‘moving deeper into difference’ developing meaningful and...
TRANSCRIPT
i
‘Movingdeeperintodifference’
Developingmeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysintoteachereducation
forIndigenousadultsfromremotecommunities
SubmittedbyLisaMarieHall
BachelorofArts
BachelorofTeaching(Honours)GraduateCertificateofAustralianIndigenousESLTeaching
MasterofEducation(TESOL)GraduateCertificateofTertiaryTeaching
Athesissubmittedinthefulfilmentoftherequirementsofthedegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophy
AustralianCentreforIndigenousKnowledgesandEducation(ACIKE)SchoolofIndigenousKnowledgesandPublicPolicy(SIKPP)
FacultyofLaw,Education,BusinessandArts
CharlesDarwinUniversityNorthernTerritory
Australia
August2016
ii
Declaration
Iherebydeclarethattheworkherein,nowsubmittedasathesisforthedegreeofDoctor
ofPhilosophyoftheCharlesDarwinUniversityistheresultofmyowninvestigationsandall
referencesto ideasandworkofotherresearchershavebeenspecificallyacknowledged. I
herebycertifythatthisworkcontainsnomaterialwhichhasbeenacceptedfortheaward
of anyotherdegreeordiploma in anyuniversityorother tertiary institutionand, to the
bestofmyknowledgeandbelief,containsnomaterialpreviouslypublishedorwrittenby
anotherperson,exceptwhereduereferencehasbeenmadeinthetext.
Igiveconsenttothiscopyofmythesis,whendepositedintheUniversityLibrary,being
made available for loan and photocopying online via the University’s Open Access
repositoryeSpace.
23rdAugust2016
Signed Dated
iii
Abstract
ThepurposeofthisthesiswastoexplorewhytherearesofewyoungIndigenouspeople
fromremotecommunitiesinCentralAustraliapursuingandcompletingateacher
educationpathway.Thisproblemisexploredprimarilythroughlisteningtotheexperiences
ofremoteIndigenousteachers,includingthebarriersandsupportstheyencounteredin
becomingqualifiedteachersthemselves.Thestoriesoftheteachersaresetagainstthe
historical,politicalandpolicycontextofremoteIndigenousteachereducationinAustralia
withparticularreferencetotheNorthernTerritory.
Thestudywasconductedusingaqualitativemethodology,specificallynarrative
methodology.Theintentionoftheresearcherandteacherparticipantswastoinhabita
Post-ColonialKnowledgespacewheretheprocessofdoingtheresearchworktogetherwas
equallyasimportantastheresearchoutcomes.Whatemergedwasagenerativeresearch
method,namedhereas‘participatorynarrative’.Thisnewmethodgeneratedspecific
insightsintohowtodoresearchtogetherin‘goodfaith’.Themethoditselfuseda
collectiveanalysisprocessdrawingontheteachernarratives.Thethematicfindingsfrom
thiscollectiveanalysiswerethenfurtherexploredthroughtheoreticalandphilosophical
lenseswithaspecificconsiderationofthecoloniallegacyinAustraliaandtheneo-colonial
reality.
TheresearchconcludesthatifwearetoresponsiblyencourageyoungIndigenouspeople
fromremotecommunitiesintoteachereducationpathwaysthenteachereducationitself
needstomoveintoaPost-ColonialKnowledgespace.Thethesisconcludeswithaproposed
frameworkforconductingteachereducationwithinthiskindofknowledgespace.
iv
Dedications
Manyofuswhohaveworkedinremotecommunitiesforlongperiodsoftimehaveone
specialcommunityofpeoplewhofirstopeneduptousnewwaysofknowing,beingand
doing.FormethosepeopleweretheEasternAnmatyerrfamiliesofMulgaBoreand
AngkulaintheUtopiaregionofcentralAustralia.InparticularIwanttoacknowledgethe
BirdandPurvisfamilies.Youlookedaftermeand‘grewmeup’whenIwasyourschool
teacherandyouslowlyandpatientlytaughtmesomanyofthethingsthathaveenabled
metogoonanddoworksuchasthisresearch.IhopethatIhavehonouredyour
investmentinmewiththeworkIhaveundertakenhere.Kelmwerr!
and
Totheremarkableteacherswhosestoriesarethebeatingheartofthisresearch,thisthesis
belongstoyouandwouldnotexistwithoutyou.Thankyouforchoosingmetotellyour
storiesto.IhopethatIhavehonouredthemandyou.Ihopethatwehavetoldthemin
suchawaythatpeoplewilllistenwithopenears.Palya,kalamarra,ngurrju!
v
Acknowledgments
WorktowardsthisthesiswasconductedonthelandofmanydifferentAustralian
AboriginallanguagegroupsincludingCentralArrernte,WesternArrarnta,Luritja,Warlpiri,
Pitjantjatjara,EasternAnmatyerr,LarrakiaandQuandamooka.Iwanttopaymyrespectsto
theancestorsandElders,pastpresentandfuture,ofalloftheselandsforthecontribution
thespiritofyourcountrymadetothecompletionofthisresearch.InparticularIwantto
thankthefamiliesandcommunitiesoftheteacherparticipantsinthisresearchforallowing
usthetimerequiredtoenableustodothisworktogether.
Additionallymythankstothefollowingpeople:
Tomysupervisors:
DrJohnHenry–thanksforbeingaguidingforceandimportantsoundingboardthroughout
theentireprocess.Icouldn’thavedoneitwithoutyou!
ProfMichaelChristie–thanksforalwaysseemingtoknowjusttherightbooktoplacein
myhandtoguidemetowardswhereIneededtogo.
DrPayiLindaFord–thanksforbeingtherewhenIneededit,givingmetheconfidencethat
Ishouldbedoingthisworkandbeingasetoffresheyestowardstheend.
Tomyfamily,friendsandcolleagues-thanksfornevertiringofaskingmehowthingswere
goingandhangingintherewhileItalkedaboutit.Alsothanksforallowingmetofocuson
thisattheexpenseofotherthings.
vi
WhilethePhDisoftencastasasolojourney,Ihavenotfoundthistobethecase.Ihave
tremendouslyvaluedthesupportandcollegialityoftheotherPhDandMastersstudents
withwhomIhavesharedthepast5yearsandparticularlywanttothankDrNia
Emmanouil,DebbieHohaia,DrKathrynGilby,DrJennyTaylor,SueField,JeanieBell,Robyn
Ober,TeresaAlice,JanineOldfield,MargCarew,DrJosieDouglasandKylieCrabbe.
TotheCDUstaff(pastandpresent)whohavelookedaftermeandguidedmyjourneyfrom
anadministrativeandlearningsupportpointofview:MerrilynWasson(whohelpedme
fromtheverybeginning),JenGirling(you’rethebest!),TerryDunbar,RolfGerritson,Aggie
Wegner,JayshreeMamtora,LeonieMoore-Smith,GregWilliams,SueShoreandLisa
McManus.AdditionalthankstoSueReaburn,whosentmelotsofveryvaluablearchival
documentsrelatingtothehistoryofeducationintheNorthernTerritory.
MythanksalsototheAliceSpringsRotaryClubforawardingmetheBillVanDijk
Postgraduatescholarshipwhichassistedmegreatlyincompletingthefieldworkforthis
research
FinallyIneedtothankpeoplewhoofferedmehospitalityalongtheway.Tothosepeoplein
communitieswholookedaftermeasIdidthefieldwork,particularlyPhoebeandFelicity,
thankssomuch!ToYuiforarrangingmyfinalwritingretreat,IanandShirleyforhosting
me,andIanandYuiforlookingaftermewhileIwasonKarragarraIsland–itwasthe
perfectspottofinishwritingmythesis.ThankstoHayley,NathanandFlorenceforlooking
aftermyhomeandmychookswhileIwasaway.
vii
Anoteaboutnomenclature
Iamawareofthedifferingopinions,beliefsandfeelingsaboutthewordsusedtoreferto
thefirstnationspeopleofAustralia.Thereisagreatdealofdebateaboutwhich
terminologyisbest.Itismybeliefthatwherepossiblepeopleshouldbereferredto
accordingtotheirlanguageandculturalidentity.Theteacherparticipantsinthisresearch
areWarlpiri,Luritja,PitjantjatjaraandWesternArrarntawomenofCentralAustralia.
WhereverpossibleIhaveusedthesewordsasdescriptors.However,attimesithasbeen
necessarytomakebroaderreferences.WhileIwastornbetweenusingtheterms
‘AboriginalandTorresStraitIslander’and‘Indigenous’Ihaveultimatelychosentousethe
term‘Indigenous’basedontheunderstandinginthe2015AIATSISEthicalPublishing
guidelines(http://aiatsis.gov.au/sites/default/files/docs/asp/ethical-publishing-
guidelines.pdf)thatsuggestthat‘theterm‘IndigenousAustralians’canbeusedto
encompassbothAboriginalpeopleandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,thoughpreferablynot
foroneortheotherwhenitisknownwhichgroupisbeingspokenabout’.Itisusedinthis
thesiswhereitispossiblebutnotnecessarythatbothAboriginaland/orTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplearepresent.Iapologizetoanyoneforwhomthistermisoffensive.That
wasnevermyintent.Thereareothersauthorswhohavechosentousetheterm
‘AboriginalandTorresStraitIslander’intheirworkandIhaverespectedthatchoiceby
keepingthosewordswhenreferencingtheirwork.
viii
Glossary
Commonwordsandexpressionsusedthroughoutthisthesis:
Warlpiri Luritja WesternArrarnta
Pitjantjatjara Yolngumatha
RakMakMakMarranunggu
English
yuwai yuwa awa awa yes
lawa wiya itchya wiya no
yapa anangu anangu yolngu tyikim Indigenousperson
kardiya tjulkura balanda padakoot non-Indigenousperson
ngurrju palya marra palya Good
ngurrjunyana palyalingku
palyalingku Reallygood
Otherwordsusedinthisthesis:
Word Languageorigin Approximatetranslationormeaning
Jakamarra Warlpiri OneofeightskinnamesformenthatmakepartofthekinshipsystemfortheWarlpiripeopleofcentralAustralia
Jampajimpa Warlpiri OneofeightskinnamesformenthatmakepartofthekinshipsystemfortheWarlpiripeopleofcentralAustralia
anma WesternArrarnta
wait
marlpa Warlpiri,LuritjaandPitjantjatjara
company
ngapartji-ngapartji
PitjantjatjaraandLuritja
yougivesomethingtomeandIgivesomethingtoyou
Ngurra-kurlu
Warlpiri Ngurra-kurluisarepresentationofthefivekeyelementsofWarlpiriculture:Land(alsocalledCountry),Law,Language,Ceremony,andSkin(alsocalledKinship).Itisaconceptthathighlightstheprimaryrelationshipsbetweentheseelements,whilealsocreatinganawarenessoftheirdeepercomplexities.
ix
ForamoredetailedexplanationseePawu-Kurlpurlurnu,HolmesandBox,2008
purami Warlpiri Thepathortheway
blekbala KriolofNgukurr(RoperRiver)area
Aboriginalperson
Kaltja KriolofNgukurr(RoperRiver)area
culture
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TableofContents
Declaration ................................................................................................................ ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................... iii
Dedications............................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... v
Anoteaboutnomenclature ..................................................................................... vii
Glossary ...................................................................................................................viii
Chapter1-Introduction............................................................................................. 11.1Theneedforthisresearch............................................................................................................................. 11.2Remotecommunity-basedIndigenousteachereducation.............................................................. 31.3Apersonalorigin ............................................................................................................................................... 41.4Teachernarratives–methodologicalchoices...................................................................................... 51.5Thinkingaboutprocess-Research,relationshipsandreciprocity ............................................. 61.6AcollectivistapproachtoPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork–disconcertmentanddiscovery....................................................................................................................................................................... 71.7Epistemologicalchallengesofworkingbetweenknowledges ................................................... 101.8Researchdesignandprocess–participatorynarrativeandinterruptingtools................ 131.9Thesisoverview............................................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter2–ThehistoricalcontextofformalschoolingandremoteteachereducationintheNorthernTerritory–Areviewofliterature..................................................... 172.1Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................172.2AhistoryofformalschoolingforIndigenousstudentsintheNorthernTerritory ...........192.2.1Before1950................................................................................................................................................... 212.2.21950s-1967 .................................................................................................................................................. 252.2.31967-1979 ..................................................................................................................................................... 282.2.41979–presentday..................................................................................................................................... 31
2.3TrainingprogramsandteachereducationforIndigenousstaffinremoteschoolsintheNorthernTerritory ...............................................................................................................................................342.3.1Earlydays ...................................................................................................................................................... 342.3.2Theeraofcommunitybasedteachereducation........................................................................... 382.3.3ArticulationofIndigenousknowledgepositionsonremoteschooling............................... 402.3.4Recentyears.................................................................................................................................................. 42
Chapter3–TheevolutionofthepoliticalandpolicycontextofteachereducationinAustraliaandtheimpactonIndigenousTeachers–areviewofliterature ................ 453.1Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................45
xi
3.2TheevolutionofthepoliticsandpolicyofteachereducationinAustralia ..........................473.2.1TheoriginsofteachereducationinAustralia................................................................................483.2.2Politicalparadigmsofteachereducation........................................................................................503.2.3Nationalreviews,regulation,teacheraccountabilityandthe‘Quality’agenda ............52
3.3Theimplicationsofthenationalisationandstandardisationoftheteaching‘profession’.......................................................................................................................................................................................553.3.1‘Quality’asaninvisiblebinary ..............................................................................................................563.3.2NationalProfessionalStandardsforteachersandNationalLiteracyandNumeracytestingforteachereducation ...........................................................................................................................59
3.4WherearetheIndigenousteachers?.....................................................................................................623.4.1ThehistoricalandpoliticalpositioningofIndigenousteachers ............................................633.4.2Learninglessons ..........................................................................................................................................663.4.3Emptyrhetoricandpoliticalsleightsofhand ................................................................................71
3.5IndigenousteachersintheNorthernTerritory................................................................................753.5.1-Morereviews–‘smokeandmirrors’ ................................................................................................75
3.6TheimpactofregulationandstreamliningofteachereducationintheNorthernTerritoryonremoteIndigenousteachers ..................................................................................................833.6.1TheTeacherRegistrationBoardoftheNorthernTerritory ....................................................843.6.2Accreditationof‘standards’and‘quality’inteachereducationcoursesintheNT .......873.6.3Somuchregulationforsolittleimprovement ...............................................................................89
3.7Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................................90
Chapter4–MethodologyandMethod .....................................................................934.1Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................934.2Pre-methodologicalquestions .................................................................................................................934.2.1Thecaseforauniqueapproach ...........................................................................................................934.2.2Understandingthepast............................................................................................................................954.2.3Thecoloniallegacyofresearch ............................................................................................................964.2.4Relationalresearchthatgenerates‘goodfaith’ ............................................................................994.2.5TheethicsofPost-Colonialresearchwork.................................................................................... 101
4.3Methodology ................................................................................................................................................ 1024.3.1Theoreticalunderpinnings .................................................................................................................. 1034.3.2Storyasmethod ........................................................................................................................................ 1054.3.3Thewiderappealofstory/narrative............................................................................................... 1054.3.4Sometensionsandchallengeswithstoryasmethod ............................................................... 107
4.4Thenarrativemethodusedinthisresearch ................................................................................... 1084.4.1Purposivesampling................................................................................................................................. 1084.4.2Narrativecollection ................................................................................................................................ 1094.4.3Semi-Structurednarrativeinterviewprocess ............................................................................ 1104.4.4NarrativeAnalysis ................................................................................................................................... 113
4.5Methodologicalevolution–‘participatorynarrative’ ................................................................. 115
Chapter5–Discussionof‘ParticipatoryNarrative’method ....................................1175.1Backgroundandrationale....................................................................................................................... 117
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5.2ThecentralityofrelationshipsincollaborativeresearchwithIndigenousparticipants.................................................................................................................................................................................... 1185.3Co-constructingtheresearchprocess ............................................................................................... 1195.4Participatorynarratives........................................................................................................................... 1205.5Analysisofoursharedprocess ............................................................................................................. 1225.6Insightsintohowwedoresearchtogetherin‘goodfaith’–Anma,MarplaandNgapartjiNgapartji................................................................................................................................................................. 1235.6.1Anma..............................................................................................................................................................1235.6.2Marlpa...........................................................................................................................................................1245.6.3NgapartjiNgapartji ................................................................................................................................126
5.7Conclusionsabout‘howwedoresearch’ ......................................................................................... 128
Chapter6-Teachernarratives–groupthemeanalysis .......................................... 1306.1Puttingthingsagainstacontextualbackground........................................................................... 1306.2Collectiveanalysisprocess ..................................................................................................................... 1326.3Seventhemes............................................................................................................................................... 1336.3.1‘Ourfeelingforfamily’............................................................................................................................1336.3.2Learningwith‘marlpa’ ..........................................................................................................................1376.3.3Mentors,supportandencouragement............................................................................................1396.3.4TeamTeaching..........................................................................................................................................1426.3.5Leadership ...................................................................................................................................................1456.3.6Exclusionandpower ...............................................................................................................................1476.3.7‘Notlookingatuslevel’.........................................................................................................................153
6.4Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................... 156
Chapter7–Individualanalysisoftheteachernarratives........................................ 1577.1‘Ourfeelingforfamily’ .............................................................................................................................. 1577.2Learningwith‘marlpa’ ............................................................................................................................. 1717.3Mentors,supportandencouragement .............................................................................................. 1817.4TeamTeaching............................................................................................................................................. 1977.5Leadership ..................................................................................................................................................... 2087.6Exclusionandpower ................................................................................................................................. 2217.7‘Notlookingatuslevel’ ............................................................................................................................ 232
Chapter8-Discussion ............................................................................................ 2428.1Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2428.2Discussionpartone–RaceandWhiteness ..................................................................................... 2438.2.1Whitenesstheory ......................................................................................................................................2458.2.2CriticalRacetheory .................................................................................................................................2468.2.3Adiscussioninthreesections..............................................................................................................2488.2.4‘Whitebutnotquite’IndigenousTeachersandmimicry........................................................2498.2.5KnowledgestatusandWhitenessenshrinedincurricula.......................................................2598.2.6Systemicwhitenessandinstitutionalracism ...............................................................................2718.2.7Conclusiontodiscussionpartone .....................................................................................................287
8.3Discussionparttwo–Interculturalknowledgework ................................................................ 291
xiii
8.3.1Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 2918.3.2Interculturalknowledgeworkofcommunitybasedteachereducation ......................... 2938.3.3Differenceanddisconcertment.......................................................................................................... 319
Chapter9–Post-ColonialKnowledgeWorkandIndigenousTeacherEducation......3319.1Post-ColonialKnowledgeWork............................................................................................................ 3349.2ASpaceofPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork ..................................................................................... 3369.3Waysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’............................................................................................ 3379.4ToolsforPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork ........................................................................................ 3489.5ImplicationsofPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkforteachereducation............................... 355
Chapter10–Conclusionsandcontributiontonewknowledge ...............................35810.1Answeringtheresearchquestions ................................................................................................... 35810.1.1Researchquestion1 ............................................................................................................................. 35810.1.2Researchquestion2 ............................................................................................................................. 35910.1.3Researchquestion3 ............................................................................................................................. 36010.1.4Researchquestion4 ............................................................................................................................. 361
10.2Contributiontonewknowledge ........................................................................................................ 36210.2.1InsightsintodoingresearchusingaPost-ColonialKnowledgeapproach................... 36210.2.3Post-Colonialknowledgework–apossibleframework ...................................................... 363
Bibliography ...........................................................................................................365
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Chapter1-Introduction
InthischapterIprovideanoverviewofthefullthesis.InitiallyIwillexplainwhythis
researchisneededandwillprovideastatementoftheresearchquestionsattheheartof
thework.InorderforyoutobetterunderstandwherethesequestionscamefromIhave
providedanexplanationoftheoriginsoftheresearch.Ihavealsogivenanoverviewofthe
methodologicalchoices,theresearchdesignand,importantly,theprocessundertaken.
Thisexploressomeoftheepistemologicalchallengesandopportunitiesofworking
betweenknowledges.Finally,thischapterwillconcludewithasimpleoverviewofthe
remainderofthethesischapters.
1.1Theneedforthisresearch
BothAustralianandinternationaleducationalresearchwithIndigenouscommunities
demonstratethepositiveimpactofIndigenousorlanguageminoritystudentsbeingtaught
bymembersoftheirowncommunitywhointrinsicallyunderstandthelanguage,culture
andlearningstylesofthestudents(Battenetal1998;Bourkeetal2000;Buckley1996;
Christie1985;Hickling-Hudson&Ahlquist2003;Rosas2001;Santoro&Reid2006;Santoro
etal.2008;Woods1994).Therecent‘ReportintotheRetentionandGraduationof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentsenrolledinInitialTeacherEducation’(Patton
etal.2012)completedaspartoftheMoreAboriginalandTorresStraitTeachersInitiative
(MATSITI)statedthat‘…languageisan‘invisiblefence’orbarrierformanyAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderpeopleinremoteareas’whichplacesahighneedforAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderteachersfromthesesamecommunities(Pattonetal.2012,p.9).The
MATSITIreportalsoraisestheissuesthat:
2
Qualified(andquality)AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachersareseenas
crucialincurrentdiscussionsabouttheAustralianCurriculum,andtherequirement
ofthenationalProfessionalStandardsforTeacherstoembedAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderknowledgesinthecurriculum(Pattonetal.2012,p.9).
Thefactthatin2015therearestillsofewfullyqualifiedIndigenousteachersworkingin
schoolsacrossAustraliaisamatterofnationalconcern.Oneofthemainpurposesofthe
MATSITIinitiative,whichhasbeeninplacefrom2011to2015,wastoexploresomeofthe
reasonswhy,despitethefactthatthecallformoreIndigenousteachershasalonghistory,
thisresearchsuggeststhatAustralianteachereducationprogramsnationwideare
strugglingtoretainandgraduatestudentsfromthesebackgrounds(Pattonetal.2012,p.
7).TheMATSITIreportalsonotesthat:
AlthoughtheneedtoincreasethenumbersofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
teachershasbeenhighlightedformanyyears,littlehaschangednationallysince
the1980swhenHughesandWilmot(1982)calledfor1000Indigenousteachersby
1990(Pattonetal.2012,p.9).
ThisisapointthatisrepeatedlyhighlightedinresearchdoneintheIndigenousteacher
educationspacetheearlytomid-2000s(Herbert2002;Santoro&Reid2004).TheMATSITI
reportsuggeststhatoneofthebarrierstochangeistheresistancetounderstandingthat
thisisacomplexspaceinteachereducationandthereisno‘onesizefitsallstrategy’
(Pattonetal.2012,p.14).Thereportnotesthatthereareatleastthreegroupsofteacher
educationprogramsthatserveparticulargroupsofIndigenousteachereducationstudents.
TherehasbeenconsiderableinvestigationoftheregionalandruralIndigenousteacher
3
educationrealitiesinAustralia(Reidetal.2004;Santoro&Reid2006;Santoroetal.2008).
Howeverinrecentyearstherehasbeenconsiderablylessinvestigationaround‘remote
community-basedAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachereducation’(Pattonetal.
2012,p.14),lessstilloftheremoteNorthernTerritorycontext.Ifwedelvedowntothe
levelofCentralAustraliathereisnexttonoresearchinthisarea.Thisstudyistherefore
necessaryandlongoverdue.
1.2Remotecommunity-basedIndigenousteachereducation
ThepathwayintoteachereducationhasprovenaparticularlydifficultoneforIndigenous
adultsfromremotecommunitiesinAustraliatopursue,particularlyiftheyspeaktheirown
languageprimarilyandEnglishisanadditionallanguage.Thosewhohavesucceededhave
oftendonesoinspiteoftheeducationalsystemtheyareworkinginratherthanbeing
supportedbyit.Theaimofthisdoctoralresearchstudyhasbeentoexplorethisimportant
nationalissue,withaspecificlocalfocusontheremoteCentralAustraliancontext,through
posingthefollowingresearchquestions:
• WhathavebeentheexperiencesofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunities
inCentralAustraliawhohavecompletedteachereducation?
• Whataresomeoftheelementsthatsupportedthemandwhataresomeofthe
barrierstheseteachersencountered?
• Whatarethebenefitstostudents,schoolsandthewidereducationsystemof
havingagreaternumberofqualifiedIndigenousteachersinremoteschools?
4
• Howcanmeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysbecreatedtosupportteacher
educationforfuturegenerationsofIndigenousteachersfromremote
communities?
1.3Apersonalorigin
Theideaforthisresearchhasgrownoutofrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenmyself
andagroupofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesinCentralAustraliawho
havebeensuccessfulintheirambitiontobecomefullyqualifiedteachersaccordingtothe
requirementsoftheNorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoardandtheNorthern
TerritoryDepartmentofEducation.Throughtwoandahalfyearsofworkingtogether
duringthefinalstageoftheirteachereducationIwasprivilegedtohearthestoriesofhow
thesemature-agedwomenbecameteachersinthefirstplace.Similartotheconcerns
expressedatthenationallevelthroughMATSITI,Iwitnessedfirst-handthesadnessand
feartheseteachersfeltforthedearthofyoungIndigenousteachersbeingeducatedtotake
overfromthemoneday.Ifeltstronglythattheirstoriesheldmuchvalue,bothas
testamentstotheteachersthemselvesandtheirdetermination,commitmentand
dedication,butalsoassignpoststothe‘systems’theyworkin–theUniversitysystemthat
educatedthemandtheschoolsystemtheywerebecomingqualifiedtoworkin.
Insomewaysitfeltlikethosestorieswerebeingentrustedtometoholdonto,to
remember,tocontextualiseinmyworkwiththesewomenandtheirrespective
communities,andtodifferentiatefrommyownstoryandjourneytobecomeaqualified
teacher.ButitalsofeltlikethewomenweregivingmethosestoriestoDOsomethingwith
5
them.InmanywaysthisdescriptionbyLindaTuhiwaiSmith(1999,p.197)bestdescribes
thisfeeling,
Ifoundthatpeopleentrustedmewithinformationaboutthemselveswhichwas
highlypersonal,Ifelthonouredbythattrust,andsomewhatobligatedaswell–in
thesenseofhavingtobeverycarefulandveryrespectfulabouthowIhandledsuch
information.
Thestorieswererevealedtomeinthebroadercontextofthereasonswhytheseteachers
hadchosentocomebacktostudyto‘upgrade’theirqualificationsdespitehavingbeen
deemedtobefullyqualifiedunderpreviousteachereducationcertificationrequirements.
Theirmotivationwasintrinsicallylinkedtotheiragenda,andnowmine–toensurethata
newgenerationofteachersfromwithintheirhomecommunitieswerebeingsupported
andequippedtofollowonbehindthem;ortoexplorewhytheyarenot?Ihavenoproofor
evidencethatthisiswhattheteacherswereaskingmetodowiththeirstories,otherthan
theirenthusiasmforhelpingmewiththisresearchnow,andanintuitiveunderstanding
thathasnotdiminishedovertime.Sotheideaforthisresearchwasborn,tousethePhD
processasavehicletoexplorethewiderlearningthatmightbegleanedfromthesestories
abouttheelementsthatsupportandthosethathindersuccesswhenremoteIndigenous
peopleembarkonthejourneytobecomeaqualifiedteacher.
1.4Teachernarratives–methodologicalchoices
Asstatedpreviouslythecommonconcernattheheartofthisresearchwastolookat
pathwaysforpeoplefromremotecommunitiesintoteachereducation.Thekeyvehiclefor
exploringthisconcernwasthestoriesofsevenIndigenousteachersfromremote
6
communitiesinCentralAustraliawhohadsuccessfullycompletedthispathwaytobecome
fullyqualifiedclassroomteachers.Theobviouschoicegiventhatweweredealingwith
storieswastouseanarrativemethodologyandthenmorespecificallyuseamethodsuch
as‘yarning’(BessarabandNg'andu2010;Williams2007)whichhasbeendevelopedin
recentyearsbyIndigenousresearchersasaculturallycongruentwayofundertaking
narrativeresearchwithIndigenousparticipants.Adetaileddecriptionofthe
methodologicalchoicesandmethodsusedareprovidedinChapter4ofthisthesis.
