101). Another striking similarity between the tomb at

Sarkej and Shaikh Salims tomb is that the floor of the chamber is laid in marble mosaic in a

geometrical pattern. The multi-coloured stone flooring, similar to that at Sarkhej, was donated by

a noble who lived in Gujrat (Asher 56). The materials employed are white marble, khattu and

abri, from Jaisalmar, near Jaipur, and one of peculiar tint, which varies considerably between a

dark neutral tint, and black, known assang-i-musa which comes from Alwar. Even this use of

semi-precious stones of artistic colors, to decorate the floors, is mentioned in The Cambrige

History of India by Dodwell (546). So, even in terms of its interior and exterior ornamentation,

Salim Chishtis tomb resembles Sahaikh Khattus tomb.

Yet another common feature is that the columns of the porch of Shaikh Salims tomb

which are profusely decorated, with chevron design or the zigzag pattern on the shafts,

stalactite ormuqarnas-like embellished capitals and a finely carved base (Dodwell 547).

However, the pillars of Khattus tomb are different in that they are 120 in number and are not


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so richly embellished. In contrast to Khattus tomb with many domes, the single dome on Shaikh

Salims tomb is topped with apadmakosha or inverted lotus and a metal finial, a common

feature of many Mughal buildings.

The interior from the skirting and dados to the soffit of the dome is profusely ornamented

with paintings in floral designs. Painted patterns that cover the walls are executed on a thick

layer of plaster on the stone surface. The verandah has blind niches with inlaid chocolate-

coloured borders the make the foiled niches more prominent and there are panels inNaskh

calligraphy displaying quotations from the Quran and Hadith, occasionally painted in a gold or

blue background, giving the tomb its description of a heavenly abode and a paradisiacal setting.

The tomb is still an object of veneration, chiefly to barren women, both Muslim and

Hindu (Tillotson 123). However, it is ironic to note that Akbar, who used to visit Muinuddin

Chishtis shrine at Ajmer annually from 1564-1579 and endowed the shrine with many precious

objects, now had begun to break with saint venerationand stated that saint worship was a

shallow preoccupation, not a profound one (Ziad 65; Asher 57).

Finally, evaluating Shaikh Salims tomb in terms of its architectural design and its

ornamentation techniques, as patronized by Akbar, it can be safely held that the tomb derived its

square plan in white marble and salient features like serpentine struts and jalis from Gujrati

period monuments, chiefly Shaikh Ahmad Khattus tomb at Ahmadabad and Ghaus tomb at

Gwalior. Undoubtedly, it was linked to other saints shrines, such as Nizamuddins shrine at

Delhi, by the fact that it was also built in white stone, which symbolized purity and sanctity and

served the purpose to embellish a chaste place and also like Shaikh Salims tomb, the vestibule is

separated from the burial vault by dense lattice. Added to this fact, by setting up this shrine,


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Akbar set up an example of a religious architecture to be followed by his successors and so the

present example was followed by the tomb of Itimad-ud-daulah in Agra, built in 1622-7 and

henceforth the white marble that was chiefly used for saint shrines now became to be used for

royal figures in the age of Jahangiri architecture. (1992 words)


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Works Cited

Alam, Muzaffar. The Mughals, the Sufi Shaikhs and the Formation of the Akbari

Dispensation.Modern Asian Studies Vol.43 (Jan. 2009): 135-174.

Asher, B. Catherine. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2001. Print.

Ruggles, F. Islamic Gardens and Landscape. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania

Press, 2008. Print.

Harris, F. Dianne, Ruggles, F. Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision. Pittsburg: University of

Pittsburg Press, 2008. Print.

Collins, Sheldon. Image: Exterior View of Jali Screen with Tree Motif at Sidi Saiyad Mosque.

1984. Ahmadabad, India. Asher, B. Catherine, and Talbot, Cynthia.India before Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. 2006. Print.

Brown, Lindsay, and Thomas, Amelia. Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra. China: Lonely Planet

Publications, 2008. Print.

Cousens, Henry. The Architectural Antiquities of Western India. Britain: Cousens Press, 2007.
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Print.

Dodwell, H. The Cambridge History of India: British India, 1497-1858. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1968. Print.

Fletcher, Banister, and Cruickshank, Dan. A History of Architecture. Delhi:Architectural

Press, 1996. Print.

Gaur, Abhilash. City of the Dead. Outlook TravellerApril 2008: 54-55.

Kapstein, Matthew. The Presence of Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Experience.

Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Print.

Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Print.

Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications,

2004. Print.

Tillotson, G. Architectural Guides for TravellersMughal India. London: Penguin Group,

1990. Print.

Ziad, Zeenut. The Magnificent Mughals. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.
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