1.5Thinkingaboutprocess-Research,relationshipsandreciprocity
Animportantelementofunderstandingthisresearchandwhatiswritteninthisthesisis
understandingthatithasfocusedasmuchontheprocessasithasontheproduct.Inthis
waywe,myselfandtheteacherparticipants,havetriedtoexploreandembodyPost-
ColonialKnowledgeWorkwhichwillbeexploredtowardstheendofthethesis.Fornow,I
wouldjustaskyourindulgenceasIoutlinesomekeyelementsofourprocesstogether
beforeoutliningtheoverallstructureofthethesisitself.
InconsideringhowtodothisresearchrespectfullyandeffectivelyIhadtoplacethe
relationshipsIhavewiththeteacherparticipantsatthecentreofitall.Tostepbackfrom
thoserelationshipsinordertodotheresearchwouldbe,Ibelieve,incoherentto
Indigenousontology.VeronicaArbon(2008)talksabout‘BeingasReciprocal’and
‘reciprocalrelatedness’(p34).ArbonnotesthatforArabanapeople,thelanguagegroupto
whichshebelongs,‘becomingwhoyouareisaccomplishedbyknowingyourreciprocal
relationships’andthat‘Reciprocityis…afoundationalontologyanditscoreroleistoseek
balancewithintherelatedArabanalifeworld’(Arbon,2008,p34).Arbontalksaboutthis
7
reciprocalrelatednessbeingthewaythatallthingswereworkedoutbetweenallentitiesin
thelocalareaandshemakesadistinctionbetweenthe‘local’andwhatwas‘beyond’.She
notesthat:‘Beyond,strangersexistandcordialrelationsaremaintainedthrough
ceremoniesortherighttopassthroughCountry’(Arbon,2008p34).Itisforthisreason
thatIqualifythereciprocitythatexistsbetweenmyselfandtheteacherparticipants.Our
relationshipsdonotfitneatlyintothe‘reciprocity’thatispartoftheontologythat
Aboriginalpeopleshare.NeitherdoesitfitintomyWesternideasofreciprocity,which
havetraditionallytendedtofocusmoreonthe‘interchangeofprivileges’(‘reciprocity’
OxfordModernEnglishDictionary1996,p.844).Thesereciprocalrelationshipshavehadto
findathirdspaceofunderstanding,onethatisflexibleandopenenoughtoembrace
differentunderstandingsofreciprocity.ItisforthisreasonthatIhavecalledthem‘ongoing
negotiatedreciprocalrelationships’,becauseitisuptothoseofusintherelationshipsto
negotiatethewaytheserelationshipsplayoutinourever-changinginteractions.
1.6AcollectivistapproachtoPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork–disconcertmentand
discovery
Toacknowledgeandexplainourcollectiveprocessisnottodenythecomplexityofitand
thedisconcertment(Verran2013)weexperienceinhowthisworksinpractice.Questions
ofobligation,accountability,balance,power,oppressionandequalityareallpartofthat
ongoingprocessofnegotiation.KathrynPyneAddelson(1994,p.5)callsthisprocessthe
continualgenerationandregenerationofthe‘we’andsuggeststhatitisanaturalpartof
allcollectivistacts.Shebelievesthereisgreatvalueinexploringanduncoveringwhatitis
wedotogethertonavigateallofthesedilemmasinthecreationofa‘we’(p.6).Formy
part,Ihavebeenveryawareoftheneedtoremainconsciousandalerttotheassumptions
8
Imakebasedonmypositionasanon-Indigenouspersonfromawhite,middleclassEnglish
speakingbackground.TouseAddelson’swordsIhavehadtobecomeconsciousof,
…thesocietythatweactandenacteveryday,thatwegenerateandregenerate
throughouracceptanceandreinforcementoftheauthoritative‘norms’and
‘standards(Addelson1994,p.11).
IntheAustralianexperiencethese‘norms’and‘standards’arebornoftheoriginalactof
coloniallandtheftanddispossession,theramificationsofwhichcontinuetoshape
contemporarysociety.Thisresultsinthe‘norms’and‘standards’ofAustraliansociety
beingbasedontheexperiencesofonegroupoverandaboveallothersandconsideration
onlybeinggiventoonewayofknowing.So-called‘objective’viewsandmodelsofnorms,
rulesandprinciplesarebiasedtowardsthedominantgroup.Theyignoretherelationships
ofauthorityandpower(Addelson1994,p.14).Freire’sterminologyisthatofthe
oppressorsandtheoppressedbuthetoohighlightstheinstinctofthedominantor
oppressorgrouptomaintaintheirpowerandauthoritybydoingwhatisintheirownself-
interest,includingactsoffalsegenerositytomaintainthestatusquo(Freire1972,p.29).In
theAustraliancontextthemostevidentexampleofthisexistsbetweentheEuropean
colonisingpowerandtheoriginalIndigenousinhabitants.Arbon(2008)writes,
ThemajorityofAustraliansstillcannotacceptthattheknowledgeandphilosophyof
ourpeople….areaslegitimateastheirownbeliefsorthatsuchknowledgecanbe
rightfullycomparedtotheirprivilegedandpowerfulscientificallybasedideologies
andphilosophies.Thesescientificandideologicalpositions,ofteninheritedfroma
pastbeyondourbordersorinclusiveoftheinvasion,areconspicuouslypervasive
9
withincontemporaryAustraliansociety,creatinganenvironmentofsubmersion
andcontrolforArabanaNharlaandotherIndigenouspeople(Arbon2008,p.18).
Theseissuesofhegemony,poweranddisparityareoftenthesubjectofexamination
throughthecriticaltheorystreamofsocialscienceresearch.Freire(1972)isoneofthe
giantvoicesinthisfieldparticularlyintheareaofeducation.Foucault(1977)isanotherkey
voiceparticularlyinrelationtothewaythatsystemsandinstitutionsentrench,reinforce
andmaintainpower.Inareasthatrelatespecificallytoissuesofrace,particularlyin
Indigenous/colonisercontexts,thereisagrowingbodyofworkthatrelatesto‘Whiteness
Theory’and‘CriticalRaceTheory’whichendeavourstounpackandunderstandthe
underlyingcausesofracially-basedinequity.Thesetheorieswillbedrawnuponinalater
chapterofthisthesisinthediscussionofboththeliteratureandtheresearchfindingsfrom
theteachernarratives.
Butunderstandinghowthingsareisnotthesameasdoingthingsdifferently.Addelson
(1994)talksabouttheneedfor‘responsiblework’or‘responsibleresearch’which,rather
thanignoringtheseissuesofauthority,power,normsandstandardsbywhichweenactthe
world,forcestheresearchertoexplore‘theirrelationshipwiththoseothersandthepart
theyplayinmaintaining,generatingandregeneratingthenormsandrules’(p.16).Todo
thiswemustfirstovercomethefalsehoodthatwearesomekindof‘judgingobserver’
(Addelson1994,p.18).Thepositivistviewofknowledgecreationisthatasresearcherwe
cansomehowstepoutoftheprocessoflifeandbeobjective,observingthephenomenon
weareexploringthencreatingsomedetachedandobjectiveanalysisofit.Howeverthisis
contrarytohowweactuallyactashumanbeings,wheremeaningcomesfromrelationship
10
andconnectivityandourdecisionsandactionsaremeasuredbywhatweperceivetobe
ournormsandbeliefs.Inlivinglifeweanswerthequestionofhowweshouldlive–itisin
thedoingthatwediscoverhowtodo.Thisisbecausewearereading,responding,
internalizing,adjustingallthetimebasedonthesubtlebuteverpresentacceptedsocial
normsthatarearoundus.Forthosewhoareinpositionsofpowerandauthoritythenorms
willbebasedaroundsolidifyingandprotectingone’splacewithinthatsocialorder.
Asresearchersweneedtobehyper-consciousofhowweareactingtoprotecttheexisting
positionsofpowerandprivilege,andmustconsciouslystepawayfrommakingdecisions
thatgenerateandregeneratethesocialorder,bysteppingintoaspacewherewecando
‘morallyresponsible’work,workthathasasitsfocusthecreationofa‘we’(Addelson,
1994).Iampartofthisstoryalreadyandtopretendotherwiseisnotpossible.This
researchcannotbeadetachedspaceofjudgingobservation.Theempiricalquestionwith
thefocusofdoing‘responsiblework’thenbecomes‘howdo‘we’embarkonthisaction
togetherinawaythatweareallresponsibletoeachother,andinawaythatgenerates
someknowledgethatis‘ours’aboutwhatwehavedonehere?’Thisquestionandthe
responsegeneratedbytheprocessofthisresearchareexploredfurtherinChapter5.
1.7Epistemologicalchallengesofworkingbetweenknowledges
ThechoicetouseaPhDjourneyastheframeforthiswork,aframewhichisinessencean
individualisttaskthatcarriesmynameforwardastheauthor/cognitiveauthority,created
epistemologicalchallenges.Ihavehadtoquestionifitispossibletofulfilmycontractwith
theUniversitytocompletethisworkwhilestillembarkingonmorallyresponsibleworkthat
isrespectfulofthecreativityofothersastheycreatemeaningandknowledge.Isit
11
possibletodoworkwithinaPhDthatiscognizantofandmakesspaceforthecollective
actionrequiredtodoitwell?Myresponsetothesequestionswastomaketheprocessas
importantastheproductinthisresearch.KathrynPyneAddelson(1994,p.1)suggeststhat
‘Answerstohowweshouldlivearecreatedintheprocessofliving’.InthisveinIsuggest
thatanswerstohowweshoulddo‘morallyresponsible’researchworkareansweredinthe
processofdoingresearchtogether.
ParkerPalmer(2009)callspayingattentiontotheprocess‘theworkbeforethework’.Itis
whatwemustdoifweareusingarelationalepistemology.Itisaboutcomingtotermswith
andunderstandingourinnerlandscape,honestly,sothatweenterintotheprocessof
doingtheworkinfrontofusrelativelyunencumbered.Wearethenabletoenterintoa
‘liveencounter’witheachotherthatpermitstheworkthatemergestobetrustworthyand
‘true’fromtheperspectiveoftheparticipants.Bypayingattentiontothis‘workbeforethe
work’weensurethatwhenweactuallysitdowntodothe‘work’,theexperienceisgood
forallwhoareinvolved,andthefeelingweareallleftwithattheconclusionis‘right’.Itisa
processofuncoveringanddiscoveringtogether;itis,atitscore,creativeandgenerative.
Addelson(1994)alsoadvocatesforthistypeofworkinhercollectivisttheorysaying‘I
believethatuncoveringwhatwedotogethermightleave,asagift,allthefreedomof
creationthatisinfactourown’(p6).Shealsoacknowledgeshowdifficultthistypeofwork
isforinstitutionstoacceptorpermit.Shepointstothechallengeofdoingthiskindof
work:
…withinaninstitutionthatisanofficialenactoroftruthandaproducerofofficial
12
meanings,aninstitutionthathideswhatpeopledotogetheraspartofitstaskof
regeneratingthesocialorder(Addelson1994,p.8).
Shearguesthatinordertocreateknowledgetogetherwemustputasidethedualismof
‘organismandenvironment’aswellastheideaofthe‘objectiveandjudgingobserver’.She
advocatesapositionwheretheresearchcommunitymustacknowledgethat,
Humanbeingsare,afterall,livingorganismswhocreatetheirenvironments–who
even,inthatsense,createbothsocietyandnature…Scientistsareparticipantsinthe
processandtheknowledgethattheyproduceoughttoreflectthat(Addelson1994,
p3).
Palmer(1999,pp.100-103)alsocallsintoquestiontheillogicalobsessioninHigher
Educationandresearchwithobjectivistwaysofknowing,statingthat‘Objectivism,
obsessedwiththepurityofknowledge,wantstoavoidthemessofsubjectivityatallcosts’
(p.100).Hesuggeststherearetwoproblemswithobjectivism;firstly,itfalselyportrays
howweknow,andsecondly,ithasprofoundlydeformedthewayweeducate.Both
Addelson(1994)andPalmer(1999)arguethatknowledgeiscreatedandenacted
collectivelythroughrelationshipsandthatinpayingattentiontowhatpeopleinfactdo
togetherhelpsustounderstandgreatertruthsaboutthecreatedknowledgeitself.
Verran(2013)commentsonwhatactuallyhappensatahumanlevelwhenpeoplefrom
differentepistemologicalunderstandingscometogethertodoknowledgework.Shetalks
13
abouttheneedtolearntoliveinwhatshecallsaspaceof‘existentialpanic’(Verran2013,
p.145)whenworkingininterculturalspacesorthespaceofdifference.Shesaysitistobe
expectedthatwefeelmomentsofepistemicdisconcertmentwhenpeoplefromdifferent
ontologicalandepistemologicaloriginstrytoworktogether.Inherownwords,
Epistemicdisconcertment…amomentofexistentialpanic…impliesthatourtakenfor
grantedaccountofwhatknowledgeishassomehowbeenupsetorimpingedupon
sothatwebegintodoubtandbecomelesscertain…cultivationofepistemic
disconcertmentiscrucialforpost-colonialknowledgework(Verran2013,pp.144-
145).
Howwereacttothosemomentsofdisconcertmentandpanicdefinehowweareableto
moveforwardtogetherin‘goodfaith’or‘badfaith’.Verran(2013)suggeststhatifwewant
awayforwardthatmovesbeyondcolonizingreductionthenweneedtobecomeawareof
andwelcomethesemomentsasevidencethatwearewitnessingepistemicdisconcertment
andengaginghonestlyinthemomentinPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork.Todothiswe
mustgo‘deeperinside’whatishappeningatanepistemologicallevelforthoseinvolved.
1.8Researchdesignandprocess–participatorynarrativeandinterruptingtools
Alloftheseelementsmeantthattheresearchdesign,themethodologicalchoicesandthe
researchprocessitselfhadtobecarefullythoughtthroughifwewereactuallywantingto
dogoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorktogether.Asimportantasanythingelseinthis
research,collaborationwasourconsciousattempttodothe‘workbeforethework’.This
wasdonebyallowingforalong‘conversationalphase’atthebeginningoftheresearch
process,someintentionalconversationsabouttheresearchprocessatspecificstages
14
throughouttheperiodofactiveresearch‘data’workandanintentionalcomingback
togethertoanalysetheresearchdataasagrouplaunchingtheresearch‘dataanalysis’
work.Weconsciouslyandintentionallychosetotalkandthinktogetheraboutwhatwe
weredoingandhowweweredoingit.InVerran’slanguagewewerecultivatingthe
‘collectivedispositiontointerrogatethefamiliar’(2013,p.159).Thisintentional
interrogationofwhatwashappeningasweworkedtogethergeneratednew
understandingsandthesenewunderstandingsofhowwedoknowledgeworktogethersit
alongsidetheresearchfindingsasequallyimportantnewknowledgearisingfromthis
doctoralresearch.Whatwewereinfactdoingwasco-creatingourownmethodofworking
together,whichIhavecalled‘participatorynarrative’.Thismethodacknowledgedthe
teacherparticipantsashavingauthorityandknowledgewellbeyondjustbeingthetellers
ofthenarrativescentraltothisresearch.Asknowledgeauthoritiesinthisfield,theteacher
participantsbecametheco-creatorsoftheprocessandco-contributorstotheanalysis
work.HowthishappenedisexplainedinfulldetailinChapters4and5,butitisimportant
tounderstandthiselementfromtheoutsetasitaffectsthetoneoftheentirethesis.
1.9Thesisoverview
Thethesisitselffollowsafairlysimplestructureofliteraturereview,methodology,
researchfindings,discussionandconclusion.
Chapters2and3locatetheresearchwithinbothhistoricalandpoliticalcontextsofteacher
educationmorebroadly.Chapter2givesananalysisofhistoricalliteraturewithrelationto
formalschoolingandremoteteachereducationintheNorthernTerritory.Thisisimportant
asitcontextualizesthejourneythattheteacherparticipantstalkaboutintheirnarratives.
15
InChapter3thefocusisontheevolutionofthepoliticalandpolicycontextofteacher
educationattheAustralianandNorthernTerritorylevels,andtheimpactofthisonremote
IndigenousteacherssuchastheCentralAustralianbasedteacherparticipantsinthis
doctoralstudy.
Chapters4and5dealwithmethodologicalquestions.Chapter4outlinesthepre-
methodologicalquestionsconsideredintheresearchdesignprocess.Italsoexplainsthe
narrativemethodologyandthensetsoutthespecificparticipatorynarrativeprocess
followedbytheresearcherandteacherparticipants.Chapter5isananalysisanddiscussion
ofthemeritsofusingthisparticipatorynarrativeapproachwhenworkinginan
interculturalknowledgespace.Itisincludedinthebodyofthethesisasitpointstowards
theimportanceofpayingattentiontoandintentionallyinterruptingtheresearchprocess
asawayofworkingtogetherindifferenceandin‘goodfaith’(Verran2013).These
chapterscombinetogiveemphasistothefactthattheteacherswhoparticipatedinthis
researchwerenotjustthetellersofthenarratives,buttheco-constructorsoftheresearch
designandco-participantsintheanalysisanddiscussionstages.
Chapters6and7containtheanalysisoftheteachernarrativesthemselves.Chapter6isthe
groupanalysisoftheseventeachernarrativesandtheinductiveproposalofkeythemes.
Thisprocessisreflectiveoftheimportanceplacedonfindingamethodofanalysisthatwas
inclusiveofmorethanmyselfastheUniversity-recognized‘principalresearcher’.Itwas
importanttoensurethatthemesinthenarrativeswerenotidentifiedsolelybyonenon-
Indigenousperson,butwereinclusiveoftheknowledgeauthoritiesinthefield;thatis,the
teacherparticipantsthemselves.Chapter7thenusesthesevenproposedkeythemesasan
16
analyticalframetoexaminetheindividualteachernarratives.Atthislevelthedepthand
breadthofexamplesrelatingtoeachthemeareexploredingreaterdetail.
ThediscussioninChapter8isdividedintotwoparts.Thefirstpartdiscussesthefindings
fromtheteachernarrativeanalysisthroughthelensofraceandwhiteness.Thesecond
partexaminestheexamplesofgoodinterculturalknowledgeworkrepresentedinthe
teachernarrativeanalysis.Chapter9thenpresentsthenewknowledgeandinsightsthat
havebeengeneratedbythisdoctoralresearch,namelyasuggestedprocessfordoingPost-
ColonialKnowledgeWorkandtheimplicationsofthisforremoteIndigenousteacher
education.FinallyChapter10summariseshowthethesisanswerstheoriginalresearch
questionsaswellasspecificallyaddressingtheclaimsfornewknowledgemadebythis
research.
17
Chapter2–ThehistoricalcontextofformalschoolingandremoteteachereducationintheNorthernTerritory–Areviewofliterature
2.1Introduction
TherecentnationalreportintotheretentionandgraduationofAboriginalandTorresStrait
IslanderstudentsenrolledinInitialTeacherEducation(Pattonetal.2012),aspartofthe
MoreAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderInitiative(MATSITI)remindedusthatalthough
theneedtoincreasethenumbersofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachershas
beenhighlightedformanyyears,littlehaschangednationallysincethe1980swhen,in
1982,HughesandWilmotcalledfor1000Indigenousteachersby1990(inPattonetal.
2012,p.9).ThissametrendistrueforIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesin
theNorthernTerritory.Itishardtogainasenseoftheactualnumberasthereissolittle
datagatheredonthisdemographic.ThemostrecentindicationfromtheTeacher
RegistrationBoardoftheNorthernTerritoryisin2011whichestimatesthenumberof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderTeachersregisteredasclassroomteacherstoworkin
schoolsasaround3%ofthatyear’stotalregistrationof6151teachers(NorthernTerritory
TeacherRegistrationBoardAnnualReport2011).Thisputstheestimatednumberat
around185AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderTeachersacrossthewholeoftheNorthern
Territory.Atthetimeofitsinceptionin2005throughuntil2008,theTeacherRegistration
BoardrecordedthenumbersofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderregisteredteachers.In
2005,156outof3992registeredteachersintheNorthernTerritoryidentifiedasAboriginal
andTorresStraitIslanders.By2008,thelastyearwhentherewasanactualnumber
recorded,thishadgoneupslightlyinnumberto164AboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
18
teachers,buthadgonedownasapercentageofthetotalof5086teachersworkinginthe
schoolsoftheNorthernTerritory(NorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoardAnnual
Reports2005-2008).Thereisonlyanecdotaldataavailableonhowmanyofthissmall
numberofregisteredAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachersliveandworkinvery
remote1communitiesintheNorthernTerritory.
YetthereisongoingandpersistentrhetoricaroundsupportingandencouragingIndigenous
Teacherstobecomefullyqualifiedclassroomteachers.Theliteraturereviewedinthis
chapterisbasedonthefollowingquestion:Howdoesexplorationofthehistoricalcontext
ofIndigenousteachereducationintheNorthernTerritoryhelpshedlightonthecurrent
lownumbersofpeoplefromremoteIndigenouscommunitiesbecomingqualified
teachers?Theliteratureaboutthisquestionwillbeexploredthroughtwokeylenses.
Firstly,IwilltakeanhistoricallookatthedevelopmentofformalschoolingintheNorthern
TerritoryandtheconnectedworkofIndigenouspeopleasteachersintheseschools.The
secondlenswillbeamoredetailedexplorationoftheliteratureavailableaboutthespecific
historicaldevelopmentoftrainingcoursesandteachereducationforIndigenouspeoplein
theNorthernTerritory.
Theaimofthischapteristocontributesufficientbackgroundandcontextsoasto
understandtheteachernarrativesexaminedinlaterchapters.Thisisstronglyinkeeping
withacentralthemeofCriticalRaceTheory(CRT)whichchallengesahistorismandinsists
oncontextualandhistoricalanalysiswithspecificfocusontheroleofraceinanygiven
1 Australian Bureau of Statistics classification: http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114.nsf/4a256353001af3ed4b2562bb00121564/6b6e07234c98365aca25792d0010d730/$FILE/ASGS%20Remoteness%20Structure%20-%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf
19
problem(Gillborn2006;Ladson-BillingsandTate2006;Matsuda1995).Thistheorywillbe
exploredfurtherinthediscussioninChapter8.Fornowthisreviewofliteratureisoffered
asawayofbeginningtoprovidesomehistoricalexplanationsforthepresentreality.
2.2AhistoryofformalschoolingforIndigenousstudentsintheNorthernTerritory
AnyexplorationofIndigenousteachereducationintheNorthernTerritory(NT)mustfirst
becontextualizedagainstthebackdropofthehistoryofformalschoolingsystemintheNT.
Pre-invasioneducationforIndigenouspeopleinAustraliawaswellestablishedwithin
familygroupsandcommunities.Price(2012)notesthat‘AboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderpeoplehavealwayshadtheirowneducationandthiseducationbeganassoonas
thechildmovedinthewomb,assoonasitwasknownthattherewasanewresponsibility’
(p.4).Thissystemoflearningbasedon‘embodieddistinctpracticalteachingstyles,
observation,imitation,repetitionandpracticalactivity’(Russo&Rodwell1989,p.1)also
includedtheroleoftheteacherwithPrice(2012,p.4)observingthat‘foreachchildthere
wasateacher,amentorandapeerwithwhomtolearn.Therewere‘tutors’:wisewomen
andmenwhoensuredthathistoryandtheessentialsoflifeweretaught’.Thepurposeof
thiseducationwastoprepare‘thechildforhis/herroleinthelifeofthetribe,inpersonal,
social,economicandspiritualterms’(Russo&Rodwell1989,p.1).Thisperiodoftime,
unfetteredbycolonialsettlementanditstrappings,isstillwithinlivingmemoryofseveral
generationsstillalivetodayintheNorthernTerritory.
However,asnotedintheMATSITIreport,anydiscussionofAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderparticipationinhighereducationmusttakeintoaccountdisadvantageandthe
broaderissuesofsocialclass.Thismeanstheconsiderationofbarriersrelatedtothe
20
historicaleffectsofcolonization,socialdisadvantageandthehistoricalexclusionof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderchildreninschooling(Pattonetal2012,p10).Initially
aftercolonizationeducationwasnotevenaconsiderationfortheIndigenouspopulationof
Australia.Thiswasbasedlargelyontheattitudeofthetimewhichsawearly
anthropologistsofferthefollowingdescriptions:
‘theAustralianaboriginesarethemostprimitiveorbackwardrace’onEarth
(Spencer1904,p.376)
RelicsoftheStoneAge,theyweredoomed,andlittlemorecouldbedoneotherthan
maketheir‘pathtofinalextinction…aspleasantaspossible’(SpencerandGillen
1899,pp.17-18)
Europeanstyleschoolsinanyformwerenotsystematicallyestablisheduntilthe1950’s.
Willis(1985)suggeststhatthehistoryof‘AboriginalEducation’intheNorthernTerritory
canbebrokenintofourperiodsnamely:
1. upto1950s–whichcanbecharacterizedasaperiodofneglectwithsometoken
examplesofschoolsemerging;
2. the1950s-1970swhichroughlycorrespondstothepolicyofassimilation;
3. aperiodof‘culturaladaptation’between1972-1975;and
4. theperiodfrom1975onwardswhichhasoscillatedbetweenpoliciesofcultural
adaptationandassimilation.
Whenconsideringothersources,amoreappropriatedefinitionofthethirdperiodmight
befrom1967,whichwastheyearoftheFederalReferendumthatgavetheNational
governmentthepowertolegislateforIndigenousAustraliansintheStatesandfor
21
IndigenousAustralianstobecountedasAustraliancitizens,until1979whichwastheyear
theNorthernTerritorybeganself-government.
2.2.1Before1950
AcrossAustralia,intheearlydaysofEuropeancolonization,schoolsweregenerally
establishedbythechurch,withtheunderstandingthattheyweretheretocaterforthe
whitechildrenonly(Russo&Rodwell1989,p.1).Theprevailingattitudeofthetimewas
heavilyinvestedinSocialDarwinismandanyminimaleffortsatschoolingforAboriginal
childrenwerebasedonnotionsof‘civilisingandChristianisingtheprimitivesavages’(Russo
&Rodwell1989,p.1).Bythemid1800’seventhese‘civilising’effortsdoneinaspiritof
‘benevolentprotection’werebeingchallengedbygroupssuchastheEugenicsmovement
whowerecallingforgreater‘segregation’andafundingfocusonthe‘educationofthe
whitesettlersofthecolony’and‘protectingsocietyfromcontaminationofthelower
orders’.ThisattitudewasprevalentwhenthefirstschoolwasestablishedintheNorthern
Territoryinthemid-1870s(Oliver&Rodwell1989,p.v;Willis1985,p.47).Anexampleof
thisattitudeisthe‘MentalDeficiencyActof1913’whichaimedto‘segregateandcontrol
themovementsandfertilityofthefeeblemindedinordertoprotectsociety’.This
definitionof‘feebleminded’extendedtoAboriginalpeopleatthistimewithwordssuchas
‘savage,loworder,primitive,barelyhuman,barbaric,dyingrace,blacksandmentally
inferior’beingvariouslyusedtodescribeAboriginalpeopleduringthisperiod(Russo&
Rodwell1989,p2).MoretonRobinson(2004,p.76)expandsonthislistsuggestingthat
IndigenouspeopleinAustraliahavebeenvariouslylabelledas‘treacherous,lazy,drunken,
childish,cunning,dirty,ignoble,noble,primitive,backward,unscrupulous,untrustworthy
22
andsavage’.Thislanguagegivesastrongsenseoftheovertideologyatthattime,butis
alsoasignposttosomeprevailingcontemporaryattitudesthatareoftenlessovert.
ThecommonlyacceptedpublicmythatthetimewasthatAboriginalpeoplewere
‘uneducable’(Price2012).Priceattributesthistoakindofsocialglassceilingthatwas
placedonAboriginalchildrenwhowereseenbymanyas‘onlyfittolearntosew,launder,
cook,clean,garden,buildfences,tendlivestockandgenerallyparticipateinmoremenial
tasks’(Price2012,p.4).Theselimitationswerebuiltintotheearlyeducationsystems
whichwerealmostexclusivelyrunbychurchmissions,taughtexclusivelybywhiteteachers
orclergywhosepurposewastoindoctrinateintotheculturalnormsandvaluesofthe
colonisers(Green&Reid2002).Aboriginalchildrenwereexpectedbythecompletionof
theirschooling‘toattainthelevelachievedbyaten-year-oldchildinthestateeducation
system,withanemphasisonpreparingthechildrenforafutureasunskilledworkerswithin
thegovernmentormissioncommunitiesorascheaplabourinthewidercommunity’(Price
2012,p.4).Forthemostpart,however,Aboriginalchildrenweredeliberatelyexcluded
fromattendingschool.In1929J.W.Bleakleywrotea‘ReportontheAboriginalsandHalf
CastesofCentralAustraliaandNorthAustralia’andinithesuggestedthat‘Untilthe
Territoryisfurtherdevelopedandfacilitiesfortheeducationofwhitechildrenare
provided,anyattemptatcompulsoryeducation(ofAborigines)…wouldbeoutofthe
question.Therescueofhalf-castesfromthecampsandeducationininstitutionsshouldbe
compulsory’(Bleakely1929,p.38).
OnlyinveryfewinstanceswherethenumbersofAboriginalchildreninoneplacewere
largeenoughwouldspecialsegregatedschoolsbesetup,usuallybychurchmissionary
23
organizations(Russo&Rodwell1989,p.3).AnexampleofthisintheNorthernTerritoryis
theHermannsburgMissionSchoolestablishedintheearly1880s,perhapsthefirstexample
ofbilingualschoolingintheNT.Thecurriculumwasbasedonscriptureandthe3R’sand
encouragedaprotestantworkethicanddiscipline(Russo&Rodwell,p.4).Examplessuch
asthisledtoincreasingpressureinthelate1800’sontheSouthAustralianGovernment,
whohadresponsibilityforschoolsintheNorthernTerritoryatthattime,toprovidesecular
educationforAboriginalchildren.HowevertheGovernment‘wasreluctanttoacton
recommendationsthatnecessitatedadditionalexpenditureoffunds’(Russo&Rodwell
1989,p.4).Somerareexamplesexistedofsegregatedschoolsbeingestablishedforthe
educationofAboriginalchildreninplacessuchasKahlinCompoundinDarwin(Urvet1982;
Russo&Rodwell1989)andBagotAboriginalReserveinDarwin(Urvet1982).
However,increasinglythedevelopmentofeducationalopportunitiesforAboriginal
childrenwerelinkedtothepoliciesofremovalof‘halfcaste’childrenfromtheirfamilies.In
theNorthernTerritorychildrenofmixedparentagewerebeingtakenfromtheirfamilies
andcommunitiesandplacedincompoundsinplacessuchasMelvilleandCrokerIslands,
AliceSpringsandPineCreekgenerallymanagedbyCatholicandMethodistmissionaries.It
wasthengenerallyuptothemissionarieswhatkindof‘schooling’wasprovided(Russo&
Rodwell1989,p.5).InAliceSpringsthefirstschoolwasestablishedin1914(Willis1985,p.
47).Europeanchildrenwereschooledinthemorningsand‘halfcaste’childreninthe
afternoonsuntilachangeofschoolMatronsawtheAboriginalchildrenremovedentirely
andsenttoJayCreek45kilometrestothewestofAliceSprings(Urvet1982,p.6;Willis
1985,p.47).Thisnotionofeducationof‘mixedbloods’asopposedto‘fullbloods’is
echoedbyA.K.Elkin’scommentsin1937inthejournalofOceania:
24
Thepresentpolicyistoeducateaborigines(mostlymixed-bloods)uptowhatmight
becalleda“usefullabourer’sstandard”,fortodomore,ifitwerepossible,would
nothelpthem...aborigines(fullandmixedblood)shouldnot,andcannot,be
assimilatedbythewhitecommunity.Theymustliveapart...theycannotbecome
equalsofthewhiterace.(ElkinascitedinGrayandBeresford2008,p.205)
Theyear1940sawthepolicyofassimilationadoptedbytheCommonwealthandStates
conferenceonAborigines.However,asnotedbyRussoandRodwell(1989,p.6),‘after
morethansixtyyearsofsegregation,publicopiniondidnotnecessarilychangeinharmony
withthelegislation’.Thisledtothe‘swiftcompromise’of‘specialclasses’orannexschools
effectivelycontinuingthepracticesofsegregationforafurthertenyears(Russo&Rodwell
1989,pp.6-7).Upuntil1950adualsystemofschoolingexistedintheNorthernTerritory
wheretheresponsibilityforschoolingfornon-Indigenouschildrenwassharedbetweenthe
CommonwealthandSouthAustralia,andAboriginaleducationwastheresponsibilityofthe
WelfareBranchoftheNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofTerritories(Russo&Rodwell
1989,p.7;Urvet1982,p.25;Willis1985,p.47).Policiesaroundaccesstoeducationwere
changingbutsystems,structuresandattitudesensuredthatthequalityofeducation
availabletotheIndigenouspopulationoftheNorthernTerritoryremainedunequal.Even
thoughbythe1950saccesstoeducationforIndigenouschildrenwasgenerallywell
established‘thisdidnotmeanequalityofeducationalopportunityorthat,becausepolicy
hadchangedthatthiswasreflectedinthegeneralpublic’sattitudesandbehaviour’(Russo
&Rodwell1989,p.7).CampbellandProctor(2014)reinforcethispointstatingthatthe
‘obstaclesfacingAboriginalchildrenremainedconsiderable’,that‘theremovalofformal
25
enrolmentbarsdidnotnecessarilymaketheschoolswelcomingplaces’andthat‘the
attainmentof‘European’educationwaslikelyattheexpenseofAboriginalculture’(p205).
2.2.21950s-1967
CampbellandProctor(2014,p.203)suggestthateducationinthesecondhalfofthe1900s
wascharacterizedbytwobroadstrandsofreforms.Thefirstwasthereformofwhatwas
happeninginsideclassroomsinresponsetotheprogressivismofthepostwarperiod.The
secondaddressedthesocialandeconomicinequalityexperiencedbyanumberofgroups
includingIndigenouschildren.However,CampbellandProctor(2014)alsonotethatthere
werecompetingvisionsforchangein‘Aboriginaleducation’.Whilesometookanactivist
approachfocusingonhumancitizenshiprightsandeconomicinequality,othersremained
withinanassimilationistorevenpaternalisticparadigm.Urvet(1982,p.25)notesthat
‘priortotheSecondWorldWar,exceptforthestepstakentoeducatepart-aboriginal
childreninspecialinstitutions,noattempthadbeenmadebytheGovernmenttodevelop
specialeducationprogramsforAboriginalchildren’.Manychildrenlivinginremoteareasof
thenorthofAustralia,firstencounteredschoolsinthe1950sand1960s(Campbelland
Proctor2014,p.203).Inthelate1940sconcernswereraisedandresearchdoneintothe
‘problemsofeducatingfull-bloodAborigines’whichultimatelyledtoanagreementin1950
resultingintheeducationofallAboriginalchildrenbecomingpartofthebroader
Commonwealthpolicyofassimilation,whichwaspreviouslyaimedonlyat‘part-Aborigines’
(Urvet1982,p.26).Willis(1985)pointsoutthatthispushforassimilationhappened
‘despitethefactthatitwasnolongerfavouredinotherpartsoftheworldconcernedwith
thedevelopmentandeducationofIndigenouspeoples’(p.48).Inresponsetothisvervefor
26
assimilationnewCommonwealthschoolswereestablishedinthe1950sintheNorthern
TerritoryatDelisaville(Belyuen),BagotinDarwin,theBungalowinAliceSpringsand
Yuendumu.AccordingtoUrvet(1982,p.27)in1950asix-weektrainingcoursebeganfor
newteachersheadingtotheNorthernTerritory.ThecoursewasconductedinSydney
wheretheteacherslearnedAnthropology,TropicalMedicine,HistoryandAimsofNative
EducationandTeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage.
By1956therewerefourteengovernmentspecialschoolsandfourteenmissionschools
cateringfor1633AboriginalchildrenintheNT(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1982,p13)withschoolsnowalsooperatinginplacessuchasSantaTeresa,Finke
andPapunya(Willis1985,p.48).By1968itwasestimatedthatschoolingwasavailableto
90percentofthepotentialprimaryschoolagegroup(Urvet1982p28).Willisnotesthat
theassumptionbehindthisexpansionofschoolingforchildrenintheremotesettlements
wasthat‘Aboriginalpeoplewouldlearnwesternculturalwaysintherelativelyprotected
environmentofthesettlementandthenwouldmoveintothemainstreamofsociety’
(Willis1985,p.48).
Asthissystemexpandedtherecruitmentofqualifiedteachersbecameincreasingly
challenginganddespitespecialistteachertrainingschemesbeingestablishedinBrisbane,
Perth,AdelaideandGeelongsupplydidnotmatchdemand(Urvet1982,p.29).Itwasthis
challengethatinfactgaverisetothetrainingandemploymentof‘AboriginalTeaching
Assistants’fromthelate1950sonwards(Urvet1982,p.31).TheCommonwealthcontrolof
the‘AboriginalEducation’systemintheNorthernTerritorycreatedseparationbetween
typesofschools,with‘Aboriginal’schoolsunderthecontroloftheCommonwealthand
27
mainstreamschoolsunderthecontrolofSouthAustralia.Thismeantthataunifiedsystem
andphilosophyofeducationdidnotevolveasitdidintheStatesandfurthermorethe
provisionofeducationissuebecamedivisivewithscarceresourceshavingtobesplit
betweentwosystemsandthissplitreliedonthegood-will,commonsenseandco-
operationofseniorofficersinbothsystems(Urvet1982,p.32).Huxleynotesthatby1966
onlythree‘full-blood’AborigineswereinsecondaryschoolintheNorthernTerritory
(Huxley1967,p.257).TheWattsandGallagherreportof1964focusedonthisissueof
studentprogressionamongstotherissues.Thisreportultimatelyledtothedevelopmentof
‘TransitionColleges’:KormildaCollegeinDarwinopeningin1967withsimilarinstitutions
beingestablishednearNhulumbuy(Dhupuma)andAliceSprings(Yirara)inlate1973(Urvet
1982,p.29).
ApowerfulturningpointinAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandereducationhappenedinthe
formofthe1967Federalreferendum.UntilthispointAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
peopleinAustraliahadbeenclassifiedaccordingtothelawas‘fauna’.Thiswasinlarge
partbecausetheattitudesincecolonizationhadbeenthatasanirredeemablyprimitive
race,theyweredeemedincapableofexercisingtherightsofcitizenshiporappreciatingits
responsibilities(McGregor1997).MoretonRobinson(2004,p.77)pointsoutthatthis
‘racializeddistinctionbetweentheanimalandthehuman…operatedtonormalize
whitenessasthemeasureofbeinghuman’.Untilthispointthisfaunalclassificationalong
with‘TheWhiteAustraliapolicy’combinedtomakeAnglocentricwhitenessthedefinitive
markerofcitizenshipinAustralia(MoretonRobinson2004,p.79).Sothislegalshiftthat
sawAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleaccordedfullcitizenshiprightsforthefirst
timewassignificantinovertlyaddressinganissueofrace.Aswillbediscussedinlater
28
chaptershowever,alegalshiftdoesnotnecessarilyindicateanideologicalone.These
citizenshiprightsincludedimportantrightsrelatedtoeducation(Burridge&Chodkiewicz
2001,p.16;Price2012,p.6).This‘YES’vote,supportedbyover90%oftheAustralian
population,ledtoanintenseperiodofrapidchangeinIndigenousaffairsbothfederally
andintheNorthernTerritory.
2.2.31967-1979
The1967referendumledtomuchgreatercontrolofAboriginalEducationbythe
Commonwealthandmoreresourcesbeingputintoconsultationwithcommunitiesand
otherstakeholders.ItalsoledtothedevelopmentofNationalAboriginalEducationpolicies
forthefirsttime(Burridge&Chodkiewicz2001,p.17)andtheAboriginalConsultative
group,acommitteeoftheSchoolsCommission(CampbellandProctor2014,p.205;
Burridge&Chodkiewicz2012,p.17).Thefirsthalfofthe1970salsosawasignificant
growthintheinvolvementofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleineducation
(Price2012,p.8),atleastattheFederallevel.Whileonthesurfacethismarkedanendof
sortstotheassimilationistera,itisworthnotingthatin1969theideologyremainslargely
unchanged.Forexample,
ThefundamentalassumptionisthattheAustralianstateeducationalsystemsandtheir
valuesshouldbetaughttoAborigines:onemustteachtheAboriginehowtobecomea
whiteAustralian,thenteachhimatrade,andthenexpectachievementinthewhite
Australiansenseoftheterm(Tatz1969,p.6)
Howeversomeimportantstructuralchangeshappenedinthisperiod.The1970ssawthe
effectiveendofthedualeducationsystemintheNorthernTerritory.In1973South
29
AustraliawithdrewfromitsinvolvementintheNorthernTerritoryeducationsystem(Urvet,
Heatley&Alcorta1980;Willis1985).Onthe12February1973,theALPPrimeMinister
GoughWhitlamannouncedthathehadendorsedanagreementwherebyeducationfor
AboriginesintheNTincludingadulteducationwouldbecometheresponsibilityofthe
CommonwealthMinisterforEducation.Allschoolsatthispoint,whichhadpreviouslybeen
labelledasCommunityschoolsorSpecialAboriginalschools,became‘NorthernTerritory
Schools’andtheNTEducationalbranchbecameresponsibleforamuchlargersystem.This
waspartoftheWhitlamgovernment’splatformto‘restoretotheAboriginalpeopleof
Australiatheirlostpowerofself-determination’(CampbellandProctor2014,p.204).The
CommonwealthretainedcontrolovertheNorthernTerritoryeducationsystemuntil1979
whentheNorthernTerritorywasgiventherighttoself-govern(Urvet,Heatley&Alcorta
1980,p.18;Willis1985,p.47).
Thiseraof‘self-determination’broughtthelocalcontextbackintofocusintheNorthern
Territory.Oneexampleofthisisthe‘Outstationmovement’whichbeganduringthisera.
ThiswasamovementofAboriginalpeoplebacktocountryawayfromthemissionand
settlementstolivingontheirancestrallands.In1974therewere8outstations,butby1978
thisnumberhadgrownto40outstationsacrosstheNorthernTerritory(Urvet1982,p.42).
Anothersignificantdevelopmentduringthisperiodwastheformalestablishmentof
bilingualschoolsin1973(Urvet1982,p.40).Thelanguagebeingusedtoannouncethe
bilingualinitiativeandtheeducationalaimsinthestatementbelowisafascinating
reflectionoftheshiftinattitudetakingplaceduringthisperiod:
OneofthemostsignificantAustralianGovernmentinnovationsinAboriginal
30
educationhasbeentheintroductionthisyearofbilingualeducationincertain
NorthernTerritoryschools.Thepolicyistointroducethisprogram,ascircumstances
permit,inschoolswherethenecessaryprerequisitesaremet.Theseareschoolsin
distinctiveAboriginalcommunitieswhereanAboriginallanguageisthemother
tongueofthechildren….theaimisforthesechildrentocommencetheirschoolingin
theirownlanguage,proceedtotheacquisitionofliteracyskillsinthatlanguage,
thenacquireliteracyinEnglishandhavemostoftheirsubsequentschoolingin
English.Theeducationalaimofsuchanapproachisthedevelopmentofchildren
whoarethoroughlycompetentintheirownlanguageandabletoreadandwriteit,
whoaremoreproficientinEnglishthantheywouldhavebeenundertheprevious
systemandwhoarebetteratalltheirschoolsubjectsbecausetheirschooling,and
theirearlyschoolinginparticular,hasbeenmoreinteresting,enjoyableand
meaningfultothem.Onewouldalsoexpectpsychologicalbenefitsfromthis
recognitionofthechildren’slanguageandculture,andmoreenthusiasticsupport
fromtheparentsfortheschoolingtheirchildrenareoffered.(Tandy1973,p.21)
Itisworthnotingthesignificanceofthisannouncementandthephilosophical
underpinningsasthebilingualschoolsmovementgavegreatimpetusandmomentumfor
thetrainingoflocalteacherswhocouldteachthefirstlanguageofthechildrenintheir
owncommunities.Itwasduringthisperiodthatthefirstnationaltargetsforthetraining
andeducationofAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderclassroomteacherswereestablished
(Price2012p8).TheReportbyO’GradyandHale(1974)into‘BilingualEducationinthe
NorthernTerritory’alsoaddedweighttothissupportofeducationforAboriginalstaffwith
someoftheirrecommendationsfocusingonabroadeningoftheAboriginalbaseofthe
31
bilingualeducationstaffandprovisionstobemadeforthetemporaryreplacementof
bilingualeducationpersonnelwhoareonleaveforvariouscoursesofstudy.Bi-lingual
educationcommencedinfiveAboriginalschoolatthestartof1973,twoinCentral
Australia–AreyongaandHermannsburg-andthreeintheTopEnd–Angurugu,Goulburn
IslandandMilingimbi.Overthefollowingfewyearstheprogramexpandedrapidlywith
sixteenschoolsparticipatingby1976andthenafurthersixjoiningtheprogramtomakea
totaloftwenty-twobilingualschoolsby1978(Urvet1982,p.41).
Theexpansionofbilingualeducationprovidedthekeyimpetusforthedevelopmentofthe
RemoteAreaTeacherEducation(RATE)program,anon-siteteachertrainingprogramfor
Aboriginalteachers,whichcommenceddeliveryinYirrkalaCommunityinNorthEast
ArnhemLandin1976.ThismeantthatforthefirsttimeAboriginalpeoplewhowantedto
doteachertrainingdidnothavetoleavetheirhomecommunity(Urvet1982,p.41).Many
oftheteacherparticipantswhoarethefocusofthisthesis,whowentontocomplete
teachereducationcamefrombilingualschoolsandstartedtheirteachereducationwith
theRATEprogram.Thisisdiscussedingreaterdetaillaterinthischapter.
2.2.41979–presentday
Willis(1985)pointsoutthatwhilemuchofthe1970sarelabelledasbeingatimeof‘self-
determination,’amoreapplicablelabelwouldbetheterm‘culturaladaptation’(p.48).She
pointsoutthattheofficialpolicyof‘self-determination’wasconnectedtotheshortlived
periodoftheWhitlamgovernmentandthatitwasneveradoptedasapolicybythenewly
formedNorthernTerritoryGovernmentwhichcameintoexistencein1979.Willisargues
thatwhilethiswasaperiodofgreatchangeoftenthesechangeswerenotimplemented
32
withadequateconsultationorviablestructures.Inparticularshenotesthat‘controlof
educationalservicesandfundswasnotinthehandsofAboriginalpeopleandnoviable
structureswereestablishedtobringthisabout’.Eventheintroductionofbilingual
education‘wasimplementedwithoutpriorconsultationwithAboriginalparents’(Willis
1985,p.48).Rudolph(2013,pp.209-210)notesthatduringthisperiodwhiletherewas
rhetoricalsupportfordifference,supportingitinpracticeprovedmoredifficultinasociety
stillheavilyrootedinAnglo-centricinstitutionsandideology.
Theperiodfromthe1980sthroughtothepresentdaycanbebestcharacterizedasoneof
policyoverload.ManynationalpoliciesaboutAboriginaleducationweredevelopedinthe
1980sandhavesubsequentlyundergonereviewafterreviewandrevisionafterrevision,
ofteninconcertwiththepoliticalagendaoftheNationalgovernmentoftheday.For
example,thefirstAboriginalEducationPolicy(AEP)wasdevelopedinNewSouthWalesin
1982(AboriginalEducationUnit1995).ThispolicywasthensupersededbytheNational
AboriginalEducationPolicy,knownastheAEP,in1989(Price2012).Anotherexampleis
the‘AboriginalEducationandTrainingactionplan’introducedinthe1980s,revisedin2009
andrelabelledtheAboriginalEducationandTrainingpolicy(Burridge&Chodkiewicz2012,
p.18).Despitethesepolicydirectionstherewereoftenverypassiveresponsestothe
policies,examplesofintentionalorselectiveignoringorfailuretoimplementpolicy.
BurridgeandChodkiewicz(2012)refertothisphenomenonassubliminalprioritizationof
whicheducationalpolicieswereimportantandwhichcouldbeignored.Addingtothis
policyenvironmentweretwomajorreviewsofIndigenouseducationconductedbythe
NorthernTerritoryEducationDepartment,the‘LearningLessonsReport’(Northern
33
TerritoryDepartmentofEducation,1999)andthe‘Ashareinthefuture’report(Wilson
2014).
ThesereviewsweresupplementedbytheLadwigandSarra(2009)‘StructuralReviewof
theNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducationandTraining’,andthereviewbyNutton
andothers(2012)entitled‘Recruitment,retentionanddevelopmentofqualityeducatorsin
veryremoteNTschools’.Nottobeoutdone,theCommonwealthGovernment,in
conjunctionwithStateandTerritorygovernments,reviseditsAboriginalpoliciesseveral
timesduringthisperiodcarryingout‘majorinvestigationsintoimprovingtheeducational
attainmentofAboriginalstudentsatalllevelsoftheeducationalspectrum’(Burridge&
Chodkiewicz2012,p.19).AllthisculminatedintheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
EducationActionPlan2010-2014withsixprioritydomains,oneofwhichis‘Leadership,
qualityteachingandworkforcedevelopment’(Burridge&Chodkiewicz2012,p.19).This
mostrecentperiod’smaincharacteristicisthesignificantgapbetweenpolicy,subsequent
changesinpracticeandanykindofbeneficialoutcomes(Burridge&Chodkiewicz2012);in
otherwords,questionableachievement.
Insummary,Willis(1985)assertsthat‘(d)espitedifferencesinpolicyeachofthefour
stageshasbeencharacterizedbyfailuretoinvolveAboriginalpeopleindecisionmaking;
failuretolearnfromoverseasexperiences;aconcentrationonchild-basededucationand
lowmoraleintheschoolsystem’(p.46).RussoandRodwell(1989)alsocommentonthe
limitationsofanychangethattookplace.‘Aboriginaleducationhassufferedfromneglect,
indifference,antagonism,prejudiceandtheculturaldominationofthewidersociety’(p.7).
Price(2012)levelsacriticismofadifferentkindsuggestingthattheintroductionofthe
34
westerneducationsystemcreatedapolaroppositeexperienceoflearningforAboriginal
andTorresStraitIslanderchildrencomparedtothelearningtheyexperiencedintheirown
culturalsystem.‘Westerneducationintroducedregulatedratherthanstagedlearning,and
enforcedparticipation–aswellas‘non-compliance’:failure,truancyandnon-attendance.
TheseareallnegativewordsassociatedwithAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents’
(Price2012,p.4).BurridgeandChodkiewicz(2012,p.20)suggestthat‘manyoftheearly
policieswereladenwithpreconceivedcolonialist,ethnocentricandcivilizingnotionsof
raceandculture,theirimplementationprovedverydetrimentaltothewell-beingof
Aboriginalpeople’.Incontrasttheyassertthat‘thepoliciesofthelatterpartofthe20th
Centuryweredevelopedinamoreconsultativeway,inclusiveofAboriginalvoices,and
werethereforemoreresponsivetotheneedsofAboriginalchildren,communitiesand
protocols’(Burridge&Chodkiwicz2012,p20).Whilethismaywellbetruewithrespectto
thedevelopmentofmorerecentpoliciesaroundIndigenouseducation,itcontinuestobe
worthaskingsomehardquestionsaroundtherollout,implementationandenforceability
ofsuchpolicies.Whilethetoneandlanguageofthepoliciesmayhavechanged,isthere
stillselectiveignoringandpassiveresistancetotheimplementationoftheseideasandis
suchresistancestillfirmlyembeddedinthecolonialistandethnocentricviewsofthepast?
2.3TrainingprogramsandteachereducationforIndigenousstaffinremoteschoolsintheNorthernTerritory
2.3.1Earlydays
AccordingtotheMATSITIreportthereareearlyrecordsofuntrainedAboriginalteachersin
missionschoolsandonstations(Pattonetal.2012,p.10)butthatthese‘Aboriginal
teacheraides’wereoftenexploited,underpaidanddelegatedmenialduties(Pattonetal.
35
2012,p.13).Ingram(2004)notesthatapprovalforAboriginalTeachingAssistantstowork
inNorthernTerritorySchoolsfirsthappenedin1953.Howeververylittlewaswrittenon
thetopicofteachertrainingorteachereducationforIndigenouspeopleworkinginremote
schoolsbeforethe1960sandeventhentheliteratureissparse.BothPattonandothers
(2012)andIngram(2004)suggestthatthefirsttrainingcourseforAboriginalTeacher
assistantswasconductedinthe1960s.TheWattsandGallacherreportintoAboriginal
Schoolsin1964alsomakesmentionoftheneedtoextendtrainingprogramsinlightofthe
incompleteeducationoftheteacherassistantsthemselves.TheWattsandGallacherreport
(1964)talksaboutthe‘MasterofMethod’approach.Inparticulartheauthorsnotethat,
newpossibilitiesforthetrainingofassistantsshouldfallintotwomainareas–
trainingcoursesandfollow-upworkintheschools.
and
TheMasterofMethod,inspectors,headteachersandteachersshouldcooperatein
theireffortstogivemaximumguidancetotheteachingassistantswithaviewto
increasingtheirefficiency.
Alreadywecanseetheoriginsofwhatcametobeknownasthe‘mixedmode’or‘block
releasemode’approachtoremotelearning(Asmar,Page&Radloff2011).ThereisalsoThe
‘SpecialSchoolsBulletin’of1967whichtalksabouttheimplementationofonesuch
trainingcoursestatingthat:
DuringtheChristmasschoolvacationtwelvewomenandeightmenattendeda
TeacherAssistant’sCourseheldinDarwinattheBerrimahTrainingCentre.Sixteen
ofthesestudentshadbeennominatedbytheMissions.Allnominationsreceived
36
fromWelfareBranchschoolswereaccepted…Duringthecourseadiversetraining
programmewasfollowedinwhichtherudimentsofteachinganacademicstudy
occupiedmuchoftheday.Thiswasnormallyfollowedbyart,musicorphysical
educationtakenbythespecialistteacherconcerned….Topattainmentsarestill
muchlowerthandesired,buttherewouldbemanyteachers’collegesinemerging
countriesthatwouldappreciateaclassthathadthequalitiesandabilitiesshownby
theseteachingassistants.(SpecialSchoolsBulletin1967)
ThenationalliteratureonthistopicreallybeginsinAustraliainthe1970swhenIndigenous
peoplebegantobemoreformallyincludedinteachereducationprograms.These
programswerelocatedintheTAFEorcommunityeducationsystemsanditwasoftenmore
communitybasedandinvolvedgreatcommunityengagementandAboriginalleadership
(Pattonetal.2012,p.13).Itisatthistimethatpeoplebegintoanalyzethebenefitsof
havinglocalpeopleonstaffinschoolsintheroleof‘AboriginalTeacherAides’,tousethe
terminologyofthetime(Budby&Young1976;Cameron1973;Dyer1973;McClay&
Bucknall1973),or,astermedbyAllen(1979)andMore(1978),‘AboriginalTeacher
Assistants’.ThewritingcomesmostlyfromtheNorthernTerritory,QueenslandandSouth
AustraliawithsomewritingfromNewSouthWalesand,inthelaterstages,remotepartsof
WesternAustralia.Themainbenefitstheseauthorsidentifiedforhaving‘Aboriginal
TeacherAides’or‘Assistants’intheclassroomsandschools,particularlyinremote
communities,weretogivethestudentsadultsintheschooltheycouldrelateto,to
increasetheuseoffirstlanguageinclasstoimproveengagementinlearning,tofacilitate
theuseofgroupworkinclass,tolowertruancy,tohelpnon-Indigenousstaffbetter
37
understandthechildrentheywereteachingandtoimprovecommunicationbetweenthe
schoolandtheparents(Cameron1973;Dyer1973;McClay&Bucknall1973;Santoro&
Reid2006;Valadian&Randall1980).
Thesuccessoftheseinitialroleswasverymuchmeasuredbyexternalindicatorssuchas
studentattendancedata(Cameron1973,p.2)andaperceivedgreaterengagementby
bothstudentsandcommunitymembers,althoughthelatterislargelycharacterizedbythe
parentalenforcementofschoolbehaviours(Dyer1973,p.2).Anothermeasureofsuccess
wastheinterestinanduptakeofthepositionswithincommunities(Dyer1973,p.2)and
theongoingstabilitythatthesestaffmembersprovidedtotheschools,manyhavingbegun
workingintheschoolenvironmentbackinthemissiondays(Valadian&Randall1980).
GreaterparticipationofIndigenousadultsasstaffmembersofschoolsledtotheneedfor
anddevelopmentoftrainingprograms.
Commentaryonthetrainingof‘TeacherAides’and‘TeacherAssistants’emphasizedthat
theAboriginalappointees‘grew’intotheseschoolroles(Allen1979;Budby&Young1979;
Cameron1973;Dyer1973;McClay&Bucknall1973;Valadian&Randall1980).Muchofthe
trainingatthe‘Assistant’or‘Aide’levelwasverysuccessfulasitwasdevelopedaccording
tothespecificneedsoftheclassroomsandschoolsinwhichpeopleworked.Courseswere
oftenstagedwithmultipleentryandexitpointsandobviouscareerprogression(More
1978).Bythemidtolate1970sconcernwasraisedforthelimitedcareerpathwayof
IndigenousstaffmembersaswellasastrongsensethatfullytrainedAboriginalteachers
wouldbeofgreatbenefittoschools,particularlyinschoolsinAboriginalcommunities
38
(Metcalfe1983;More1978;Valadian&Randall1980).WhilefullytrainedIndigenous
teacherswereseenasbeinghugelybeneficialtocreatingstability,engagementand
successinschools,by1978therewereonly100Indigenousteachersintraininginthe
wholeofAustralia(Valadian&Randall1980,p.11).
2.3.2Theeraofcommunitybasedteachereducation
Thefollowingdecadesawalargeincreaseinthenumberofprogramssetupacross
AustraliatotrainIndigenousstudentteachersbeyondthelevelof‘TeacherAides’or
‘Assistants’throughtoqualifiedclassroomteachers.Itwasduringthistimethatprograms
suchastheTownsvilleAboriginalandIslanderTeacherEducationProgram(laterRATEP)in
Queensland(Loos,1986),theAboriginalTeacherEducationProgram(ATEP)whichlater
becameAnTEPinSouthAustralia(AdelaideCollegeoftheArtsandEducation1981),the
TraditionalAreaTeacherEducation(TATE)programinWesternAustralia(Metcalfe1983)
andtheRemoteAreaTeacherEducation(RATE)programatBatchelorCollege(Kemmis
1988)whichlaterdevelopedintotheDeakin-BatchelorAboriginalTeacherEducation
program(D-BATE)(HenryandMcTaggart1987)intheNorthernTerritoryandtheKoorie
TeacherEducationProgram(KTEP)atDeakinUniversityinVictoriaallcameintobeing.
Theseprogramsbuiltonwhathadbeendoneattheparaprofessionallevelandmany
courseskeptthestagedapproachtotraining.Participantswentthroughthecoursewitha
cohortoftheirpeersandmuchofthedeliverywasofferedonsiteintheirown
communitieswithlecturersandtutorsbeinglocatedonsiteinthecommunityaswell.
Studentswerealsorequiredtoattendbriefcampus-basedworkshopsinadeliverymode
knownas‘mixedmode’;aformofcoursedeliverywhichdecreasedtheneedforstudents
39
tohavetorelocateasfulltimeon-campusstudents(Arbon1998,p.17;Bat2011,p.122).
Thiseraofremoteteachereducationbecameapoliticallyandideologicallycontested
space.Thecelebrationofthesuccessoftheseprogramstemperedbytheworkstillneeding
tobedoneisperhapsbestencapsulatedbyanAddresstotheD-BATEgraduation
(Lanhupuy2002)atBatchelorCollege(nowBatchelorInstituteforIndigenousTertiary
Education)in1987byWesLanhupuywhohighlightedtheimportanceofhavinggraduates
fromremotecommunities,butalsotheresponsibilitythesegraduateshadtothose
communities.Coupledwiththiscommunityexpectationofgraduates,thecommunity
basedcohortprogramscameunderalotofscrutinyandoftencriticism.Statisticalsuccess
wasoftenmeasuredintermsofgraduatesversusdropoutsorbythelongertimeframethat
wasrequiredforpeopletocompletethecourse(AdelaideCollegeoftheArtsand
Education1982;Kemmis1988;Loos1986).Forthosewhowereclosetocompletionorhad
graduatedandwereworkinginclassroomtheirsuccesswasoftentemperedbyquestions
raisedoverproficiencyinEnglishandtheirabilitytotakeonalloftherolesexpectedofa
classroomteacher(Buckley1996;Harris,Odling-Smee&Graham1985).Intheliterature
availableitmustbepointedoutthattheselatterquestionswerebeingraisedonlybynon-
Indigenousresearchersandauthors.InfactwiththeexceptionofBunburyandothers
(1991)thereisverylittleliteratureavailableinthe1980sandearly1990sthatcontainsany
experientialreflectionsfromtheIndigenousteachersthemselves.Programsuccessismost
oftenvoicedthroughofficialreports(McGarvie1991)orthroughnon-Indigenous
philosophicalpositionpapersthatseemtofallonacontinuumofextremes.
40
2.3.3ArticulationofIndigenousknowledgepositionsonremoteschooling
Bythemidtolate1990sandearly2000showever,theliteratureisstartingtocontainsome
Indigenousvoicesarticulatingtheirexperiencesoftheirownlearningjourneyandtheirrole
asteachersinschools.AneloquentexampleofthisisDrRaymattjaMarika’sarticle
‘MilthunLatjuWanaRomguYolngu:ValuingYolnguKnowledgeintheEducationSystem’
(1999).ThereshespeaksofherfoundationalknowledgeintheYolngubeliefsystemas
taughtbytheElders,attendingamissionschool,beginningworkattheschoolin1976
whereherjobwastotypestoriestheoldpeoplehadmadeandtranscribingthem.She
speaksofthesignificanceoftheintroductionofbilingualeducationundertheWhitlam
government,theinitialstaircasemodel,theshiftfrombilingualeducationtobicultural
educationandthedevelopmentofa‘bothways’curriculuminvolvingtheElders.Inher
ownwordsthesignificanceofthisshiftwasthat:
Educationmeansmorethanjusthavingprintliteracyintwolanguages–itmeans
havingstrongemphasisonYolnguknowledgeaswell.Indoingthiswearetryingto
getawayfromthe‘ThreeLittlePigsinGumatj’ideaandbringpropercultural
knowledgeintotheschool.(Marika1999,p112)
SignificantworkwasdoneinmanyremoteschoolsintheNTduringthisperiodtodevelop
trulybiculturalcurriculumthatdrewstronglyonlocallanguageandknowledgesystems.
ThisworkgavetruemeaningandpurposetoIndigenousteachersfromthelocal
communityworkingintheseschools.Thebook‘AboriginalPedagogy:AboriginalTeachers
SpeakOut’(Bunburyetal1991),inwhichD-BATEgraduatescontributeachaptereach,is
animportantcollectionfromthaterawhereAboriginalteacherspublishedtheirownaction
41
researchandreflectionsoneducationintheirowncommunities.Othergraduatesofthese
programssuchasOberandBulsey(1998),alsoDBATEgraduates,sharetheirown
reflectionsbasedontheirexperienceasgraduatesabouthowstudentscanbestbe
supportedanddevelopedduringtheirtertiaryeducationalexperience.Thebook‘Strong
Voices’(Blitneretal.2000)releasedalmostadecadeafter‘AboriginalPedagogy’,brings
togetheranothergroupofteachereducationcandidatesfromremotecommunitiesinthe
NTtosharetheirviewsandreflectionsonIndigenouseducationandpedagogy.However,
whiletheseimportantconversations,deeplyrootedinepistemologicalandpedagogical
understandingsabouteducation,areoccurringtherearesimultaneouslyalarming
developmentsinthenationaleducationagendathatisunderminingtheworktheseschools
andteachersaredoing.Inparticulartheintroductionofstandardizedtesting(MAP),
literacybenchmarksandlanguageprofiling(Marika1999,pp.10-11).
MeanwhileBatchelorColleges’RATEdeliverymodelcontinuedtobeapoliticallycontested
space.Onenon-IndigenousteachereducatoratBatchelorduringthe1990sreflectedthe
followingaboutthisera:
BothWayseducationwaswhatwegrappledwithinthecourseofourdailyworkin
anendeavourtomakethespacebetweenWesternandIndigenousknowledgeand
educationsystemsavibrantplacefornewandmeaningfullearning.InthoseyearsI
learntoverandoveragainwhatitmeansasaneducatortolistentoallperspectives
andattempttorespondwithhumilityandintegrityinamutualsearchforagreater
qualityoflife.Ileftwithjustasmanyifnotmorequestionsaboutwhatitmeansto
42
workineducationinawaythatopensoptionsforpeopleintheirlivesanddoesnot
closethem.(Gillespie2003,p.60)
IndigenousacademicssuchasVeronicaArbon(1998)pointedoutthatatBatchelorwhile
‘strongnotionsoftransformationexistinthe‘bothways’concept….noparadigmof
dialogueandcontestationofknowledgeexists’(p.18).Whilethisphilosophicaldebatewas
occurringwithintheleadershipandstaff,fundinganddeliverymodelswerealsochanging
duringthisperiodwiththefirstsignsofashifttowardstheVocationalEducationsystem
appearing.
2.3.4Recentyears
Morerecentlysomeattemptsatwhattheseprogramshaveachievedoverthelastthree
decadeshavebeenmade.Bat’s2011thesis,inadditiontoprovidingacomprehensive
literaturereviewfocusinginpartonthedevelopmentofteachereducationintheNorthern
Territory,particularlyatBatchelorInstitute,providessomepersonalevaluativenarratives
fromgraduatesoftheteachereducationprogram,althoughnotspecificallyfrom
candidatesfromremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory.Hallandothers(2010)
reportontheprogressandsuccessoftheIndigenousTeacherUpgradeProgram(ITUP)
conductedintheArnhemandCentralAustraliaregionsoftheNT.Thisprogramoffered
manyformerRATEgraduatesacommunitybasedoptiontoupgradefromathreeyear
qualificationtoafouryearBachelorDegree.Atthesametimeaprocessofevaluationand
reflectionhasoccurredparticularlyfortheRATEPprograminQueensland(Bethel,2006)
andtheAnTEPprograminSouthAustralia(Osborne&Underwood,2010).Thelatterisof
43
particularinterestasthisreviewmadesignificantuseofconversationswithAnangu
participantstoevaluatetheprogram.
However,basedontheliteratureavailabletherehasbeennointentionallisteningtothe
graduateswhohavecomefromremoteNTcommunitiesandprogressedthroughdifferent
incarnationsofremoteteachereducationprogramsabouttheirexperiencesasstudentsof
theprograms.Thishasleftmanyquestionsunanswered,forexample:whereisthespace
forthestudents/teachers’ownperceptionsoftheirsuccessandwhathelpedandhindered
theminachievingthissuccess?Whatlearningandunderstandingcouldpotentiallybe
developedbytheeducationalinstitutionsbylisteningtothesestoriesofsuccessas
experiencedfromtheinsideofthejourney?
Additionally,thenumberofnewteacherscomingthroughandgraduatingfromremote
communitieshasdroppeddramaticallyinrecentyears.Bat(2011,p.132)suggeststhatthe
earlytomid-1990sshouldbeconsideredthemostsuccessfulperiodofremoteteacher
educationforBatchelorwith‘largenumbersenrolledacrossallthreeyears(stages2,3and
4)oftheprogram,withmostofthesestudentscomingfromtheAboriginalcommunitiesof
theNorthernTerritory’.However,Bat(2011p.133-135)pointsoutthatbytheendofthis
decade,whiletheteachereducationenrolmentsatBatchelorwerestillhigh,completions
weredroppingandtherewasashiftinthecommunity-baseofenrolmentswithenrolments
comingmainlyfromInterstatecommunitiesinsteadoffromcommunitiesintheNorthern
Territory.
Bat(2011)attributesthesetrendstoanumberoffactors,namelyashiftawayfrom
community-baseddeliveryandanincreasedfocuson-campusbaseddeliverydueto
44
fundinganddifficultyrecruitingstaff.ShealsonotesthatamoreregulatedHigher
Educationsystematthetimeforcedcoursestodevelopstandardizedassessmentmeasures
suchastheGraduateAttributes,whichperhapsconstrictedtheflexibilityandcontextual
applicabilityoftheteachereducationcourses(Bat2011,p.136).Thismorehighly
regulated,nationalizedandstandardizedsystemofteachereducationthatemergedinthe
late1990shadsignificantimpactsonsmall,contextspecific,flexibledeliverymodelssuch
ashadbeendevelopedintheNorthernTerritorybyBatchelorCollege,nowtheBatchelor
InstituteforIndigenousTertiaryEducation(BIITE).Thenatureandconsequencesofthis
shiftwillbeexploredinChapter3aspartofadetailedpolicyanalysis.
45
Chapter3–TheevolutionofthepoliticalandpolicycontextofteachereducationinAustraliaandtheimpactonIndigenousTeachers–areviewofliterature
3.1Introduction
Thischapterwillexploretheevolutionofthepoliticalandpolicydomainsofteacher
educationatthenationallevelinAustraliaandhowthesechangeshaveimpactedon
Indigenousteachersandtheircareerpathways.Itwillspecificallylookatthe
nationalisationofteachereducationandtheshifttoanoutcomesbased,standards
approachtoaccreditationattheNationalandNorthernTerritorylevels.Additionallyitwill
exploreparadigmshiftsinthinking,thepositioningofteachersthroughtheuseofterms
suchas‘qualityteaching’andtheintensefocusinrecentyearson‘literacyandnumeracy’.
Throughananalysisofpolicies,reportsandreviewdocumentationthischapterwill
examinetheenvironmentwithinwhichremoteteachereducationintheNorthernTerritory
sitsandthewaystheseexternalfactorshaveimpactedontheworkofIndigenousteachers
inremotecommunityschoolsandtheirabilitytopursueteachereducationasacareer
pathwaythatleadstofullqualification.
ThistypeofpolicybasedanalysisisimportantbecauseasCriticalRacetheorists(for
exampleGillborn2005,Vass2015,Leonardo2009)remindustheeducationalpolicy
frameworktendstobebuiltonwhathascomebeforeit,withcontemporarypolicy
assumedtobeimprovingonandadaptingtoevolvingcircumstancesanddemands.This
policybehaviourisassociatedwitha‘sanitized(White-washed)versionofhistory(that)
envisionspolicyasarationalprocessofchange,witheachstepbuildingincrementallyon
itspredecessorinamore-or-lesslinearandevolutionaryfashion’(Gillborn2005,p.486).
46
Thisapproachtopolicydevelopmentservesto‘deflectattentionfromengagingwiththe
racializedfoundationsfromwhichtheyemanate’(Vass2015,p381)andrelieson‘race-
neutral’assumptionsthatpaveoverthepoliticalandsocio-historicaleventsthatcreated
andnowsustaintherace-basedinequities(Leonardo2009).Theimpactofthisapproachto
policyintheareaofIndigenousteachereducationwillbeexploredingreaterdepthin
Chapter8.
Thischapterisagaindividedintoanumberofparts.Partonelooksattheevolutionofthe
politicsandpolicyofteachereducationinAustralia.Itcoverstheoriginsandhistorical
developmentoftheteachereducationsysteminAustralia,thevarioussignificantpolitical
paradigmsshiftsthathaveoccurredwithinteachereducation,aswellasthenational
reviews,regulation,increasedemphasisonteacheraccountabilityandthe‘Quality’agenda
thathasrisentoprominencesincethe1990s.Parttwolooksattheimplicationsofthe
nationalisationandstandardisationoftheteaching‘profession’includinghowtheterm
‘quality’hasbecomeakindofinvisiblebinarywhentalkingaboutteachers.Parttwoalso
explorestheimpactoftheintroductionofProfessionalStandardsforTeachersatthe
nationallevelandtheevolutionoftherequirementforNationalLiteracyandNumeracy
testinginteachereducation.Partthreeasksthequestion‘WherearetheIndigenous
teachers?’inthisnationalconversation.Itexploresthehistoricalandpoliticalpositioning
ofIndigenousteachersasthesystemhasbecomemorenationalisedandstandardized.It
examinestheinitiativestakenatthenationalleveltoincreasethenumberofIndigenous
teachers,aswellasexploringwhytheseinitiativessooftenfail.Partfourbringsthe
conversationmorespecificallybacktothefocusgroupofthisdoctoralstudy,theNorthern
TerritoryandtheremoteIndigenousteachingworkforce.Itlooksatthe‘smokeand
47
mirrors’effectofsuccessivereviewsandreportsthathavealldrawnthesameconclusions
aboutthenumberofIndigenousteachersinAustraliawhileneveractuallyimprovingthe
outcomes.Finallyitexplorestheimpactofregulationandstreamliningofteacher
educationintheNorthernTerritoryonremoteIndigenousteachers.
3.2TheevolutionofthepoliticsandpolicyofteachereducationinAustralia
IntheconclusionofthelatestfederalreviewintoteachereducationinAustralia,itsreport
entitled‘ActionNow:ClassroomReadyTeachers’(2014)states:
TheAdvisoryGroupacknowledgesthatinitialteachereducationinAustraliahas
previouslybeenthesubjectofalargenumberofreviews,theoutcomesofwhich
havehadlimitedimpactonthepolicyandpracticeofdevelopingnewteachers.The
AdvisoryGroupisdeterminedthattheproposalsinthisreportmakeareal
differencetotheAustralianteachingprofession(ActionNow:ClassroomReady
Teachers2014,p.49).
Preciselywhatwillmakethisreportdifferenttoalloftheothersisnotexactlyclear.The
thingthatisclearisthatteachereducationisoneofthemostscrutinised,examined,
reported,debatedandanalysedareasofgovernmentpolicy(Aspland2006;Dyson2005).
Since1990,Aspland(2006p.141)namesnofewerthanninereportsandreviewsinto
teachereducationina16-yearperiod.The‘TopoftheClass’reportcontainsanappendix
listing103separateteachereducationinquiriesatNationalandStatelevelbetween1979
and2006(TopoftheClass2007,pp.169-179).Intheperiodsincethentherehavebeenat
leastthreeadditionalnationalreviews.Thisintenseinterestintheworkofschoolsand
teachersisoftenusedaspoliticalleverageandtakesintoconsiderationthewidespread
48
commentaryandopinionsfromparents,politiciansandmembersofthegeneralpublic.To
understandhowthisextraordinarilyscrutinizedsystemhascomeintobeingitisimportant
tobrieflytracetherootsbacktotheoriginsofteachereducationinAustraliaandobserve
itsdevelopmentandthepoliticalagendasandphilosophicaldevelopmentsthathave
influencedtheshiftsandchanges.
3.2.1TheoriginsofteachereducationinAustralia
BothAspland(2006)andDyson(2005)giveacomprehensivedescriptionoftheoriginsof
teachereducationinAustralia.Theybothidentifytheinitialapprenticeshipbasedsystem
wheretheschoolandtheclassroomwereseenastheprimarysiteoflearningtheroleof
beingateacher.Theyalsonotethatamovetowardsamoreformalcollege-based
educationalapproachtoteacherpreparationdidnotemergeinAustraliauntiltheearly
1900swithamandatedminimumrequirementofoneyearformalteacherpreparationand
amoretheorybasedapproachratherthanthepreviouspracticalmodel(Aspland2006;
Dyson2005).Dyson(2005)talksaboutthepost-WorldWarTwoeraashavingavocational
approachtoteachertrainingwhenteacherpreparationhappenedprimarilyatState
controlledandfundedTeacher’sCollegeswithanemphasisplacedonbasicknowledgeand
skills.Hyams(1980)alsodenotestheimportantexpansionofthe‘TeacherCollege’system
inthepostwar‘babyboom’eratomeettheteachershortage.BeforeWorldWarIIthere
werenineTeacher’sCollegesnationally,butby1964thereweretwenty-ninethroughout
Australia.Theshortageofteacherswasalsosolvedbystandardsofentrybeinglowered
andthedurationofcoursesshortened.Dyson(2005)pointsoutthatthistypeof
changeabilityinstandardsandexpectationscanbeseenthroughoutthehistoryofteacher
49
educationinAustraliawithwhatisexpedientandcheapforthestategovernments
becomingtheacceptedpractice.Thishascreatedaconflictbetweenmeetingademand
createdbyateachershortagebutalsokeepingthe‘teacherquality’highwhichhas
becomeanentrencheddiscourseinteachereducationinAustralia.
AbinarysystemoftertiaryeducationexistedformanyyearsinAustralia.TeacherColleges
werepartoftheadvancededucationsystem,whichwasseenaspreparingthevocational
orserviceprovidersofsociety,whileuniversities,withtheirresearchorientation,were
theretopreparegraduatesforworkinthe‘professions’(Dyson2005,p.44).Inthe1970s
thisdiscoursebegantochangeandteachingbegantobetalkedaboutasa‘profession’.For
example:
Asitis‘ofthemind’teachinghastobestudied,thoughtaboutanddiscussed....As
teachingisacreativeart,itmustbepractised,analysed,re-thoughtandpractised
again.Thisrequiresobservationandpracticeteachinginschoolsandthetimeand
equipmentnecessaryforclose,sophisticatedanalysisofthisobservationand
performance(Swanson1973,p.11).
Bythelate1970sitwasapparentthatteachereducationhadbecomeafullyintegrated
componentoftheAustraliantertiaryeducationsystemultimatelybeingbroughtintothe
universityarenaandincludedintothenationalsystemofhighereducation(Aspland2006;
Dyson2005).TherecentMATSITIreportpointstoquestionsatthetimearoundtheability
ofuniversitiestodelivercoursesthathadtraditionallyrequiredagreatdealofcommunity
engagementstatingthat,‘theinvolvementofuniversitiesledtoconcernsaboutthe
50
responsibilityofuniversitiesfortertiarypreparation,giventhelimitedschoolingofmany
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentswhosoughtentryintheprogram.
Universitiescouldprovide‘real’credentialsbuthadlessexperiencewithcommunity
engagement’(Pattonetal.2012,p.13).Connell(2009)talksaboutthesignificanceofthis
majorparadigmshiftwiththedevelopmentoftheideaofwhatconstitutedateacherfrom
the‘obedientservant’model(Connell2009,p.215)tothemore‘reflectivepractitioner’
and‘scholar-teacher’models(Connell2009,p.216)asteachereducationbecamethe
purviewofuniversities.Shealsonotestheshiftagaintothecurrent‘competentteacher’
model(Connell2009,p.217)wheretheroleoftheteacherisconnectedwiththegrowthof
amarket-orientedpoliticalandculturalorder.
3.2.2Politicalparadigmsofteachereducation
TeachereducationinAustraliacannotbeseparatedoutfromthebroaderpoliticalshifts
thathaveoccurredwithregardtoeducation.In1973theKarmelReportproducedunder
thenationalWhitlamgovernmentwasunderpinnedbyacommitmenttopromoting
equalityofoutcomesinschoolingbymakingthe'overallcircumstancesofchildren's
educationasnearlyequalaspossible'(Karmel1973,p.139).Welsh(1999),notesthatthis
positionwasconsistentwiththeprogressivisteducationalphilosophyofthe1960sand
1970s,whichfocusedprimarilyontheneedsoftheindividualchildandonsocialjustice
withinsociety.Thiscorrelateswiththeperiodof‘self-determination’(Willis1985,
CampbellandProctor2014)and‘Aboriginalisation’(Rogers1991,Reaburn1989)policiesin
relationtoremoteIndigenouscommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory.However,asFogarty,
LovellandDodson(2015,p5)pointout,Indigenouseducationhasalwaysbeenatthe
51
whimofpoliticalshiftsandasaresulthasoscillatedbetweenlocally,self-determined
educationalcontrolandthemorestatisticallydrivenpursuitofstandardizededucational
norms.Allofthesemorecontemporaryshiftswereofcoursehappeningintheshadowof
theunresolvedhistoricallegacyofinstitutionalizedracism(Fogarty2012).
Theeconomicclimateinthe1980s,namelythediminishingratherthanexpanding
resources,andanincreasingconcerntoensure'valueformoney',meantthatgovernments
wereincreasinglyfocusedontheconnectionbetweeneducation,thelabourmarketand
theeconomy(Welsh1999).Theyear1985sawthereportoftheQualityofEducation
ReviewCommittee(QERC),QualityofeducationinAustralia(Karmel1985).Thisreport
markedashifttoagreaterfocusonoutcomesratherthaninputsintheprovisionof
funding,andontheeffectivenessandefficiencyofprograms(Welsh1999).Lokan(1997,
p.1)describesthisperiodinthe1980sasthe'paradigmshiftfromfocusingonindividual
studentsaslearnerstoaneconomics-drivenconcernwithachievingpre-specified
outcomes'.Thismarkedthemovetoafocusonoutcomes-basededucation,the
developmentofnationalcurriculumframeworks,andacommonsetofgeneric
competenciestounderpintheincreasedparticipationinYears11and12(Welsh1999).
Connell(2009)assertsthatthismovetooutcomesbased,moreaccountableeducation
systemswaspartofabroadshifttowardsneoliberalpoliciesandassumptionsconnected
totheshifttowardsglobalizationaswellasbythespreadofeconomic-rationalistideology.
Partofthisshiftwasapushfor‘competencies’forteachers.Theteacher-competency
modelwasconnectedwiththe‘growthofamarket-orientedpoliticalandculturalorder’
52
(Connell2009,p.217).Itisagainstthisparadigmshiftthatteachereducationbegantobe
reviewedmoredirectlyatthenationallevel.
3.2.3Nationalreviews,regulation,teacheraccountabilityandthe‘Quality’agenda
Thefirstnation-widereviewofteachereducationknownastheNationalInquiryinto
TeacherEducation(NITE),orthe‘Auchmutyreport’happenedin1980(Dyson2005).The
mainfocusofthereportwastoshiftteachereducation‘fromanarrowtrade-based
vocationalapproachtoabroadermoreprofessionalapproachandfromcertificatesand
diplomastodegreesineducation’(Auchmuty1980,p.xxv).In1987undertheFederal
MinisterforEducation,Dawkins,thebinarysystemoftertiaryeducationwasreplacedby
theunifiednationalsystemoftertiaryeducationthatstillexiststoday(Aspland2006p.
152;Dyson2005p.45).Itwasatthispointthatthe‘quality’discoursebegantoemerge
whentalkingaboutteachersandteachereducation.
In1988Dawkinsisquotedassaying:
Thequalityofteachingiscentraltothequalityofourschools....Wemustexamine
meansofimprovingtheinitialandon-goingtrainingofteacherstomeetthe
demandsofachangingeducational,economic,andsocialworld(Dawkinscitedin
Dwyer1990,p.103).
The‘pursuitofquality’becamethehallmarkofthe90’snamely:
…theremustbegreaterefforttoattractpeopleintotheteachingprofessionwhoare
ableandsuitedtoteaching;teachereducationmustbeimprovedinbothqualityand
outcomesandmustpaygreaterattentiontopedagogyandpracticalexperience...
Thesereformsareonlyachievablethroughthecooperativeeffortsofemployers,higher
53
educationinstitutions,schools,teachersandgovernmentsandthroughthe
developmentofaunifiedteachingprofession(Howe1991,p.59).
Boldrecommendationssuchasathree-yearuniversity-basedprogramofpreparation
followedbyatwo-yearparttimeinternship/‘associateship’weresuggestedasmodelsfor
initialTeacherEducation(Dyson2005).Asearlyas1990,nationalteacherregistrationand
anationalprofessionalbodyofteacherswerebeingcalledforasamechanismtoensure
‘quality’(Dyson2005,p.48).Thepolicystatement,‘TeachingCounts’(Beazley1993)was
broadlysupportedforitsthemesofabalanceintheoryandpractice,astrongknowledge
base,professionalism,partnershipsandflexibilitywithinteachereducationprogramsas
theessentialcomponentscontributingtotherenewalofteachereducation(Dyson2005).
Howeverthependulumwasabouttoswingagainwithasubsequentpolicychangeand
defundingwhentherewasachangefromLabortoCoalitiongovernmentsatthefederal
level.Asthegovernmentchangessotoodoestheagendainteachereducation(Dyson
2005).ByMarch1996,theCommonwealth'spolicyagendaforschoolswasfocusedclosely
ontheestablishmentofaNationalLiteracyandNumeracyGoal,nationalbenchmarksfor
studentachievementandtargetsforperformanceagainstnationalgoalsforschooling
(Welsh1999).Thismarkedthebeginningofanauditcultureineducation,whichincluded
thepushfornationaltesting,for‘leaguetables’ofschoolsandforthecreationofthe
teacherregistrationinstitutionsthatwouldoperateseparatelyfromteachereducation
institutions(Connell2009).
54
‘Quality’wasincreasinglybeing'measured'intermsofoutcomes.AccordingtoWelsh
(1999)qualitywasnottalkedaboutmuchuntil'outcomes'wereinvoguemostlybecause
oftheviewthatqualitycouldnowbequantifiedthroughoutcomesdata.Therewasa
prevailingclimateof‘outcomes-driven’economicrationalismwherepolicyactivityrelated
toissuesofaccountability,assessmentmonitoring,performanceindicators,quality
assuranceandschooleffectiveness(Rowe2003).Inordertoenforcethisoutcomes-driven,
data-quantified,‘qualityteachers’agenda,teachereducationhadtobemoretightly
regulated.Thepushfornationalisationcontinuedintheformof‘NationalCompetencies’of
qualityteachersandthe‘NationalStandardsandGuidelinesforInitialTeacherEducation’
wereproducedin1998despitetherecognitionthat‘thedevelopmentofexplicitstandards
forsuchahighlycontextualisedprofessionasteachingwouldbeverydifficult’(Dyson2005
p.49).
Bytheendofthe1990s,andinresponseto‘lowmorale’ofteachersresultingfromthe
perceived‘lackofstatusintheteachingprofession’(Dyson2005p.50),thedevelopmentof
NationalProfessionalTeachingStandardsandateacherregistrationbody(Australian
ParliamentSenateEmployment,EducationandTrainingReferencesCommittee&Crowley
1998)wasrecommendedasthepanacea.Thiswasatleastinpartalsoaresponsetothe
concernthat‘quality’newrecruitstoeducationwouldnotbefoundtoreplacetheaging
teachingforceifthestatusofteachingwasnotincreased(Dyson2005).Thesemore
‘nationalised’conversationsaboutteachereducationinthe1980sand1990smoved
teachingawayfromthecontext-drivenvocationalperspectivestoastandardized,
professionalapproachtoteachereducation.
55
3.3Theimplicationsofthenationalisationandstandardisationoftheteaching
‘profession’
Whilethisnationalisationandstandardisationofthe‘profession’acrossthecountrydid
resolvesomeoftheissuesfacedpreviously,italsoraisedotherareasofconcern.Havinga
commonapproachtocourselengthandsomenationalunderstandingsofwhatitmeantto
beateacherdidnotleavealotofroomforconsiderationoftheregionalandcontextual
differencesintheexperienceof‘beingateacher’acrossAustralia.Withtheadventofand
increasingdelegationofresponsibilitytoanationalpeakbody,originallynamed‘Teaching
Australia’andinitscurrentformastheAustralianInstituteofTeachingandSchool
Leadership(AITSL),nationallycoherentrulesweredevelopedintheformoftheNational
ProfessionalStandardsforTeachers(AustralianInstituteofTeachingandSchoolLeadership
viewed24/9/2015a).Theseprofessionalstandardsoutlinedwhatteachershadtoknow,do
andbeinordertobegoodenoughtoteachinAustralia’sschools.Paralleltothese
standardswereadditionalregulationsaboutwhatteachereducationcourseshadto
includeinordertoprepareteacherstomeettheseProfessionalStandards(Australian
InstituteofTeachingandSchoolLeadership2011).Connell(2009)highlightsthedangerof
thesedevelopmentswarningthat,
TheStandardsframeworkembedstheneoliberaldistrustofteachers’judgment.
Whatteachersdoisdecomposedintospecific,auditablecompetenciesand
performances.Theframeworkisnotonlyspecifiedinmanagerialistlanguage.It
embedsanindividualizedmodeloftheteacherthatisdeeplyproblematicforapublic
educationsystem.Thearbitrarinessofthedot-pointlistsmeansthatanyattemptto
enforcethem,onthepracticeofteachersoronteachereducationprogrammes,will
56
meananarbitrarynarrowingofpractice.Thiscannotbeagoodthingtodo,whenin
conditionsofglobalintegrationandsocialdiversity,educationneedstobecome
culturallyricher.(p.223)
Thismovetowardsa‘standards’approachtoteachereducationhasfurtherhomogenized
conceptionsaboutwhatconstitutes‘quality’teachingintermsofaccepted‘standards’that
leadtomanagerialperceptionsof‘normality’whenitcomesto‘good’teaching.Itis
importanttoquestionwhoseperspectiveson‘good’teachingtheseconceptionsof‘quality’
arebasedupon.
3.3.1‘Quality’asaninvisiblebinary
Theuseoftheword‘quality’hasalsobecomearhetoricaldeviceinreportsandreviews
aboutteachingandteachereducation.‘Quality’isoneofthosetermsthatishardtoargue
against.Noonewantstoraisetheirvoiceagainsttheideaof‘qualityteachingand
learning’.Butitisadangerousterminthatitsetsupaninvisiblebinary.Ifsomethingcan
bemeasuredashighqualitythenotherthingscanberelegatedasloworlowerquality.Itis
increasinglyubiquitousindocumentsandpaperswrittenaboutteachers,andhas
developedintothedefaultpositionofhowwewishtodefinetheprofessionalroleof
teachers.Theextenttowhichthisistruecanperhapsbestbeunderstoodbylookingata
selectionofthenationalreviewsonteachereducationspecificallyfortheuseofthisword.
Inthe2007‘TopoftheClass’nationalreviewofteachereducationtheword‘quality’is
used120timesinthe119pagesofthemainbodyofthereport.Theattitudeofthe
report’sauthorstowardswhatconstitutes‘quality’canperhapsbebestsynthesizedbythis
excerpt:
57
Itisnotenoughtohaveacademicaptitudetobeaneffectiveteachernorisacademic
performanceareliableindicatorofwhetherastudentpossessesthewiderangeof
otherattributesrequiredofateacher.Theotherattributescitedinclude:aknowledge
andenjoymentofthesubjecttheyteach;anabilitytoacquirenewknowledgeand
understanding;‘otherdirectedness’orrecognitionofandresponsivenesstothe
distinctive,individualneedsandinterestsofothers;favourableattitudestochildren;
asenseofcallingandastrongmotivationtoteach;and,specifiedlevelsofliteracy
andnumeracy(TopoftheClass2007,pp.53-54).
Itisworthnotingatthispointthattheterms‘literacyandnumeracy’areusedatotalof28
timesinthebodyofthe‘TopoftheClass’(2007)report.
By2014whenthenextmajornationalreviewofteachereducationwascompleted,the
‘ActionNow:Classroomreadyteachers’reportcontainsmorethandoublethefrequencyof
usageoftheword‘quality’.The51pagesinthemainbodyofthereportcontain126uses
oftheword‘quality’.Thisreportsetsoutthefollowingasitsvisionofwhatconstitutes
‘quality’:
Whiletheremaybenosinglefactorthatcanpredictsuccessinteaching,researchon
teachercharacteristicsandstudentoutcomeshasfoundthatusingabroadsetof
measurescanhelpimprovethequalityofteachers.Predictorsincludeteaching-
specificcontentknowledge,cognitiveability,personalitytraits,feelingsofself-
efficacyandscoresonacommerciallyavailableteacherselectioninstrument(Action
Now:ClassroomReadyTeachers2014,p.13).
58
The‘commerciallyavailableteacherselectioninstrument’referstotherecentlydeveloped
‘NationalLiteracyandNumeracytestforpre-serviceteachers’(AustralianGovernment
DepartmentofEducationandTraining,viewed24/9/2015).Thistestwillbediscussed
furtherbelow.Itisworthnotingthatinthis2014reportthefrequencyoftheuseofthe
terms‘literacyandnumeracy’hasincreasedsixfoldwith72usagesinthe51pagesofthe
report.Despitelipservicebeingpaidtotheother‘qualities’ofteachers,itisclear
numericallyandsemanticallythatthe‘literacyandnumeracy’abilitiesofteachersare
valuedhighlybythereviewersasamajorcontributortotheformationofa‘quality’
teacher.ThisshowsadistinctbiastowardsthosewhocomefromanEnglishspeaking,
Westernknowledgebackground.Whatisneveraddressedinanyofthesereportsisthe
persistentproblemthatwhenfacedwithteachingIndigenousstudentsmanynon-
Indigenousteacherslackthenecessaryknowledgeandskillsandstruggletoaddressthe
needsoftheselearners(Santoro&Reid2006).‘Quality’bythisdefinitionisclearlyskewed
towardsawhitenessbias.
Aninterestingexampleofthiswhitenessbiasshowsupinthe‘TeachforAustralia’
program.Thisprogramallowsuniversitygraduateswithanon-educationfirstdegreeand
sixweeksof‘teachereducation’tobedispatchedtoschoolsinregionalandremote
NorthernTerritoryasfullyaccreditedteachers(Galtry2015).Thisisaninteresting
developmentinthelightofthenationalrequirementfora4-yearqualificationandthe
conversationsabout‘teacherquality’.Thisinmanywaysharksbacktoearlierobservation
oftheentrenchedpendulumswinginteachereducationbetweenensuringprofessional
readinessinteachersandmeetingthedemandsofteachershortages,particularlyinrural
59
andremotecommunities.Thechoicetofundthe‘TeachforAustralia’program
demonstrateshowthesystemprivilegesthequalitiesintrinsicinwhite,middleclass,
Englishspeaking,universityeducatedcandidatesasopposedtolocal,Indigenouslanguage
speaking,remoteteachereducationcandidatesfromthesamecommunitieswherethe
teachershortagesexist.
3.3.2NationalProfessionalStandardsforteachersandNationalLiteracyandNumeracy
testingforteachereducation
DiscoursearoundteachereducationinAustraliainthefirstdecadeandahalfofthe21st
centuryhasbeendominatedbyconsiderationanddevelopmentofandadherenceto
NationalProfessionalStandardsforTeachers.Infacttheinitialideasabout‘standards’that
wouldensure‘quality’teacherslookedattheneedforstandardsatanumberoflevels
includingstandardsforentryintoteachereducationprograms,standardsfortertiary
qualifications,accreditationstandardsandregistrationstandards(Ingvarson,2002).The
firsttwohavelargelybeenthedomainoftheHigherEducationprovidersofteacher
educationcourses,whilethelattertwohavebeenunderthepurviewoftheAustralian
InstituteforTeachingandSchoolLeadership(AITSL).Inapolicybriefingreportadvisingon
thedevelopmentofanationalstandardsframeworkIngvarson(2002)goesintogreatdetail
aboutthebenefits,uses,applicationandstructureofsuchaframework.Howeverany
discussionofthe‘context’ofteachingislimitedtocurriculumareasandlevelsofteaching.
Noconsiderationofthegeographical,culturalorlinguisticcontextofteachingisexplored
inthisformativedocument.Thisthensetsthetoneandemphasisforthefurther
developmentoftheNationalTeachingStandards,whichwereultimatelyendorsedby
EducationMinistersfromallStatesandTerritoriesinAustraliainOctober2011(Australian
60
InstituteofTeachingandSchoolLeadership,viewed24/9/2015b).Thesestandards,along
withtheNationalAccreditationofInitialTeacherEducationcourses(AustralianInstituteof
TeachingandSchoolLeadership2011),havebecometheyardsticksthatarenowusedin
Australiatoensureandmeasureteacher‘quality’.
Therewassomequestioningandcriticismoftherolesuchstandardswouldplayandwhat
theirimpactwouldbe.Connell(2009,p.218)pointsoutthatthesestandardsdocuments
thatarebeingusedbyteacherregistrationbodieshavebecomethe‘mostimportant
definitionsofthegoodteacher’.Howeversheishighlycriticalofthedisconnectedand‘dot
point’natureofthestandardsdocumentsuggestingthat‘(t)helistsdonotcomefromany
systematicviewofEducationasafieldofknowledge’(Connell2009,p.218).Connellisalso
highlysuspiciousoftheinfluenceoftheneoliberalagendaintheconstructionofthe
developmentofstandardsstatingthat:
Thestratificationoftheworkforcethatissoughtbyneoliberalagendasofindividual
competitionamongworkersisthusbuiltintothedefinitionofteacher
professionalism…They(thestandards)constructthegoodteacherasan
entrepreneurialself,forgingapathofpersonaladvancementthroughtheformless
landscapeofmarketsocietywithitsshadowystakeholdersanditsendless
challengesandopportunities(Connell2009,pp.219-220).
Shefurtherwarnsoftheinherentdangersofthiskindofasystem:
Goodteaching…needsalsotobediverse.Awell-functioningschoolneedsarangeof
capabilitiesandperformancesamongitsteachers.Giventhediversityofthepupils
andtheircommunities,aschoolshouldhaveamongitsteachersarangeof
61
ethnicities,classbackgrounds,genderandsexualidentities,agegroupsandlevelsof
experience.Anydefinitionofteacherquality,anysystemofmonitoringorpromotion,
thattendstoimposeasinglemodelofexcellenceontheteachingworkforce–
whateverthatmodelmaybe–islikelytobedamagingtotheeducationsystemasa
whole(Connell2009,p.223).
Unfortunatelysuchwarningsdonotseemtohavebeenheeded.Infact,quitetheopposite
hashappened.Evengreaterstandardisationandrestrictionsarebeingplacedonadmission
intotheteachingprofessionthroughthefocuson‘literacyandnumeracy’levelsof
teachers.Thisbecomesevidentinthe2007TopoftheClassreportwhichstatedthat:
‘itis…desirablethatstudents’literacyandnumeracyskillsareassessedwhen
enteringcourses,notinordertoexcludestudentsfromteachereducationcourses,
butasadiagnostictooltoassistuniversitiestosupportstudentstodevelopthe
requiredlevelofskills’…‘Teachereducationcoursesshouldguaranteethatall
studentswhograduatewithaqualificationineducationhavethoroughly
demonstratedthattheyhavehighlevelliteracyandnumeracyskills’(TopoftheClass
2007,pp.59-60).
Bythe2014‘ActionNow:ClassroomReadyTeachers’reportthisideahadbecomemuch
moreprescriptivewitharequirementfor‘entrantstoinitialteachereducationprogramsto
havepersonalliteracyandnumeracylevelsbroadlyequivalenttothetop30percentofthe
population’(ActionNow:ClassroomReadyTeachers2014,p.12).By2015ameasurement
mechanismhadalsobeendevelopedintheformof‘TheTest–anationalLiteracyand
Numeracytestforpre-serviceteachers’(AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation
62
andTraining,viewed24/9/2015).Inastatementabouttheroleofthistestthefederal
governmentdepartmentofeducationstatesthefollowing:
TheAustralianGovernmentbelievesthatthefirststeptoachievingaquality
education,whichissocriticalforthefutureofyoungAustraliansandournation,isto
focusonthequality,professionalism,andstatusoftheteachingprofession.One
aspectofliftingqualityistoensurethatteacherspossessthestrongpersonalliteracy
andnumeracyskillsneededtofosterthedevelopmentoftheseskillsintheirstudents.
Togiveeffecttoimprovingtheliteracyandnumeracyofteachers,theAustralian
GovernmentisintroducingtheLiteracyandNumeracyTestforInitialTeacher
EducationStudents(theTest).TheTestwillassisthighereducationproviders,teacher
employersandthegeneralpublictohaveincreasedconfidenceintheskillsof
graduatingteachers(AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducationandTraining,
viewed24/9/2015).
Sopervasiveandubiquitousistheneo-colonialdiscourseinthesekindsofreportsthatitis
notevenconsiderednecessarytoadd‘English’whentalkingaboutliteracy.Onceagainwe
seediversityinbothlearnersandteachersnotevenbeinggivenfringeconsideration.All
teachereducationcandidates,nomatterwhattheirownculturalandlinguistic
background,nomatterwhatthecontextoftheirintendedteachingwork,mustnowhave
theirliteracyskillsmeasuredbyexactlythesameyardstickascandidateswhosefirst
languageisEnglish.
3.4WherearetheIndigenousteachers?
63
ReferencetoandaboutIndigenousteachersintheoverallnationalteachereducation
discoursecouldbecharacterisedasfringeatbestandisfrequentlyanafterthought.When
itisbroughtunderthemicroscopethediscussiontendstofocuspredominantlyaround
targetsettingsoastoreflectpopulationdemographics,aswellasakindofsurreptitious
ongoingcolonialdiscourseaboutwhetheritisrealistictothinkthatIndigenousteachers
willeverbeequalinqualityandabilitytotheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.Onceagain,
tounderstandthesubtleandnot-so-subtlepositioningofIndigenousteachersinthe
broadersystemofteachereducation,weneedtoexplorethepastandexaminethe
intentionsofpolicies,programsandpolitics.
3.4.1ThehistoricalandpoliticalpositioningofIndigenousteachers
Asdetailedinthepreviouschapter,thelatterhalfofthe1970sandearly1980swerea
timeofgreatfocusaroundlocallycontextualisedprogramsandpoliciesthatsupported
Indigenousteachersinremoteschools.In1978and1979thefirstmajornationalresearch
wasdoneinto‘teachereducationforAboriginesandTorresStraitIslanders’(National
AboriginalEducationCommittee1986).Thisresearchexamineddeliverymodelsin
operationinWesternAustralia,SouthAustralia,QueenslandandtheNorthernTerritory
andmadeasubmissiontothe1980NationalInquiryintoTeacherEducation(Auchmuty
1980).Includedinthissubmissionwastheanalysisthatthestill‘lownumbersofAboriginal
teachers’shouldbeseenasanareaof‘criticalneed’andtherecommendationofspecific
targetstobringthenumberofIndigenousteachersinlinewiththeproportionof
IndigenousstudentsinAustralianschools.Theseinitialtargetsaimedtoincreasethe
64
numberofIndigenousteachersfromthe72trainedteachersin1979to1000by1990.
Howeverby1986theNationalAboriginalEducationCommittee(NAEC)waswarningthat
basedontheprogramsthathadbeenthusfarintroducedtosupportIndigenousteacher
education,by1990itwouldbemorerealistictoexpectonly500qualifiedIndigenous
teachersnation-wide(NationalAboriginalEducationCommittee1986,p3).IntheNorthern
TerritoryspecificallytheNAECnotedthatin1982therewasaspecifictargettoreach137
qualifiedIndigenousteachers.Thisrepresentedanincreaseof134fromtheexisting3in
theNTin1982.
In1980areportentitled‘ThetrainingofAboriginesforteachingintheAboriginalSchools
oftheNorthernTerritory’(Penny1980)wasalsoproduced.Thisreporthadamorespecific
focusjustontheNorthernTerritoryandevenspecificallyonremoteschoolswithhigh
numbersofIndigenousstudents.ThisreportwasdoneinconjunctionwiththeNAEC.Itwas
authoredbyanon-Indigenousresearcher,W.H.Penny.Intheinitialpagesheidentifies
somebackgroundfactors.Henotesthat‘allresearchstudiesshowthatAboriginalpupils
are,underthepresentsystemofschooling,achievingverylowstandardsinliteracyand
numeracy’(Penny1980,p.3).HealsorecognisesthepositionoftheNationalAboriginal
EducationCommitteeonthisissuewhichisthat‘Inordertoensuretheeffectivenessof
educationalservicesforAboriginalpeople,Aboriginesshouldplaythemajorpartinthe
deliveryofthoseservices.Thisrequiresanimmediateandsubstantialincreasein
programs…toemployAboriginesinthefieldofeducation’(PennyquotingfromNAEC1980,
p.4).
65
InterestinglyPenny(1980)almostimmediatelyseekstoqualifyorquestionthispositionby
sayingthat‘Animportanttaskofthisreportwillbetoconsiderwhetherahastened
AboriginalizationofSettlementschoolstaffswillachievewhatmembersofNAECandmany
otherAboriginessoearnestlyseek’(p.4)andhealsonotes‘theuneasinessofofficersand
Balanda(non-Indigenous)teachersintheEducationDepartmentoftheNorthernTerritory
aboutthegenerallevelofattainmentsofchildreninAboriginalSchools,aboutthe
educationalqualificationsandtrainingofmanyoftheAboriginalmembersofstaffandin
particularabouttheircompetenciestotakesustainedchargeofaclass’(Penny1980,p.4).
Thismentionof‘uneasiness’isoneofmosttangibleexamplesoftheongoingcolonial
discoursestillatplayintheschoolingsystemoftheNorthernTerritory.Whileby1980the
discoursehasmovedbeyondoneofIndigenouspeoplebeinglabelledas‘uneducable’as
theywereinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,theuseoftheterms‘hastened’and
‘uneasiness’perhapsexposeaconstantandenduringlackofbeliefonthepartofnon-
IndigenousstakeholdersabouttheeducationalpathwayspossibleforIndigenousstudents
andteachers.Inthesetwoexamplesweseegreatemphasisbeingplacedonthe
importanceofIndigenousteachers,butagaintheresistanceoftheWesterneducational
systemstoactuallybringtherealityofincreasedIndigenousparticipationtofruition.
Passiveresistanceisalsoevidentinthelackofpoliticalandeconomicsupportforprograms
tomeettargetsandtheattitudesimplicitinthelanguageofthereportsbeingwritten.This
willbeexploredfurtherinduecourse.
66
3.4.2Learninglessons
The1990sisaperiodofscarcityofreportsthatfocusonIndigenousteachereducationat
anylevelinAustralia.Perhapsthisisreflectiveoftheneoliberalagendathattookhold
duringtheperiodandthefactthatmostoftheworkineducationwasfocusedaroundthe
shifttooutcomesbasedandstandardisedsystems.Importantlythoughthe‘Learning
Lessons’reportwasreleasedintheNorthernTerritoryin1999.Thisindependentreviewby
CollinsintoIndigenouseducationintheNorthernTerritory(NorthernTerritoryDepartment
ofEducation1999)wasthemostin-depthreviewintwodecades.The‘LearningLessons’
reportwasscathinginitsassessmentofmanyaspectsrelatedtoIndigenousEducationand
inparticularremoteIndigenouseducation.Intheareaofstaffingremoteschoolsthereport
tookaimattwoimportantareas:therecruitment,retentionandtrainingofnon-local
teachers,andtheattitudestowards,treatmentofandsupportforlocalteachers.Itwas
importanttoaddressbothoftheseaspectsofstaffingasremoteschoolsreliedonbothto
function.
The‘LearningLessons’reportbringsintosharpfocusthedysfunctionalitycausedbythe
highturnoverofnon-localstaff.Collinsdrewonearlierresearchwhichsuggeststhatinthe
mid-1980stheaverageperiodofservicefornon-localteachersinCentralAustralian
communitieswassixmonths(Young1996).The‘LearningLessons’report,whilebeing
highlycriticaloftheinabilityoftheNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation’sdata
recordstoprovideaccurateinformation,wasabletoverifythe‘widespreadunderstanding
thatIndigenousteachersareinplacefarlongerthannon-Indigenousteachers’(Northern
TerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.76).Collinspointsinparticulartothe‘costsof
67
highstaffturnover…fromarecruitmentandinductionpointofview’,butsuggeststhat‘of
evengreaterconcernistheeducationalimpact’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1999,p.77).Onceagaintheauthorofthisreportwashighlycriticalthatthere
wasobviousdataavailableabouttheactualdollarcostofrecruitmentandretention.He
didhoweverpointoutthat‘theshorttermteachertransitingthroughacommunitygetsa
farricherandmorerewardingeducationalexperienceforthemselvesthantheyareever
abletoimparttotheirstudents(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.77).
Atthesametimetherewasanemphasisonthecrucialsupportprovidedbythelocal
Indigenousstaff.Onerespondenttothereviewofferedthefollowingreflection,
I’minmysecondtermnowandIstilldon’tknowhowtoevenprogramalessonfor
thesekids.NothingIdidinmytrainingpreparedmeforthis.Ifitwasn’tforthehelp
I’mgettingfromtheIndigenousstaff,Iwouldn’tknowwhatIwasdoing(Northern
TerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.83)
Thisseemstobearouttheassessmentofthe‘LearningLessons’report,whichsuggested
that‘theschoolreliesforstabilityonlocalIndigenousstaffandfacesaconstantstreamof
newstaff’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.71).Thereportalso
emphasizedthecrucialvalueofteachingpartnershipsbetweennon-localandlocalstaff
(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.82).Thesefindingsareimportantas
theyraisenuancedpositionstobegintoanswerthequestion‘whatis‘quality’teachingand
learning?’Howhighcanthequalityofteachingandlearningbeinremoteschoolswhenthe
teacherturnoverissohighandthosewhocomefromoutsidethecommunitysay‘Idon’t
knowhowtoprogramalessonforthesekids’?Theattributionof‘quality’beingconnected
toauniversityqualificationseemstocomeintoquestioninthiscontextthatreliesso
68
heavilyontheknowledgeandskillsoftheIndigenousparaprofessionalsworkinginthe
schools(Santoro&Reid2006).DePlevitz(2007,p.65)pointsoutthatthereisamajor
problemwitheducationalsystemsthat‘assumethatteacherqualityissimilaracross
schoolsandthateveryteacherprovidesthesamestandardofeducation’butthenrely
heavilyonnewandinexperiencedteacherstoteachforshortperiodsoftimeinruraland
remotecommunitieswhicharenotoriousfortheirhighteacherturnover(DePlevitz2007,
FovetandHall2012,Hall2012).Thisrelianceonteachersstayinginschoolsforashorttime
underminesthetimeittakesforteachersfromoutsidethecommunityandnotembedded
inthecommunityculturetodevelopunderstandingsofthelocalculture,history,language
andfamilyqualitieswhicharenecessarytobeaneffectiveandsuccessfulteacherof
Indigenousstudentsinthesecommunities(DePlevitz2007;Santoro&Reid2006).Critical
ofthiskindofpolicyandpracticeDePlevitzsuggeststhat‘Indigenousstudentsinschools
affectedbyapolicythatencouragesaturnoverofstaffaremorelikelytobedeniedthe
continuityandstabilityofexperiencedstaffessentialforaqualityeducation’(DePlevitz
2007,p.66).Thiscreatesaninevitableparadoxwherethebeliefthat‘quality’canbe
streamlinedandmeasuredresultsinchildrenreceivinglessthan‘quality’teaching.
The‘LearningLessons’reportwasboldinitsrecommendationthat‘thelongtermstrategy
inremoteschoolsistoincreasecommunitycontrolwithmorelocalstaffsupportedbynon-
localteachers’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.83).Thereportfound
thattrainedlocalteacherswere‘muchmorestable’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1999,p.89)thannon-localteachersandthatstabilitywasthekeytostudent
attendanceandlearning(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.83).This
69
insightagainreinforcestheneedtoquestionnationalconceptionsof‘quality’teachingas
appliedtothelocallycontextualizedcircumstancesoftheseremotecommunities.The
reportpointstonotonlythebenefitsfortheschoolbutindeedforthewholecommunity,
ofhavingpeoplewithHigherEducationqualificationsfromthelocalcommunity.The
reportatonepointsuggeststhat‘therecanbenobetterrolemodelstoconvince
Indigenousparentsandtheirchildrenofthevalueofeducationthanthealumniof
BatchelorInstitute’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.89).However,
thereportalsopointsouttheextremeinequityofthetreatmentof‘local’verses‘non-local’
recruits.Intheareasofhousing,conditions,payandincentivesandclassroomconditions
therewas,in1999,oneruleforlocalteachersandanotherforthosecomingfromoutside
thecommunity.Indigenousandnon-Indigenousrespondentsalikeraisedthisinequity,
Yapa(Aboriginal)teachersgoandstudyandworkreallyhardyettheycomeback
andaretreatedassmallpeople….Howcomewhiteteachersliveingoodhouses?
Yapa(Aboriginal)teachersgetnothing.(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1999,p.68)
Indigenousstaffinschoolsdonotgetthesameconditionsofserviceasexpatriate
teachers…ItalsomakesithardtoinsistonthesamestandardsfromIndigenous
teachersasareexpectedfromexpatriateteachers(NorthernTerritoryDepartment
ofEducation1999,p.68).
MyassistantteacherisfarmoreeffectiveatteachingthesekidsthatIam.I
wouldn’tknowwhattodowithoutherhelp.ButI’vebeeninthiscommunityforsix
70
monthsandI’minreasonableaccommodationthatIsharewithoneotherteacher.
MyTAhaslivedhereallherlifeandlivesinanoldwreckedhousewithtwenty-two
otherpeople(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.68).
SoevenforIndigenousteacherswhohavecompletedtheirqualificationanddemonstrated
tothesystem’sgoverningthisprocessthattheymeetthestandardsrequired,thesystem
stillchoosestotreatthemdifferentlytonon-Indigenousteacherswhomeetthosesame
standards.
Thereportstressesthatjustasnon-localrecruitsrequiresignificantongoingsupport,soto
dolocalrecruitsrequirethissupport,althoughitwillbedifferentinnatureandthe
advantageisthattheinvestmentthesystemmakesintheseteachersismuchmorelikely
tostayinthecommunitylongterm.Inparticularitpointsoutthebenefitsofacohort
approachaswellasusinganapprenticeshipmodelforthenextgenerationofteacher
trainees(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999,p.91).Ultimatelythereport
recommendsthat:
‘itisimperativethatIndigenousteachertraining,buildingontheroleofassistant
teachersandbytargetingtalentedseniorstudentscurrentlyinsecondaryprograms,
ismadeahighpriorityacrossallregions’(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1999,p.91).
The‘LearningLessons’Reportwasregardedbymanyasawatershedmomentin
IndigenouseducationintheNorthernTerritory.
71
3.4.3Emptyrhetoricandpoliticalsleightsofhand
By2003inthereport‘Australia'sTeachers,Australia'sFuture:AdvancingInnovation,
Science,TechnologyandMathematics–AgendaforAction’,producedbytheCommitteefor
theReviewofTeachingandTeacherEducation,concernisbeingraisedagainaboutthe
continuinglownumbersofIndigenousteacherscompletingteachereducationatthe
nationallevel.Thereportstatesthat:
ProspectiveIndigenousteachersneedtobeattractedtotheprofessioningreater
numbers.Suchteachersserveasrolemodels,infuseabroaderrangeofcultural
perspectivesintoschools,andbringacapacityforcloserrapportandidentification
withstudentsfromIndigenousbackgrounds(CommitteefortheReviewofTeaching
andTeacherEducation2003,p.21).
Sadlyby2007itseemslittlehaschangedwiththe‘TopoftheClass’reportstatingthat:
Australia-wide,theproportionofIndigenousstudentsenrolledininitialTeacher
Educationisapproximately2%,justbelowthe2001estimatethat2.4%ofthe
AustralianpopulationidentifyasanIndigenousAustralian.However,thesuccess
andretentionratesforIndigenousstudentsfallwellbelowaverage,andthe
proportionofIndigenouspeopleintheAustralianteachingworkforceismuchlower
thantheproportionofIndigenouspeopleintheAustralianpopulation.In2004,
approximately0.7%ofallteachersinAustraliawereIndigenous.In2003,
Indigenousstudentsrepresentedalmost4%oftotalschoolenrolmentsacross
Australiaandthisproportionisgrowing.(TopoftheClass2007,pp.38-39).
72
ThesamereportprovidesanevenstarkerpictureintheNorthernTerritory,where
IndigenousAustraliansmakeupapproximately30%ofthepopulation,with40%ofthe
schoolstudentcohortidentifyingasIndigenous.In2004,accordingtoDepartmentof
Education,ScienceandTraining–IndigenousEducationStrategicInitiativesPrograms
(IESIP)performancereports,2003and2004,approximately15%ofinitialTeacher
EducationstudentsintheNorthernTerritorywereIndigenous,and15%ofteachersinthe
NorthernTerritorywereIndigenous(TopoftheClass2007,p.39).Thesefiguresareworth
furtherexplorationasjustoneyearlater,in2005whentheTeacherRegistrationBoardof
theNorthernTerritorybeganregisteringteachers,theyreportedonly156outof3992(or
lessthan4%)registeredteachersintheNorthernTerritoryidentifiedasIndigenous
(NorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoardAnnualReport2005).The‘TopoftheClass’
report(2007,pp.40-41)goesontomaketwopagesofrecommendationsaboutwaysto
supportandencouragemoreIndigenousteacherstocompleteteachereducation.Onekey
recommendationistheallocationof$20millionperannumtoestablishaTeacher
EducationDiversityFund,whichwouldbedesignedtoprovideadditionalsupportto
studentsfromunderrepresentedgroupsinteachereducationacrossAustralia,withan
emphasisonIndigenousteachers(TopoftheClass2007,p.51).
Hereinliesapowerfulexampleoftherhetoricalsupportofaninitiativethatisnotbacked
upwithpoliticaloreconomicwill.Examinationofthe2008HigherEducationReportreveals
thattheFederalGovernmentappearedtoactonthisrecommendationwiththe
developmentofthe‘DiversityandStructuralAdjustmentFund’.Howeveruponcloser
examinationitbecomesevidentthatthis‘Fund’wasinfacttherenamingofsomethingthat
73
hadbeencalledthe‘CollaborationandStructuralReformFund’,whichhadbeeninplace
since2005.Initsnewformthepurposeofthe‘Fund’isdescribedasfollows:
TheobjectiveoftheDiversityFundwastopromotestructuralreformbyeligible
highereducationprovidersthatsupportsgreaterspecialisationamongproviders,
morediversityinthehighereducationsectorandbetterresponsivenesstolabour
marketsoperatinginthelocalornationalinterest.Over$200millionwasallocatedto
theDiversityFundoverfouryears(2008-2011)withacompetitivefundingroundheld
in2008(DepartmentofEmploymentEducationandTraining2008,p.25)
Withnospecificmentionofteachereducationortheintentiontousethemoneyto
increasediversityinteachergraduates,thisfundsimplybecomesanotherbucketfor
universitiestoaccess.Asearchonprojectsfundedbythismoneyrevealsthatfundedunder
thismodelincludedengineeringprojects,ruralhealthprojects(SenateStanding
Committee,2012)anduniversitywideonlinelearningprojects(CharlesDarwinUniversity,
2009).Thistypeofconnectionbetweenareview,whichproducesrecommendations,and
thepoliticalsleightofhandusedtoactuponsuchrecommendationsthroughpolicyand
fundingdecisionsiscrucialtounderstandingthecurrentissuesfacingIndigenousteacher
educationinAustralia.
ThemostsignificantefforttofocusonIndigenousteachersinmanyyearshasbeenthe
‘MoreAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderTeachersInitiative’(MATSITI).MATSITIisan
AustralianGovernmentfour-yearinitiativemanagedcooperativelybyanumberof
AustralianUniversitiesandtheAustralianCouncilofEducationalDeans.Thisinitiativearose
outofaneedtoreaddressthe‘OneThousandAboriginalTeachersby1990’project
74
(NationalAboriginalEducationCommittee1986)andinrecognitionofthefactthatthere
hadbeenlittlecohesivenationalpolicyandoutcomesinthisareainover20years.This
initiativehasproduceda‘ReportintotheRetentionandGraduationofAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderStudentsEnrolledinInitialTeacherEducation’whichhasbroughtinto
sharpfocusthefactthatthoughthecallformoreAboriginalandTorresStraitIsland
teachershasalonghistoryAustralianteachereducationprogramsnationwideare
strugglingtoretainandgraduatestudentsfromthesebackgrounds(Pattonetal.2012).
Theinitiativehasbeenfocusedonimprovingtheretention,successandgraduationratesof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachereducationstudentsaswellasincreasingthe
‘recruitment,retentionandleadershipcapabilityofAboriginaland/orTorresStraitIslander
peoplesworkingasteachersinAustralianschools’(Pattonetal.2012,p7).Emphasisatthe
beginningoftheinitiativewasplacedonidentifyingthecontext,practicesandoutcomes
forIndigenousstudentsininitialteachereducationprograms(Pattonetal,2012).The
MATSITIprojecthasalsofilledanobviousgapinbringingtogetheranationalfocusonthe
roleofIndigenousteachersinAustralia.Ithasbeenamechanismforgatheringrealdatain
aspacethathashadsporadicandinconsistentdatacollectedinthepast.Ithasalso
providedacentralresearchco-ordinationrolelookingatissuesaroundsuccess,retention,
completionandbarriersforIndigenousstudentsundertakingInitialTeacherEducation
(Pattonetal.2012)withanumberofprojectsscheduledtoreportonthisbytheendof
2015.Additionallythisinitiativehasbeenabletofacilitateprofessionallearningandco-
ordinatedpromotionofteacherpathwaysforIndigenouspeople.Finally,ithasbeenable
todrawsomenationalattentiontotheracismexperiencedbyIndigenousstudentsand
75
teacherswithintheeducationalsystemsinAustralia(Pattonetal.2012;Buckskin2013)
andhowthisimpactsonthesuccessoflearnersbothattheschoolanduniversitylevels.
3.5IndigenousteachersintheNorthernTerritory
Theseshiftsandchangesatthenationallevelhaveofcoursehadaflowonaffectatthe
NorthernTerritoryandremotecentralAustralianlevel.Theseimpactscanbeseenthrough
anexplorationofthereportsandreviewsundertaken,aswellasthroughlookingatthe
increasinglyregulatedteachereducationandteacherregistrationsystemsintheNorthern
Territory.
3.5.1-Morereviews–‘smokeandmirrors’
Nottobeoutdonebythenumberofreviewsatthenationallevel,theNorthernTerritory
Governmenthascommissioneditsshareofreviewsandreportsinrelationtothe
Indigenousteacherworkforce.In2012theNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation
andTrainingcommissionedareportintothe‘Recruitment,RetentionandDevelopmentof
qualityeducatorsinveryremoteNTschools’(Nuttonetal.2012).Thisappearstobethe
firstandonlyreporttofocusspecificallyonremoteIndigenousschoolsintheNTsincethe
Pennyreportin1980.Theroleofthisreportisto‘reviewtheimplementationandexamine
theoutcomesofarangeofNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducationandTraining(NT
DET)initiativestoimprovetherecruitment,retentionandqualityofteachingstaffinvery
remoteschools’(Nuttonetal.2012,p.5).
76
Twothingsshouldbenotedatthispoint.Firstly,theupfrontandcentraluseoftheword
‘quality’,reflectiveofthenationaldiscoursearoundthisterm,andsecondly,thefactthat
thisreportislookingatallstaffingofveryremoteschools,notjustIndigenousstaff.This
latterpointisreflectiveofthepoliciesoftheNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation,
whichhasincreasinglyemphasizedtheneedtoattractandretainnon-Indigenousstaff
fromoutsidetheseremotecommunitiesovertheneedtosupportlocalstafftocomplete
fullteachingqualifications.Theserecruitmentandretentionpolicies,programsare
outlinedindetailinBrascheandHarrington(2012)withaparticularfocusontherecent
‘QualityremoteTeachingServicerecruitmentstrategy’.Theseauthorstouchontheimpact
highteacherturnoverhasonthequalityoftheteachingandlearninginremoteschools.
Yetagainthedefaultfocusisonimportingteachersfromoutsidethecommunity,rather
thangrowingthemfromwithin,asevidencedbyprogramssuchas‘TeachforaTerm’
(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducationandTraining,AnnualReport2008/9,p.111).
TheNuttonreport(2012)focusesaboutathirdofitsattentiontoIndigenousstaffin
remoteschoolsintheNorthernTerritory.Itevaluatesprogramsthathavebeeninplaceto
bothrecruitmoreIndigenousteachersandsupporttheeducationandtrainingof
Indigenousstaffworkinginschools.Overallthough,itpointstothelackofsustained
momentumorsuccessofanyoftheseprogramsduetothe‘disparate’natureofthe
initiativeswhichlacka‘comprehensiveoverarching’strategy(Nuttonetal.2012,p.59).It
takesacautiousapproachtotargetsformoreIndigenousteacherssuggestingthat‘a
radicallyimprovedandbettersupportedstrategywillbeneededtoachievetheNorthern
TerritoryGovernment’stargetof200IndigenousTeachersby2018,especiallyifthis
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numberistoincludeasignificantproportionorremoteIndigenousstaff’(Nuttonetal.
2012,p.60).Italsohighlightsthebenefitsof‘specificcohortplanning’andquestionsthe
meritsof‘intensivefasttrackprograms’(Nuttonetal.2012,pp.60-61)suchastherecent
CharlesDarwinUniversityRemoteIndigenousTeacherEducation(RITE)program.The
reportalsonotesthat:
ThestatusofIndigenousremotestaffcurrentlyundertakingteachertrainingand
educationsupportcoursesneedsquantifying(p.61).
Thereportalsodrawssignificantattentiontothe‘overallliteracyandnumeracy
competenciesintheremoteIndigenousworkforce’citingthat‘accesstosecondary
educationforresidentsinmanyremoteNTcommunitieshasbeenlow,andconsequently
thereisonlyasmallpoolofpeoplewiththecapacitytosuccessfullyundertakehigherlevel
vocationaleducationortertiarystudies’(Nuttonetal.2012,p.63).Theauthorscomment
thatthisperceptionofIndigenouscapacityissomethingthathasbeen‘raisedconsistently
inconsultations,reportsandpublications’(p.63).Thisidentificationoflowliteracyand
numeracyamongstIndigenouscommunitymembersisconsistentlyusedtoexplainaway
andjustifylowcompletionratesofIndigenousadultsfromremotecommunitiesintertiary
coursesincludingteachereducation.
Whilethereviewclaimedtohavemanydiscussionswith‘stakeholders’(Nuttonetal.2012,
p.8)itwasclearthatthesestakeholderswereinthedifferentdivisionsofNTDETandthe
varioustrainingproviders.Itisunclearifanyconsultationordiscussionhappenedwith
communitiesorthepeopleforwhomtheinitiativesarebeingdeveloped,orindeedifthis
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waspartofthebriefforthisreview.Theimperativesdrivingthereviewweretoimprove
thesupplyofveryremoteteachingstaff,reducetheimpactof‘demand’challengesthat
derivefromhighstaffturnover,andincreasethequalificationsandqualityofveryremote
teachingstaff(Nuttonetal2012,p9).Thesesameimperativeshadbeenraised13years
earlierbytheLearningLessonsreport(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999).
ThereisnodiscussionofhowremoteIndigenouschildrenlearnandwhatkindofteaching
andpedagogyisbestforthem,andsotheissueof‘quality’israisedagainbutwithouta
discussionaboutthepedagogicalqualitiesthatmightpositionIndigenousteachersbetter
qualifiedtoteachchildrenfromtheirowncommunities.Thereisasensethatincreasing
thelocalIndigenousworkforcewillenableimprovedstudentoutcomesbutnoexplanation
ofwhatthatmeansandhowtheseunderlyingbeliefsshapethepoliciesandinitiativeswith
regardtoremoteworkforcedevelopment.Thereisasuggestionthatsuchpoliciesand
initiativesareperhapsimplementedinresponseto‘commissionedinquiriesandreports’
(Nuttonetal.2012,pp.10-11)orasanoverlapwith‘specificnationalstrategies’togrow
theIndigenousworkforceratherthananyrealsenseofcommitmentfromwithintheNT
itself.
IfthereisabeliefaboutthevalueofhavingastrongIndigenousworkforceinremote
communitiesitislargelywrappedupintheideathatIndigenousemployeesarestrong
advocatesofthevalueofeducationandtrainingintheircommunitiesandthatIndigenous
staffareuniquelyplacedtohelpdevelopstrongpartnershipsbetweenIndigenous
communitiesandtheDepartmentofEducation(Nuttonetal.2012,p.12).Onceagainthis
doesnottouchonimprovinglearningoutcomesforstudentsthroughchangesin
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pedagogicalpractices.Thisoversightpromptsanumberofquestions.Isthereabeliefthat
Indigenousteachersareinschoolstodoadifferentjobtonon-Indigenousteachers?Is
thereahiddenimplicationhereaboutthepedagogicalqualityofIndigenousteachers?
By2013/2014,withNationalAssessmentProgramLiteracyandNumeracy(NAPLAN)
statisticscontinuingtopaintableakpictureabouttheprogressbeingmadein‘literacyand
numeracy’forIndigenousstudents(Smee2013),itwastimeforyetanotherreviewof
IndigenousEducation.ThistimetheNTDepartmentofEducationbroughtinformerCEOof
theCurriculumCorporation,turnedEducationconsultant,BruceWilson,todothereview.
WilsonusedashisstartingpointtheLearningLessonsreportfrom1999,aswellasthe
2005LearningLessonsstatusreport.Anentirechapterofthereportwasdedicatedto
‘WorkforcePlanning’(Wilson2014,p.189)andnotesthe‘evidenceforweaknessinthe
recruitmentandtrainingofIndigenousstaff(Wilson2014,p.193).WhileWilson(2014)
suggeststhatsincetheLearningLessonsreport(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentof
Education1999)‘abroadrangeofprogramsandresourceshavebeenputinplaceto
improverecruitmentanddevelopmentopportunitiesforthegeneralremoteworkforce
andforIndigenousemployees’(Wilson2014,p.195).Henotesthat‘increasingIndigenous
staffingnumbersandquality’stillrequiresattention.Theauthorusesthatterm‘quality’to
refertothetypesofteachersneededtoteachIndigenousstudents.However,thereisno
detailputaroundhowsuch‘quality’istobedefined.
Wilson’sreportcomestothesameconclusionasBat(2011),thattheRemoteAreaTeacher
Education(RATE)programwhichranfromthe1970sto1990swasthemostsuccessful
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programhistoricallyatproducingqualifiedIndigenousteachersandwas‘responsiblefor
producingmanyoftheIndigenousteachersinschoolstoday’(Wilson2014,p.196).He
doesnotplaceanyexplanationaroundwhythisTeacherEducationprogramfromthisera
wassosuccessful.HethennamestheCharlesDarwinUniversity(CDU)RemoteIndigenous
TeacherEducation(RITE)programas‘thecurrentTeacherEducationmodel’butalready
speaksaboutitinthepasttensenotingthatit‘wasregardedasunsuccessfulaftera
relativelyshortlife’(Wilson2014,p.196).HenotestheCDUfigureof‘120Indigenouspre-
serviceteachersenrolledindifferentstudymodesinprogramsdeliveredthroughthe
AustralianCentreforIndigenousKnowledgesandEducation(ACIKE)ajointenterprisewith
BIITE’(Wilson2014,p.196)butdoesnottakeintoaccountthatACIKEcoursesareopento
allAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentsacrossAustraliaandanecdotallyfarmore
ofthese120studentcomefrominterstateorurbanbackgrounds,notveryremote
NorthernTerritorycommunities.Wilson(2014)pointsoutinhisreviewtheheavy
investmentbytheNorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducationinthe‘MoreIndigenous
Teachers’(MIT)program,whichofferedarangeofscholarships,cadetshipsandfellowships
tofinanciallysupportIndigenousteachersintheirtraining.However,onceagainthedatais
sufficientlyambiguous(Wilson2014p.196)astoprovidenorealwayofknowingifthis
MoreIndigenousTeachersprogramhasbeenaneffectivesupportforensuringmore
IndigenousteachersfromveryremotecommunitiesarecompletingtheirTeacher
Education.
Wilson(2014,p.196)notesthatthecombinationofthe‘lowliteracylevelofcandidates’
andtheAustralianInstituteofSchoolLeaderships(AITSL)‘requirementsthatteacher
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educationstudentsareinthetop30%ofthecommunityinliteracy’haspresentedbarriers
forIndigenousTeacherEducationstudents,andsuggeststhatthishasimpactedon
recruitment.Anotherpotentialimpactonrecruitmentnamedinthereportistheongoing
‘differenceinemploymentarrangementsandrewardsforIndigenousteachersappointed
intheirowncommunity’(p.199).Thisisthesameissuenamedandcriticizedinthe
LearningLessonsReport(NorthernTerritoryDepartmentofEducation1999).Wilsonnotes
that:
Thelackofhousingentitlementandrelatedbenefitsfortheseappointeesisseenas
discriminatory,andwascitedbyIndigenousteachersthemselvesasbotha
disincentivetoteachintheirowncommunitiesandapracticalobstacletoeffective
planningandteaching,giventhatinsomecasestheywerelivingincrowded
conditionswithlittleopportunityforquietstudyandplanning’(Wilson2014,p.199)
Wilsoncommentsonthedamagingeffectofa‘two-tieredrewardstructurefordifferent
teachers’andthatwhilethereasonsforitarehistoricalitis‘basedessentiallyonrace’
(Wilson2014,p.199)andthatthisineffectcreatesadisincentiveforpeopletobecome
teachersintheirowncommunities.
Other‘difficulties’namedbytheWilsonreportarethe‘highlevelsofsupport’and‘high
levelsofcosts’insustainingpre-serviceprogramsforremoteIndigenousteachers,thelack
ofco-ordinationbetweenprovidersandtheabsenceofmentoringarrangementsfornew
Indigenousteachers(Wilson2014,p.197).Thereportalsoraisesthepossibilityof
‘standards’beingloweredand‘assessmentprocessesbypassedordistortedtoensure
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graduations’ofIndigenousteachersandnames‘consistentfeedbacktothereviewabout
theunsatisfactoryqualityofsomegraduates’(Wilson2014,pp.198-199).Wilsonnotes
thatthesecriticismsare‘anecdotal’andhedoesnotprovideanyspecificevidence.The
choicetopublishinthereporttheseunsubstantiatedclaimsaboutIndigenousteacher
‘quality’issignificantasitechoesthecontinuationoftheideologicalpositioningofthe
Indigenousasoflowercapacitytothenon-Indigenous.
Wilsondoesoutlinearoadmapforstrengthening‘programstoincreaseIndigenous
teachernumbersandquality’(2014,p.205).Hissuggestionsincluderigorouscandidate
selection,programslargelydeliveredinschoolwithalocalcoordinator,schoolbased
coordinatorswithtimereleasetosupportpre-servicecandidates,principallyface-to-face
instruction,developmentofacommonunderstandingofresponsibilitiesbetweenthe
candidateandtheschool,clearexpectationsofcandidatesbeingoutlined,areasonable
expectationofstudyload,assessmentandsupervisionarrangementonparitywith‘other
pre-serviceteachers’andadditionalcoachingandadvisorysupportthroughtheeducation
department,schoolandtertiaryinstitution(Wilson2014,pp.197-198).Theauthormakes
specialnoteoftheneedforstrongdepartmentalsupportdemonstratedbya10-year
commitmenttofundingandajobguaranteeforgraduates.Aworryingaspectofthis
roadmapistheassumedcompletepassivityoftheIndigenousteachercandidates
themselvesandtheircommunitiesinthisprocess.AtnopointdoesWilsonsuggestthe
needtoconsultwithremotecommunitiesaboutthe‘recruitment’ofcandidates.Thissits
indirectoppositiontotheideathatinremoteIndigenouscommunities‘whostudiesto
becomeateacherisadecisioninwhichmanycommunitieswanttoactivelyparticipate’
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(BatandShore2013,p14).Indeedtherecruitmentprocessreadsasbeingratherclinical,
muchlikethearmydraftusedtobe–soldierspulledintoabattlebecausetheircountry
‘neededthem’.Onewondersaboutthesuccessofsuchastrategyusedto‘recruit’teachers
tofightthe‘battle’against‘lowIndigenousliteracy’ratherthanastrategythatseeksto
engageinprocessesandpracticesthatfacilitaterelationshipswithlocalcommunitiesand
developprogramsthathavecontinualreferencetothesociety,cultureandcommunity
needsofthestudents,whichisthepreferredapproachthatIndigenouspeopleinthe
NorthernTerritoryhavecontinuallyarticulatedforthemselves(BatandShore2013).
BoththeNuttonreportandtheWilsonreviewemploythecommon‘smokeandmirrors’
approachofreferringtootherreportsandreviews,theirfindingsandrecommendations.
Littlecriticalanalysisofthelackofactionisappliedbeforethelatestreviewgoesonto
makesurprisinglysimilarfindingsandrecommendations.TheremoteIndigenousworkforce
istrappedinarevolvingdoorofpolicyandpolitics,providedmomentumwithwell-timed
andpoliticallymotivatedreviewsandreportsthatneverseemtoachieveanyofthestated
aimsofincreasingnumbersandpercentages.Thisshouldleadustoquestionwhythe
responsesneverquitematchtherhetoric.
3.6TheimpactofregulationandstreamliningofteachereducationintheNorthern
TerritoryonremoteIndigenousteachers
Itwasinthenatureofthisnationalizedsystemthatanyteachereducationprogramsinthe
NorthernTerritorywouldnowneedtofallinlinewiththeNationalStandardsandthat
teachersintheNorthernTerritorywouldhavetodemonstratetheir‘quality’asmeasured
bytheProfessionalStandards.
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3.6.1TheTeacherRegistrationBoardoftheNorthernTerritory
Aregulatorybodywasrequired.Onthe13thSeptember2004the‘TeacherRegistrationAct
(NT)’waspassedandthislegislationcameintoeffectonthe1stFebruary2005.Thiswas
theNTkeepingpacewithotherjurisdictionsinAustraliawhenitcametowhowasallowed
toteachintheschoolsoftheTerritory.Inthewordsofthelegislationitwasthere‘To
ensurethatonlypersonswhoarefitandproper,andwhoareappropriatelyqualified,are
employedasteachersintheNT’(NorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoardAnnual
Report2005).ToadministertheActtheTeacherRegistrationBoard(TRB)oftheNorthern
Territorywasestablishedin2005andfromthebeginningBoardmembershiphasincluded
oneIndigenousteachernominatedbytheChiefExecutiveoftheDepartmentofEducation.
TheTRBsitsasanIndependentstatutoryauthoritywithintheNorthernTerritory.Inits
firstyeartheTRBreceivedatotalof4098applications.Initially3992oftheseapplicants
wereapprovedwithafurther85‘authoritiestoemployanunregisteredperson’granted.
Forthese85teachers,theBoardconsideredemployers’abilityandwillingnesstoprovide
adequatesupervision,support,mentoringwithintheschool,persons’qualificationsand
relevantexperience,hoursofemployment,purposeofemployment,teachingenvironment
wheretheywork.ThecategorieslistedundertheTRB’s‘authoritytoemployan
unregisteredperson’included‘BatchelorCollegegraduates’withatwoyearteaching
qualificationapprovedforteamteaching(NorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoard
AnnualReport2005).
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ThiswasthefirstpieceofregulationintheNorthernTerritorythatfocusedontheneedfor
a4-yearqualificationtobearegisteredteacher.Priortothis,teachersweretraineduptoa
3-yearqualificationandconsideredeligibletoteach.TodealwiththisanomalytheTRB
created4schedulesofregistrationwithatransitionclausestatingthatthatultimatelyall
teacherswouldneedafouryearqualificationasaminimum(NorthernTerritoryTeacher
RegistrationBoardAnnualReport2005,p.11).ManyoftheIndigenousteachersworkingin
remoteschoolsintheNTatthismomentintimewere3yearqualifiedteacherssowere
affectedbythistransitionclause,althoughtherewaslittlesystemicthinkingbytheTeacher
RegistrationBoard,theuniversitiesortheDepartmentofEducationabouthowtodealwith
thistransitionuntillatein2008whensomespecificshorttermprogramswerefunded(Hall
etal.2010;Hall2014).Thisisagoodexampleoftheacademicgoalpostsbeingshifted
throughchangesinpolicy.
IntheyearsthatfollowedtheestablishmentoftheTRBthenumbersofteachersworkingin
theNorthernTerritoryschoolswerereportedintheTRBannualreports.Thenumberof
IndigenousteacherswaslessconsistentlyreportedastheTRBseemedtotakean
inconsistentapproachtothegatheringofsuchdata.Thisdataiscompiledinthetable
below:
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Registeredteachers Indigenousteachers Un-identified
2005 3992 156(3.9%) NA
2006 4022 169(4.2%) 290
2007 4572 164(3.6%) 287
2008 5086 164(3.2%) 693
2009 Over5400 3% NA
2010 5768 NA NA
2011 6151 3% NA
2012 5884 NA NA
2013 6014 NA NA
2014 5710 NA NA
Figure1:NumberofregisteredIndigenousandnon-IndigenousteachersintheNT
Source:TRBannualreports2005-2014
Thetableaboveshowstwomaintrends1)thattherehasbeennoconsistentcollectionof
statisticalinformationaboutthenumberofregisteredIndigenousteachersintheNorthern
Territoryand2)that,basedonwhatlittleinformationhasbeencollected,thenumberof
registeredIndigenousteachersintheNorthernTerritoryhasstayedverylow.
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3.6.2Accreditationof‘standards’and‘quality’inteachereducationcoursesintheNT
Inadditiontotheirroleasaregistrationbodyforteachers,theTRBwasalsogiven
oversightoftheteachereducationcoursesofferedintheNT.AtthebeginningoftheTRB’s
existencein2005therewere18separateteachereducationcoursesavailableintheNT.
CDUoffered10separatecourses,allatBachelorlevelorhigher.BatchelorInstituteoffered
8coursesfromDiplomatoBachelorlevels.WhiletheCDUcourseswereopentoall
students,theywerepredominantlydesignedwithanon-Indigenousclienteleinmind.The
BatchelorInstitutecourseswereonlyofferedforenrolmenttoAboriginalandTorresStrait
Islanderstudentsandweredesignedwitha‘BothWays’philosophy(Bat&Shore2013;
Lhanupuy2003;Marika1999;Ober&Bat2009).These28teachereducationcourseswere
onofferfromthetwoHigherEducationinstitutionsoftheNTatthetimetheFederal
Governmentcalledforanationalreviewofpre-serviceteachereducation,foreshadowing
furthernationalstreamliningofteachereducationinAustralia.
IntheperiodsinceitsinceptiontheTRBhasplayedanimportantroleinregulatingand
monitoringthequalityofteachereducationcoursesintheNT.Soonafteritsinceptionthe
Boardnotedthefollowinginrelationtoitsworkintheassessmentofthequalityofteacher
educationcourses:
Akeyfactorinthedevelopmentandassessmentofnewprogramswillbetheextent
towhichtheycanfacilitatetheabilityofpre-serviceteacherstomeettheNorthern
Territorystandardsofprofessionalpracticeforteaching(NorthernTerritory
TeacherRegistrationBoardAnnualReport2006,p.14)
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ThissamephraseisrepeatedyearafteryearuntiltheNorthernTerritoryStandardsfor
professionalpracticeinteachingweresupersededbythe‘AustralianProfessional
StandardsforTeachers’developedandpublishedbytheAustralianInstituteforTeaching
andSchoolLeadershipin2009.Itwasanotherkeyshifttowardsthestreamliningand
standardizationofteachereducationinAustraliaand,asacorollary,intheNT.Inthe2010
TRBannualreportthereisanacknowledgementoftheworkthatwillneedtobedonein
ordertodevelop‘theBoardsaccreditationpracticesinordertoparticipateinthenational
system’(NorthernTerritoryTeacherRegistrationBoardAnnualReport2010,p.2).The
legislativechangesbroughtaboutbytheAmendmentBillin2010alsogaveenhanced
powerstotheTRBtorecommendnewteachereducationcoursestotheNTMinisterfor
Education.Thishashappenedin2011,2012and2013.
Ofparticularnotein2011wasthedevelopmentofanewpartnershipbetweenCharles
DarwinUniversity(CDU)andBatchelorInstitutewiththedevelopmentoftheAustralian
CentreforIndigenousKnowledgesandEducation(ACIKE).Thiswasadecisionmadeatthe
federalgovernmentlevelandtheresultwasthatallteachereducationstudentsintheNT
wouldcompletetheCDUaccreditedcourseswithBatchelorInstitutefromthispointbeing
unabletosubmitteachereducationcoursesforaccreditationinitsownright.Existing
BatchelorInstitutecourseswereintegratedintoCDUcourseswiththeoutcomethatall
teachereducationcoursesofferedthroughtheACIKEpartnershipcarryCDUaccreditation.
BatchelorInstitutehasbeenabletocontinuewithitsspecializedmixed-modeofcourse
deliveryforIndigenousteachereducationstudents.The2012TRBannualreportnotedthe
following:
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TeacherEducationprogramsforIndigenousstudentshavebeenandwillcontinueto
bedeliveredbytheinstituteinBatchelorandtheDPC(DesertPeoplesCentre)in
AliceSpringsthroughthemixedmodeapproach.Thisapproachcombinesintensive
workshops,communitybasedlearningandonlinelearningtosupportIndigenous
studentstoachievetheirteachingqualification(NorthernTerritoryTeacher
RegistrationBoardAnnualReport2012,p.5)
Itisworthquestioningthisamalgamation.Seenbysomeasanewrelationshipof
collaborativedeliverythatprovidesthepotentialforincreaseddelivery(BatandShore
2013,p.16)itcouldalsobeseenasanactofeconomicpragmatismforatertiarymarketas
smallastheNorthernTerritory.Anotherinterpretationcouldbethatitwasanactof
assimilatingthepreviouslystrong‘BothWays’teachereducationcoursesintothemore
‘mainstream’(ShoreandBat2013,p15)offeringsoftheCDUcourses.Whateverthe
motivationitisworthaskingthequestionwhetherthismovereallywillfacilitateand
supportmoreIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesbecomingfullyqualified
teachers.
3.6.3Somuchregulationforsolittleimprovement
In2014AITSLreportedthatAustralia-widethenumberofIndigenousstudentsininitial
teachereducationprogramswasnomorethan3%ofthetotalstudentteacherpopulation
(AustralianInstituteforTeachingandSchoolLeadership2014,p.16).Thereisnospecific
IndigenousstudentteacherdataavailablefortheNorthernTerritory.However,thefederal
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government’sreviewofteachereducation,‘ActionNow:Classroomreadyteachers’,
reportedthat:
In2013,therewere183,306AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderfull-time
equivalentenrolmentsinAustralianschools.Thisrepresents5percentofallfull-
timeequivalentenrolmentsinAustralia.Eighty-fourpercentofAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderstudentswereenrolledingovernmentschools,10percentin
Catholicschoolsand5percentinindependentschools(ActionNow:Classroom
readyteachers2014,p.83).
FromthesedataitisclearthatthenumberofIndigenouspeoplepreparingtobecome
schoolteachersisnotkeepingpacethenumberofIndigenousstudentsAustralia-wide.
WithamuchhigherproportionofIndigenousstudentsinNTschools(40%)thanthenation-
widefigureof5%,andtheproportionofIndigenousteachersinNTschoolsintheorderof
3%,onewouldexpecttoseeNTandfederalgovernmentsplaceaheightenedlevelof
urgencyonincreasingthenumbersofIndigenousstudentteacherspreparingtoteachin
theNT,andparticularlysowithrespecttopreparingtoteachinremotecommunityschools
intheNTwheretheIndigenousstudentpopulationcanbeupto100%ofallstudentsat
certainschools.
3.7Conclusion
Theprogressionfromtheoriginal,practical,onsite,classroombasedteachertrainingto
themodern,professional,national,universitybasedsystemof‘quality’teachereducation
wasperhapsinevitable,andmayevenhavebeennecessary.However,inacountrythesize
ofAustraliawithsomuchgeographic,culturalandlinguisticdiversity,itisworthaskingthe
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question‘whodoesthisNational‘quality’teachereducationsystemservebest?’The
processofnationalizationandstandardizationassumesa‘standard’ora‘norm’andherein
liesthedangerforIndigenouspeoplefromremotecommunitieswantingtobecome
teachers.ThestandardsandnormshavenotbeenbasedontheexperiencesofIndigenous
studentsandIndigenousteachersinremotecommunitiesintheNTand,giventheresearch
locationofmydoctoralstudy,intheremotecommunitiesofCentralAustralia.
Hasthequestionofwhatconstitutes‘quality’inthatcontextbeengivenmorethana
cursoryconsideration?Somewillarguethatthestandardsareopenandflexibleenoughto
beinterpretedindiverseways.Butthatleavesopenthequestionofwhoisdoingthe
interpretation?Eachmovetowardsacentralized,standardized,homogenizednormof
whatitmeanstobea‘quality’teacher,makesthemeetingofthosestandardsharderand
harderforpeoplewhocomefromculturalbackgroundsandlanguagesandteachingstyles
thatdeviatefromthatnorm.Thisisespeciallytruewiththeincreasinglyheavyemphasison
theEnglishliteracyandwesternnumeracyrequirementsofteachereducationapplicants.
Onthequestionofqualityitisworthaskingsomehardquestionsaboutwhatconstitutes
‘quality’teachingand‘classroomready’teachersforteachingthattakesplacein
classroomslocatedonWarlpiri,Luritja,ArrarntaandPitjantjatjaracountry.AsBat(2013)
suggests:
Inthecurrenteraofnationalisation,accreditationandregulation,theneedsofwhat
couldbearguedarethemostdisadvantagedcommunitiesinthecountry,appearto
havebeenlostintherushtocreateauniformteachereducationsystem(Bat2013p
1).
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WhilethesepoliticalandpolicybasedshiftsattheNationalLevelinteachereducationmay
notbethesolereasonwhynumbersofIndigenousstudentsfromremotecommunities
undertakinginitialteachereducationprogramsarelow,itisworthconsideringtowhat
extentthesechangesandpressureshavecontributedtotheproblem.
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Chapter4–MethodologyandMethod
4.1Introduction
Thepurposeofthischapteristoexplainthemethodologcalchoicesmadeinundertaking
thisdoctoralresearch.Thisisdoneinthreeparts.Thefirstpartexplainsthepre-
methodologicalworkthatwasdoneaspartofacommitmenttodoingPost-Colonial
Knowledgeworkin‘goodfaith’withtheIndigneousteacherparticipants.Thesecondpart
outlinestheoverallmethodologyanditsrationale.Thethirdpartexplainsthespecific
methodsusedinthecollectionandanalysisoftheteachernarratives.
4.2Pre-methodologicalquestions
4.2.1Thecaseforauniqueapproach
ThecommonconcernattheheartofthisresearchistolookatpathwaysforIndigenous
peoplefromremotecommunitiesintoteachereducation.Thekeyvehicleforexploringthis
concernwasthestoriesofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesinCentral
Australiawhohavesuccessfullycompletedthispathwayandbecomefullyqualified
classroomteachers.Theimmediateimpulsewastouseanarrativemethodologyandthen
chooseamethodsuchas‘yarning’(Bessarab&Ng'andu2010),orsomethingsimilarthat
hasemergedfromthefieldof‘Indigenousresearch’inrecentyears.Toanextentthose
immediateinstinctshaveproventobegoodonesandtheuseofnarrativeisoutlinedlater
inthischapter.
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However,asanon-Indigenousresearcherworkinginaresearchspacethatwasprioritising
IndigenousresearchparticipantsandIndigenousstoriesandknowledge,IknewIhadsome
worktodotoensurethatthisparticularresearchprojectdidnotreplicatemanyoftheills
ofpastresearchinthisfield.TothatendIdidalargepieceof‘pre-methodological’work
thatIhavecometothinkofas‘theworkbeforethework’(Palmer2009).InparticularIwas
interestedintheethicalprocessesthatleadintoresearchworkandfindingwaystocome
togetherintheresearchspacethatcanfaciliate‘goodfaith’Post-ColonialKnowledgework.
The‘participants’inthisresearchwerenotjustthestorytellersbutareimportant
knowledgeauthoritiesinthisfieldofstudy.Thesewomenarerecognisedleaderswithin
theirowncommunitiesandacrossothers’communities.Inmanycasestheyareamongthe
mosthighlyeducatedmembersoftheirhomecommunities,asdefinedbytheWestern
academy.Additionallytheyholdavastamountofknowledgeabouteducationinthe
interculturalsettingofremotecommunityschools.Thesewomenalsoholdandare
responsibleforanextensiveamountofculturalandprotocolknowledgefromwithintheir
ownknowledgetraditions.Tolimittheirroleintheprocesstoonlybeing‘participants’and
ignoreeverythingelsethattheyareandthattheybringtotheprocesswouldbeinsulting
tothemaswellasdoingahugediservicetothequestionwearetryingtoanswertogether.
AsdetailedinChapter1ofthisthesis,thecommonconcernatthecentreofthisresearch
wasbornoutofacollectiveprocessbetweenmyselfandalloftheseladiesduringsome
previousworkwehadcompletedtogether.Sofromtheverybeginningconversationson
thistopicithasfeltlikeacollaborativeeffort,withthePhDprocessservingasavehiclefor
thatexploration.Whilethisisclearlyanunusualapprochtotake,thereareimportant
opportunitiesthatariseasaresultofthis.
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Onethingbecameveryclearfromtheoutsetofseeingthisasacollaborativeprocess:we
wouldneedtopayattentiontoandnurturethecollaborationfortheenitrelengthofthe
processassociatedwithmyPhDstudy.Soitbecameobviousthatthisongoingreflection
andevaluationwasanelementthatneededtobebuiltintothatprocessfromthevery
beginning.Thisgaverisetoparallelquestion,namely‘Howdowedoresearchtogetherin
theinterculturalspace?’Thisdoctoralresearchwasofferingauniqueopportunitytoreflect
on,evaluateandanalysewaysofdoingresearchtogetherthatmightofferalternative
modelsforfutureresearchers.Thisalsobecomeamethodologicalquestionbecausethese
reflectiveandevaluativestagesneededtobebuiltintotheentireprocess.Utlimatelythis
gaverisetoanewtypeofmethodologywhichIamcalling‘participatorynarrative’,the
processofwhichisoutlinedinthefinalsectionofthischapterandtheimplicationsand
benefitsofwhicharediscussedinChapter5.
4.2.2Understandingthepast
ItaketheviewthatnoresearchershouldplantodoresearchinvolvingIndigenouspeoples
andcommunitieswithoutfirstexaminingthehistoryofresearchthathasdamaged,
disempoweredandsilencedIndigenouspeoples.Itisespeciallyimportantfornon-
Indigenousresearcherstoacknowledgetherolethattheirculturalancestorshaveplayedin
thishistoryandtomakeafirmcommitmentthattheywillnotmakethesamemistakes.
FortunatelywearenowlivinginanerawheremanyIndigenousresearchersarespeaking
backtotheWesternAcademyandnotonlynamingtheimpactofthedamagethathas
beendonebutalsoclaimingtheirrighttorethinktheunderpinningsoftheresearch
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processfromIndigenousstandpoints.Thisisleadingtoexcitingnewresearchparadigms
thathaveatheartIndigenouswaysofknowing,Indigenousworldviews,Indigenousvalues
andethicsandIndigenousmethodologies.
4.2.3Thecoloniallegacyofresearch
'Researchersarelikemosquitoes,theysuckyourbloodthenleave'
AlaskanNativesaying(inCochran2008,p.1)
ThisAlaskaNativesayingsumsuphowmanyIndigenouspeopletheworldoverfeelabout
research.LindaTuhawiSmith(1999)talksaboutresearchbeinga'dirtyword'formost
Indigenouscommunities.Australianacademic,LowitjaO'Donoghuesummedtheresearch
experienceofAustralianIndigenouspeoplethus,
Untilveryrecently…scientificresearchhasbeenaverytopdownapproach.For
Aboriginalpeople,thishasmeantwehavebeenamongstthemoststudiedand
researchedgroupintheworld…fewifanytangiblebenefitshaveflowedtoour
people,astheresearchpapersandtheacademicaccoladeshavestackedup.
Researchershave,byandlarge,definedtheproblemsandsoughtsolutionsthat
theyhaveseenasthecorrect,'scientific'waytogo(LowitjaO'Donoghue1998,cited
inHenryetal.2002,p.12).
Researchhas,inthepast,beensomethingthathasbeendone'to'Indigenouspeople
ratherthanwiththem.IthassetIndigenouspeopleupasthe'Other'tobestudiedrather
thanpeoplewhohaveagencyovertheirownlivesandknowledgesystems.Ithasdone
enormousdamageintermsofstigmatisingIndigenouspeopleandreinforcingnegative
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labelsandbeliefsandperhapsworstofall,butunsurprisingly,ithasproducedveryfew
benefitstotheIndigenouscommunitiesthemselves,withthemajorityofthebenefitsgoing
tothenon-Indigenousresearchersandtheinstitutionstheyworkfor.Westernresearchers
seemedtoapproachresearchinoneoftwoways.OftentheywouldapproachIndigenous
communitiesasknowledgetreasurecheststobelooted,miningthelocalpeopleoftheir
knowledgeandthenclaimingtheprizeofdiscovery,apracticewhichwasaviolentwayof
dismissingtheIndigenouspeople'sknowledgeasirrelevantandawayofdisconnecting
themfromwhattheyknewandhowtheyknewit(Chilisa&Preece2005).Rigney(1999)
alsocommentsonthedamagedonetoIndigenouspeoplethroughresearchwhentheir
voicesweresilencedandtheirwaysofknowingunder-valued,ignoredandshutout.
Alternatively,Westernresearchershavehistoricallylookeduponthelives,practicesand
traditionsofIndigenouspeopleasproblemstobesolved(Cochranetal.2008)withan
emphasison'illnessratherthanhealth'(Wilson2009,p.17).Wilson(2009,p.16)points
outthatthiscounterproductivefocushascomeaboutbecausetraditionallyresearchers
camefromoutsidethecommunityto‘study’theIndigenous‘problems’andthenimpose
‘outsidesolutions’ratherthanappreciatingandexpandingupontheresourcesavailable
withinIndigenouscommunities.Thishasresultedintheproliferationofnegative
stereotypesaboutIndigenouscommunities(Wilson2009)andthestigmatizationthatcan
occurwhentheseproblemsandnegativestereotypesarethefocusofpublishedresearch
findings(Cochranetal.2008).
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Thisnegativefocusalsopointstoalackofcommitmenttorelationships,whichis
fundamentallyimportanttoIndigenouspeople.Wilson(2009)notesthatinthepastin
mostcasesresearchundertakenwasnotattherequestofthecommunity,butrather
basedonadecisionmadebytheindividualresearcherortheinstitutionheorsheworked
for.Research,therefore,wasperceivedbythecommunitiesasdisconnectedandlacking
anyrelevancetothem,andtheyfeltexcludedfromanykindofagencyovertheresearch
process.Therewasnoexpectationorcommitmentonthepartoftheresearchertobuild
relationshipandtrustwiththecommunityandnoengagementintheissuesthe
communityitselfwouldidentify,orindeedtheresourcesavailablefromwithinthe
communitytocreatesolutionsforthoseissues.
AtamorebenignendofthespectrumWilsontalksaboutthisaffectingpeople’sattitudes
towardsresearchsaying,'Peopleareaccustomedtoseeingresearcherscomeintotheir
communities,dowhateveritistheydoandleave,nevertobeheardfromagain'(Wilson
2009,p.15).AtamoresinisterlevelCochranandothers(2008,p.2)giveexampleswhere
thetrustofcommunitiesiscompletelyviolatedwheninformedconsentisnottaken
seriouslyandpeoplebelievetheyareparticipatinginresearchforonepurposeonlyto
discoverthedataisbeingusedforanentirelydifferentsetoffindings.Suchappalling
researchbehaviourhasledtoresearchfindingsthatcannotbeconsideredvalidand
reliable,butthathavestillhadtractionamongstpolicyanddecisionmakingbodies.
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Perhapsthemostglaringcondemnationoftheresearchofthepastisthat'somuchhas
beendoneforsolittleimprovement'(Cochranetal.2008,p.1).GormanandToombs
(2009,p.4)similarlystatethat'Despitedecadesofresearchtherehasbeenlittleorno
improvement'andidentifyoneofthereasonsforthis,'Partoftheproblemthathasbeen
identifiedistheineffectivenessofresearchbasedonnon-Indigenousculturalvalues'.Smith
(1999,p.3)saysthatfortheMaoripeople'researchwastalkedaboutbothintermsofits
absoluteworthlessnesstous,theIndigenousworld,anditsabsoluteusefulnesstothose
whowieldeditasaninstrument'.FinallyWilson(2009,p.20)makesacommentaboutthe
neverendingresearch'inquiries'thatIndigenouscommunitiesarebombardedwithnoting
thatthe'thingthatalloftheseinquiriesholdincommonisthatwithoutfail,theconditions
andissuesthatarebeingstudiedgetworse,ratherthanimproving,aftertheresearchhas
beendone'.Researcherscannolongerignorethis'coloniallegacy'ofresearch(Cochranet
al.2008;Gorman&Toombs2009).
4.2.4Relationalresearchthatgenerates‘goodfaith’
Oneofthekeyreasonsthatwehavesuchaclearcritiqueofthewayresearchwith
Indigenouspeoplehasbeendoneinthepastisbecauseoftheemergencewithinthelast
twoorthreedecadesofanumberofIndigenouswritersandresearcherswhoarespeaking
backtotheAcademyabouttheexclusionoftheirvoicesandknowledgesystemsin
research.Throughthesescholarsweareremindedthathowyoudotheresearchisjustas
importantastheoutcomesoftheresearch.Thismeansthatifresearchisconductedwith
IndigenouspeopleandthedesignignoresIndigenouswaysofknowingandappropriate
ethicaldevelopmentthenitcannotbeconsideredrigorous,andtheresultswillbe
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questionableintermsoftheirefficacy(Cochranetal.2008,p.2).Ifwebelievethat
choosinganappropriateresearchmethodologyisbasedontheskillofmatchingthe
problemwithan'appropriate'setofinvestigativestrategies'andthatitis'concernedwith
ensuringthatinformationisaccessedinsuchawayastoguaranteevalidityandreliability'
(Smith1999,p.173),theninordertobevalid,reliableandrigorousinresearchwith
Indigenouspeopletheresearchdesignmustbeco-constructedinordertoremainopento
openthemultiplicityofwaysofknowing,beinganddoing(Martin2008).
ResearchinvolvingthecollaborationofIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeopleneedsto
havetheintentofconductingitselfin‘goodfaith’(Verran2013)whichmeansthatatits
coreitneedstoremainrelational.Wilson(2009,p11)suggeststhattheresearchitself
mustbeconsidered'ceremony'.Warlpirischolar,StevePatrickremindsusthatfor
Indigenousepistemologiestheknowledgeliesintherelationships,notintheseparate
parts(PawuKurlpurlurnu,HolmesandBox2008,p.15).DeCrespignyandothers(2004)
alsoconcurwiththisnotionofrelationality,asdoesChilisa(2011,pp.108-122)reminding
usthatitisnotjustaboutrelationshipsbetweenresearcherandcommunity,butmore
importantlyaboutunderstandingtherelationalontologiesandaxiologiesofIndigenous
peoples.Inthisparadigmtheresearchers’relationshiptoknowledgeitselfisandmustbe
different.AccordingtoMoreton-RobinsonandWalter(2009,p.6)Indigenouswaysof
knowingexplicitlyrecognisethatonecannotknoweverything,thateverythingcannotbe
knownandthatthereareknowledgesbeyondhumanunderstanding.Additionallythey
maintainthat'knowledgecannotbediscoveredorowned;itcanonlyberevealedand
shared.InresearchtheIndigenouspersonisalwaystheobserverandIndigenous
worldviewsandperspectivesareexplicitlypositionedasthelensthroughwhichthe
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researchseekstorevealknowledge'(Moreton-Robinson&Walter2009,p.12).AsChilisa
(2011,p.99)pointsoutthisIndigenousperspectiveofresearchbeingabout'unveiling
knowledge'mayposesomechallengesforanAcademythathaspreviouslybefocusedon
the'discovery'of'new'knowledge.
4.2.5TheethicsofPost-Colonialresearchwork
Rose(2004)placesethicsascentraltotheworkofdecolonisation.Butshesaysthatwe
mustnolongerseeethicsasa‘closedsystem’butratherasa‘wayofliving…invulnerability
andopennesstoothers’(Rose2004,p8).Shefurtherexplainsthatthisneedstobean
ethicsofresponsibilityratherthanguiltanditshouldfocusondevelopingahuman
conditionof‘livingwithandforothers’(Rose2004,p12).Finally,Rosesuggeststhatethics
arerevealedinourlivesasthey‘unfoldwithinrelationshipsofresponsibility’(Rose2004,
p.13).Thisconceptionofrelationalethicscorrespondsstronglywithideasexpressedby
Indigenousscholars.Moreton-Robinson&Walter(2009,p.6)underlinetheimportant
principlesofrespect,reciprocityandobligation,whileSmith(1999,p120)recommends
thatwhenworkingwithIndigenouspeopleoneshould,
• Showarespectforpeople
• Presentyourselftopeoplefacetoface
• Look,listen….speak
• Shareandhostpeople,begenerous
• Becautious
• notflauntyourknowledge
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Similarsetsofethicalprinciplescanbereadilyfoundincontemporaryexamplesof
collaborativeresearchbetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeople.ForexampleHenry
etal(2002,pp.9-13)giveadetailedoverviewoftheattemptsmadeinthefieldofHealth
researchinAustraliabetween1983and1999todefinesomenewprinciplesandprotocols
fordoingresearchwithIndigenouspeople.Cochranandothers(2008,p.4)alsogivean
Australianexampleofguidelinesforresearch.GormanandToombs(2009,p.11)identify
thefollowingassomeoftheethicsandvaluesthatneedtounderlieresearchwith
Indigenouspeoples,
• mutualrespect
• confidentiality
• clarificationofwhobenefitsandhow
• identificationofoutcomes,and
• agreementsbetweentwopartiesaboutthehowtheresearchwillbeconducted
anddisseminated
Accountabilitytotherespectivecommunitiesisalsoakeyprinciple,asisafoundational
beliefintherelationshipandconnectednessofknowledge(Moreton-Robinson&Walter
2009,p.7).Findingrelationalandethicalwaysofdoingresearchtogetheringoodfaith
requirescarefulconsiderationatthemethodologicallevel.
4.3Methodology
Thechoiceanddevelopmentofamethodologyisonlyonepartofresearchdesignandit
neednotbethestartingpointforaresearcher’sconsideration.Howeveritisclearthat
therearecertainmethodologies,particularlyqualitativemethodologies,whichstandoutas
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beinglargelycompatiblewiththerelationalandethicalrequirementsfordoingPost-
Colonialresearchworkin‘goodfaith’.Theonechosenforthisresearchwasanarrative
methodology.
4.3.1Theoreticalunderpinnings
ThisdoctoralresearchfocusesonthestoriesofagroupoffullyqualifiedIndigenous
teachersmeaningthattheseteachershavebeenassessedasdemonstratingthe
ProfessionalStandardsforTeachersatagraduatelevel.Thestudyusesanarrative
methodologytoexplorehowtheseteachersinterpretandenacttheprofessionalstandards
inwaysthataremeaningfultothecontextinwhichtheyliveandwork.This‘narrativeturn’
(Bochner2001)‘honourspeople’sstoriesasdatathatcanstandontheirownaspure
descriptionofexperience,worthyasnarrativedocumentaryofexperience…oranalysedfor
connectionsbetweenthepsychological,sociological,cultural,politicalanddramatic
dimensionsofhumanexperience’(Patton2002,p.116).Narrativetraditionallysitswithin
theinterpretativesocialsciencetheoreticaltradition,beingattimesatoolof
phenomenologyoratothertimestoolofhermeneutics.Asapieceofqualitativeresearch
thatsitswithinthe‘reformedsocialscience’community(Polkinghorne2007,p.473),this
researchwillbelookingfor‘theoreticaltransferabilityratherthanempirical
generalizability’(Pringleetal2011,p.21).
ImportantlytheuseofstoryisalsowidelyregardedbywritersonIndigenousresearch
methodologytobeanappropriateandvalidchoice(BarnhardtC.2001;BarnhardtR.2007;
Basso1996;Chilisa2011;Hughesetal.2004;Kahakalau2004;Kawagley1995;Kawagley
1999;Kovach2009;Partington1998;Wilson2009;Wilson2001)aswillbediscussed
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furtherbelow.CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)alsoplacesthe‘voicesofpeopleofcolour’atthe
centreofresearch(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006,p.22).Centraltothischoiceisthe
assertionandacknowledgementoftheimportanceofthepersonalandcommunity
experiencesofpeopleofcolourassourcesofknowledge(DixsonandRousseau2006b,p.
35).Matsuda(1995,p.3)remindsusthat‘thosewhohaveexperienceddiscrimination
speakwithspecialvoicetowhichweshouldlisten’.
AmaingoalofCRTistousestorytellingandnarrativetoexamineraceandracisminsocial
andpoliticalinstitutionsandCRTscholarsbelievethattheutilizationofpersonalnarratives
andotherstoriesarevalidformsof“evidence”andtherebyCRTchallengesa“numbers
only”approachtodocumentinginequityordiscrimination,whichtendstocertify
discriminationfromaquantitativeratherthanqualitativeperspective.Oneimportant
functionofvoicestorytellingandcounter-storytellinginCRTscholarshipistocounteract
thestoriesofthedominantgroupsothatthemyths,assumptions,andreceivedwisdoms
canbequestionedbyshiftingthegroundsofdebateorpresentinganalysesinwaysthat
turndominantassumptionsontheirhead(Gillborn2006,DixsonandRousseau2006b).
Delgado(1989,p.240)remindsusthatthedominantgrouptellsstoriesdesignedto
‘reminditofitsidentityinrelationtooutgroupsandprovideaformofsharedrealityin
whichitsownsuperiorpositionisseenasnatural’.Gillborn(2006,p.24)suggeststhat‘CRT
approachesservetoappropriatesuchformsandusethemtobuildapowerfulchallengeto
‘‘mainstream’’assumptions’.ThestorytellingaspectofCRThasbeencritiquedas
problematicbecauseitisregardedas‘unscientific’andsubjective,butCRTnevermakes
claimsofobjectivityorrationality.Rather,itseesitselfasanapproachtoscholarshipthat
integrateslivedexperiencewithracialrealism(DixsonandRousseau2006a,pvii).
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4.3.2Storyasmethod
Thecentralroleofstorytellingasameansofknowledgetransmissionisattheheartof
Indigenousknowledgesystems(BarnhardtC.2001;BarnhardtR.2007;Basso1996;Buker
2014;Chilisa2011;Hughesetal.2004;Kahakalau2004;Kawagley1995;Kawagley1999;
Kovach2009;Partington1998;Wilson2009;Wilson2001).Partington(1998)stateswith
regardtotheAustraliancontextthatlearningwaslargelyoralandtheuseofstorytelling
wasimportant.ElizaJones,anAlaskaNativewoman,reinforcesthecentralimportanceof
storyforAlaskaNativepeople.Shesays,
Ournativebeliefsareinsidethosestories…it'slikegospeltous.Itisverymucha
partofmybeliefinlivinginharmonywithnature,withtheland,trees,water,
animalsandbirdspirits(ElizaJones,citedinC.Barnhardt,2001,p.16)
StoriesandmetaphorsweretheoriginalteachingtoolusedbyIndigenoussocieties.Wilson
(2009,p.17)pointsoutthat'storiesallowlistenerstodrawtheirownconclusionsandto
gainlifelessonsfromamorepersonalperspective.Bygettingawayfromabstractionsand
rules,storiesallowustoseeothers’lifeexperiencesthroughourowneyes.This
informationmaythenbeinternalisedinawaythatisdifficultforabstractdiscussionsto
achieve.'
4.3.3Thewiderappealofstory/narrative
NotonlyisstoryornarrativewidelyusedbyIndigenouspeople,butitisincreasinglybeing
recognisedasanimportantresearchmethodologicalstrategywithinthesocialsciencesand
healthfieldsofresearch(Gorman&Toombs2009;Hamiltonetal.2008;Lai2010;Mattos
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2009;Pepper&Wildy2009).InmoreWesternresearchparadigmsitisseenthattheuseof
narrativesasamethodologypermitslife-likeaccountsofindividualexperienceandoffers
anopportunitytovaluetheexperienceofothers(Gorman&Toombs2009;Pepper&Wildy
2009).Thewiderappealofstorytoallisthatouraestheticunderstandingofrealityis
formedandinformedthroughourembeddednessinthegenerativeandcreativeprocessof
story(Lewis2011).Reidetal(2005,p.22)remindusthatinresearchthevalueofstoryas
methodisthat‘theresearcherbeginsbyhearingpeople’sstories,andprioritisesthe
participants’worldviewatthecoreoftheaccount’.Pringleandothers(2011,p.24)
underlinetheimportanceofthisstatingthat‘itisbyunderstandingandbringingtothefore
individualaccountsthatwecanbegintounderstandthe‘lifeworlds’ina
phenomenologicalsense’.
Therearemanyadvantagestousingnarrativeandstorytellingasamethodology.For
example,itcancreateapowershiftinresearchwheretheparticipantisabletodirectthe
courseoftheresearchandretainownershipoverit(Gorman&Toombs2009.p.10).
Allowingpeopletimeandspacetotelltheirownstoryintheirownwayhasalsobeen
showntocontributetopeoples'wellbeing(Pepper&Wildy2009,p.1).Storyalsofreesthe
participantuptochoosethelanguageoftelling,andChilisa(2011,p.153)pointsoutthat
thelanguagethestoryistoldinisoneofthekeycomponentsofresearchwithIndigenous
people.Additionally,PepperandWildy(2009,p.6)remindusthatinadditiontolanguage
therearenon-verbalcuesthatareassociatedwithstorytellingandtheycaninformusas
muchasanythingsaidaloud.Additionally,whoisactuallytellingthestoryandhowthey
arerelatedtothosearoundthemiskeyinunderstandingthestory(Chilisa2011).Allof
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theseelementsmakestoryornarrative,arichandindepthmethodofresearch,butstory
offersopportunitiesnotjustfordatacollectionbutalsoasamethodofinformation
dissemination(Chilisa2011,p.149).CriticalRaceTheoryalsoshowsusthatstoriescanbe
powerfulwaysofidentifying,uncoveringandunderstandingthemoreinvisibleand
everydayformsofracismthatpeopleexperience(Delgado1989,Gillborn2006,Dixsonand
Rousseau2006b).
4.3.4Sometensionsandchallengeswithstoryasmethod
Therearesometensionsandchallengesinvolvedinusingstoryornarrativeasaresearch
method.Thereareimportantissuestodowithreliabilityandanalysiswhenusedwithina
qualitativeresearchapproach.Narrativesrequiremorethanvalidity,reliabilityand
generalisabilityastheyalsoinvolveatensioncentredoncontext.Inanysituationcontext
counts;itisessentialformakingsenseofanyperson,actionorevent.Sothecontextof
boththestoryandthepersontellingthestorymustbefullyunderstoodandfactoredinto
theanalysis(Pepper&Wildy2009).
Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgethatresearcherswillgenerallyactas'initialfilters'of
data.Non-Indigenousresearchersinparticularmustquestiontheirunderlyingassumptions
andensurethattheyusetherightquestionsforcheckingtheirunderstandings(Pepper&
Wildy2009).Toaddrigourtothismethodologyitmaybeimportanttolookformeaningful
waystobringparticipantsintothisanalysisandfilteringprocess.Itmaybepossiblefor
participantstoanalysetheirownandeachother’snarrativesand,throughrecognisingthe
pointsofsimilarityanddifference,participateindrawingoutthecriticalconclusions.Itis
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importanttorememberthat‘qualitativeapproaches…donotseektofindonesingle
answerortruth,butratheracoherentandlegitimateaccountthatisattentivetothe
wordsoftheparticipants’(Pringleetal.2011,p.23).
4.4Thenarrativemethodusedinthisresearch
4.4.1Purposivesampling
Theparticipantsforthisresearchwerechosenusingpurposivesampling.Thisisaformof
non-probabilitysamplinginwhichdecisionsconcerningtheindividualstobeincludedin
thesamplearetakenbytheresearcherbaseduponavarietyofcriteria.Thesecriteriamay
includespecialistknowledgeoftheresearchissueandcapacityandwillingnessofpotential
participantstocontributetotheresearch.Itisparticularlyappropriateforresearchthat
necessitatestheidentificationofindividualparticipantswhowouldbemostlikelyto
contributeappropriatedata,bothintermsofrelevanceanddepth(Oliver2006).Inthe
caseofthisresearchthecriteriausedwasasfollows:
• Indigenous
• FullyqualifiedclassroomteacherhavingcompletedafouryearBachelorof
Education/Teaching
• FromaremotecommunitylocatedinCentralAustralia(thisisintentionallya
CentralAustralianfocusedresearchproject)
Atthebeginningitwasestimatedthatthenumberofparticipantswaslikelytobebetween
sixandtenwhichisacommonlyrecommendednumberinstudiesofthiskind.Ultimately
thereweresevenparticipantswhohadtheirnarrativesrecorded.Instudiessuchasthis
‘fewerparticipantsexaminedatagreaterdepthispreferabletoabroader,shallowand
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simplydescriptiveanalysisofmanyindividuals’accounts(Heffron&Gil-Rodriguez2011,p.
756).Pringleandothers(2011p21)alsopointoutthata‘reducedparticipantnumbers
allowsforaricherdepthofanalysisthatmightbeinhibitedwithalargersample’.Purposive
samplingoftenleadstoamorehomogenoussample,butthisisquiteintentionalwhere
participantsarechosenbecausetheyofferinsightsfromapositionofsharedexperience
(Pringleetal.2011,p.22).Inthisresearchthenumberandnatureofparticipantswas
determinedbytherealityofhowmanyfullyqualifiedIndigenousteacherstherearefrom
remotecommunitiesinCentralAustralia.
4.4.2Narrativecollection
Themain‘data’forthisresearchisintheformoftheteachers’narratives.Theywere
gatheredusinganinterviewtechniquethatfallsonthecontinuumbetweenun-structured
andsemi-structurednarrativeinterviews(Sarantakos1998).Thislackofinitialstructureis
commoninqualitativeresearchthatusesanarrativemethodforanumberofkeyreasons.
HefferonandGil-Rodriguez(2011,p.757)maintainthatitispreferabletobeginwith‘a
moreopenendedinterviewmaintainingacarefulbalancebetweenguidingandbeingled’
andto‘startwithbroad,generalquestionsthatallowtheparticipanttoseetheparameters
ofthetopic…sothattheresearcherdoesnotimposetheirunderstandingofthe
phenomenonontheparticipant’snarrative’.Pringleandothers(2011,p.23)alsowarnthat
‘expansive,honestandreflectiveaccountsmaybelessforthcomingandmoredifficultto
accessfromparticipantsifarigidsetofquestionsoramorestructuredinterviewing
techniqueareused’.
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Inthisresearchthestorytellingfocusedonthewholeofcareerexperienceofeach
teacher.Eachnarrativewasrecordedoveranumberofsessionsandproducedadetailed,
indepth,richaccountoftheexperienceofbecomingandbeingateacherforthe
participant.Thelanguageoftellingwasleftuptotheparticipantandtranslationwasused
whererequired.Thiswasmostoftendonebytheparticipantsthemselves,eitheratthe
timeoftelling(i.e.theyrepeatedwhattheyhadjustsaidbutinEnglishformeto
understand)oratalaterdateinafollowupsession.
4.4.3Semi-Structurednarrativeinterviewprocess
Step1
Sensitivetotheuniquecontextsoftheindividualparticipantssomequestionswere
consideredcollectivelypriortostorytelling.Theseincluded:
• Wherewouldbeagoodplacetotellthisstory?
• Whoaretherightpeopletobeinvolvedintellingthisstory?
• Whowouldliketo/shouldlistentothisstory?
Inthecaseofeachparticipanttherecordingofthenarrativewasprecededbyalong
conversationalphase.Thiswasdoneovermanymonths,attimesinface-to-face
encountersandatothertimesoverthephoneorothersocialmediacommunication
avenues.Thisgaveeachparticipantthetimetofullyconsidertheirparticipationinthe
researchandtobeincontrolofwhenandwherethe‘telling’wouldcommence.The
importanceofallowingthiskindofleadintimeisfurtherexplainedchapter5.
Step2Onlywhenthestorytellerwasreadyweretherecordingdevicesswitchedon.Each
narrativebeganwiththefollowingprompt:
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“Whenyouarereadycanyoustarttellingmethewholestoryofyoubecomingateacher?”
Afterthisthetellerwasincontrolofwherethenarrativewent.Someparticipantschoseto
introducethemselvesandgiveabriefsynopsisoftheirteacherstory.Otherschosea
differentstartingplace.Questionsandadditionalpromptswereonlyusedwhenrequired
tomovethenarrativealong,andwereconstructedonanadhocbasisbytheresearcherin
responsetothenarrativebeingtold.Inthisaspectthemethodcloselyresembleda
‘yarning’approachasdescribedbyBessarabandNg'andu(2010).
Aseachnarrativeranoveranumberofrecordingsessions,oftenondifferentdays,the
researcherwouldstarteachsubsequentsessionwitharecapofwhathadbeendiscussed
attheendoftheprevioussession.Thisservedtoremindbothtellerandlistenerand
providesomecontinuitytotherecordednarrative.
Step3
Oncethetellercametoanaturalpointofclosuretotheirownteachernarrative,onefinal
recordingsessionwascompletedwitheachparticipant.Theaimofthisfinalsessionwasto
explorehowtheprofessionalroleoftheteacherisunderstoodandenactedbyIndigenous
teachers.Thequestionsorpromptsforthisfinalsessionweredevisedinadvanceanda
copyofthemwasprovidedtotheparticipantbeforerecordingcommenced.These
questionswereguidedbythesevenProfessionalStandardsforTeachers(Australian
InstituteforTeachingandSchoolLeadership,viewed24/9/15a).Namely,
o Knowingstudentsandhowtheylearn
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Exampleprompts:Tellmehowwellyouknowyourstudents.Tellmewhatyou
knowabouthowstudentsfromyourcommunitylearnbest?Wheredoesyour
knowledgeaboutyourstudentscomefrom?
o Knowingthecontentandhowtoteachit
Exampleprompts:Whatisimportantforyourstudentstolearnandhowshould
theylearnit?Whatresourcesdoyoudrawontoteachwhatyourstudentsneedto
learn?
o Planningforandimplementingeffectiveteachingandlearning
Exampleprompts:Whatisgoodteachingandgoodlearninginyouropinion?What
doyoudotomakesuregoodteachingandlearninghappens?Howdoyouplanfor
yourclasseseachdayandeachweek?Howdoyouincludeallofyourstudentsin
learning?
o Creatingandmaintainingsupportiveandsafelearningenvironments
Exampleprompts:Whatdoesasafelearningenvironmentlook,feelandsound
like?Howdoyoumakesurethatyourclassroomandtheschoolisasafelearning
environmentforyourstudents?
o Accessing,providingfeedbackandreportingonstudentlearning
Exampleprompts:Whatkindoffeedbackdoyougivetostudentsabouttheir
learning?Howdoyoudothis?Whodoyougivethisfeedbackto?Whodoyoutalk
toabouthowthestudentisgoingatschool?Doyouinvolveyourstudents’parents
andotherrelativesinyourtalksabouthowyourstudentsaregoingatschool?
o Engaginginprofessionallearning
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Exampleprompts:Whatkindsofprofessionallearninghaveyoufoundthemost
usefulduringyourworkasateacher?Haveyougotaprofessionalrolemodelin
mindasyouworktobecomeabetterteacherinyourcommunityschool?What
sortsofprofessionallearningactivitieshavehelpedyoumost?Howhasyour
professionallearninghelpedyougrowasateacher?
o Engagingprofessionallywithcolleague,parents/carersandthecommunity
Exampleprompts:Whatdoesitmeanforyoutoengageprofessionallywith
colleagues?Howdoyouengagewithparents/carersandthewidercommunity?Do
youseeyourselfhavingawiderroleasateacherinyourcommunitythanjustbeing
aclassroomteacher?
Participantswereinvitedtorespondtothepromptsusingstoriesorexamplesfromtheir
ownteachingexperience,orinanyotherwaytheychosetorespond.
4.4.4NarrativeAnalysis
Athreelevelanalysiswasusedtoexploretheteachernarratives.Theparticipantswere
involvedindifferentwaysatallthreelevelsofthisanalysis.Thisisnotuncommonin
qualitativeresearchthatusesnarrative,where‘theinterviewerisunderstoodtoworkwith
therespondentinflexiblecollaborationtoidentifyandinterprettherelevantmeanings
thatareusedtomakesenseofthetopic’(Reidetal.2005,p.22).Involvementofthe
participantsinanalysisalsohelpstoovercomeissuesoflanguageandcross-cultural
understandingastheparticipantsweregiventhisadditionalopportunitytoclarifytheir
meaningandunpackanymetaphorsandsymbolismused.Thisisparticularlyimportantin
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communicatingmeaningandunderstandingsinacross-culturalspace(Pringleetal.2011.
p.21).
Level1–ResearcherwithindividualparticipantsAttheconclusionofthenarrativerecordingstheresearchertranscribedeachnarrative
usingNVivo©software.Afterthistheresearcherwentovereachnarrativetranscriptwith
therespectiveteacherparticipantandtogethertheyexploredtheindividualnarrativeto
seewhatitrevealedaboutthequestionatthecentreoftheresearch.Duringthisprocess
someinitialbasiccodingwasdoneonthebasisofrepetitivewords,themesandideas
emerging.Thiswasalsoatimefortheparticipantstoevaluatewhattheysaidintheirstory
andtoremoveanythingtheywerenotcomfortablewith,aswellasaddinginadditional
partsofthenarrativethattheymayhaveforgottentomentionatthetimeoftelling.Itwas
achancetorevisitthelanguageusedandclarifywhatthetellerwassaying,aswellasdoing
anytranslationworkthatwasnecessary.Thisfirstlevelwasimportanttoensurethatthe
storytellerwascomfortableandhappywiththeversionoftheirnarrativethatwouldbe
usedinthenextstepofanalysis.
Level2–GrouplevelanalysisTheresearcherworkedwiththegroupofteacherparticipantswhotoldtheirstoriesto
explorethesetofnarrativescollected.Thiswasanimportantwayofensuringthat
importantthemesinthenarrativeswerenotidentifiedsolelybyonenon-Indigenous
person;thatis,theprincipalresearcher.Thisworkwasdoneatatwo-dayseminar
conductedinAliceSpringswithallresearchparticipantsinattendance.Eachparticipant
readandanalysedthenarrativeofanotherteacherandprovidedcommentaryaboutthe
importantthemestheyfeltwerecontainedinthatnarrative.Thissecondlevelofanalysis
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bythegroupgaveimportantdirectiontotheinitialcodingworkcompletedintheLevel1
analysis.Ithelpeddirecttheresearchtowardsthecodesandthemestofocusonmore
strongly.Therewerekeymomentsduringthistwodayseminarwhenthetopicunder
discussiongeneratedtheengagementofthewholegroupandsomeadditionalexamples
andexpansionofthenarrativeswereofferedbythegroupmembers.Theenergyofthe
groupduringthosetimeshadadifferentfeeling.Thesekeymomentsofengagementwere
indicationsthatwhatwewerediscussingwasfelttobeimportantbyallparticipants.Itwas
aroundthesekeymomentsofengagementthattheinitialseventhemeswereidentified.
Theanalysisofthesegroupdiscussionsandthethemesthatwereinductivelyproducedin
thiswayaredetailedinChapter6.
Level3–Researcheranalysis&feedbackloopAfterlevels1and2werecompletedthethemesandanalysisdrawnoutbytheindividuals
andthegroupwereusedbytheprincipalresearcherasanalyticalframetofurtherexplore
andanalysetheindividualnarrativesoftheteacherparticipants.Thisanalysisiscontained
inChapter7,themesonetoseven.Anongoingfeedbackloopwiththeresearch
participantsalsoprovidedawayfortheparticipantstoprovidefeedbacktotheresearcher
ontheconclusionsdrawnastheprocessunfolded.Thishappenedinanadhocway
throughsomecasualandsomeintentionalinteractionsbetweentheresearcherand
teacherparticipants.
4.5Methodologicalevolution–‘participatorynarrative’
Whiletheoriginalresearchdesignenvisionedtheuseof‘narrativemethodology’the
carefulconsiderationofthe‘ethics’ofresearchandthedesiretocometogetherin‘good
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faith’todoPost-Colonialresearchworkmeantthatwhatemergedwasanewformof
narrativemethod,onewherethoseofferingtheirnarrativestotheresearchwerealso
activeparticipantsintheresearchprocess.Iamcallingthismethodology‘participatory
narrative’andthiswillbediscussedfurtherinChapter5.
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Chapter5–Discussionof‘ParticipatoryNarrative’method
5.1Backgroundandrationale
Thedecisiontopayattentiontoourcollectivepracticeswhiledoingthisresearchwasborn
outofthefactthattheproblemwascentredonacollectivepublicproblemtobeginwith.
Thequestionattheheartofthisresearchemergedoveranumberofyearsofcollaborative
workbetweenmyselfandtheteacherparticipants.Duringthiscollaborationwehadmany
discussionsaroundthelackofpeoplefromremotecommunitiesinCentralAustralia
completingteachereducationandbecomingqualifiedteachers,astheteacherparticipants
themselveshaddone.Inthisparticularresearchtheteacherparticipantsarenotjustthe
onesprovidingthenarrativesasdata,butarethemselvessomeofthekeyknowledge
authoritiesonthissubject.WhenitcomestoquestionsofWesterneducationintheir
communities,andmanyotherareas,theyarethe‘goto’people.Thesewomenarealso
scholarswhoareinmanycasesthehighestqualifiedpeopleintheircommunitieswhen
seenthroughthelensoftheWesternacademy.Anumberoftheteacherparticipantsare
alsointerestedinpursuingfurtherstudyintheformofpostgraduateeducationandat
leastpartoftheirmotivationforparticipatinginthisPhDprocesswastogainsome
experienceandfirst-handknowledgeoftheresearchprocess.Theywerekeentoactively
participateinandlearnfromtheresearchprocessitself.SimilarlyI,asthenon-Indigenous
researcher,aminterestedindeepeningmyownunderstandingabout‘waysofbeing’and
‘waysofdoing’withIndigenouspeople.Bynotonlyworkingtogethertoexploreaproblem
butalsopayingattentiontoourprocesswewereabletofindwaysofworkingtogetherin
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‘goodfaith’andofferwhatwelearnedhereasanexampleofPost-ColonialKnowledge
work.
5.2ThecentralityofrelationshipsincollaborativeresearchwithIndigenousparticipants
Thepresenceofpre-existingrelationships,whileoftenseenasariskorthreatinthe
positivistviewofresearch,iscommonlyseenassomethingadvantageoustothequalityof
theresearchwhenworkingwithIndigenousresearchparticipants(Chilisa2011,Wilson
2009).Largelythankstomyownexistingknowledgebaseandcontextualexperiencethat
hasbeenbuiltupovertimeworkinginremotecommunitiesandwithIndigenouspeoplein
CentralAustralia,Iapproachedtheresearchprocesswantingtokeeprelationshipscentral
tothisnewendeavour.BecauseoftheseexistingrelationshipsIwasbetterplacedtoenter
intowhatThrift(2004)callsresearch‘encounters’.Thrift(2004)talksaboutthesespacesof
‘ethicalencountersasbeingpartoftherealethicsofdoingresearchandsuggeststhat
thingssuchas‘knowingwhentowaitforaresponse,knowingwhenandwhennotto
forecloseasituation,knowingwhentobeplayfulandwhentobeserious…canopenout
theethicalpossibilitiesofanencounterandallowboththeresearcherandtheresearched
totrusttheirjudgement’(Thrift2004).Hesuggeststhattheseencountersexpandsour
subjectivity,butdoessoinaframeofresponsibility.ThisechoesRose(2004)whotalks
abouttheneedforan‘ethicofrelationalresponsibility’whichiscentraltotheworkof
decolonisation.Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatresearchisstrengthenedbythe
principalresearcherbeingexperiencedandknowledgeableintheareabeingresearched;
someonewhounderstandstheexperiencesoftheparticipants(Pringleetal.2011).Inthis
case,astheprincipalresearcher,Isharedboththeexperienceofteachingintheremote
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CentralAustraliacontextforoveradecade,aswellassupportingthedeliveryofteacher
educationforremoteIndigenousteachers.
ThegroupofresearchparticipantswerealreadyknowntomeandItothem.Weare
accountabletoeachotherthroughfriendship,collegialityandasharedcommitmentto
education.Wehavedevelopedarapportthatenableshonestandsometimeschallenging
conversationstotakeplaceinrespectfulandresponsibleways.Ensuringparticipants'free
andvoluntaryconsentandparticipationintheprojectwasveryimportanttome.Ididnot
wantpeopletoparticipateoutofobligationtomeortoourfriendship.Ensuringthe
participantsfeltfreetoenterintobutalsooptoutoftheprojectwasanimportantpartof
whatneededtobenegotiatedinanongoingway.Alsoimportantwastheprovisionof
manyopportunitiesforparticipantstonegotiateaspectsoftheprojectsothattheoptions
werenotsimplyoptinginorout,butensuringthattheresearchwasdoneinwaysthat
everyonefelthappywith.
5.3Co-constructingtheresearchprocess
Fromthebeginningitwasimportanttousallthatwedidn’tjustfocusontheoutcomesof
theresearchbutontheprocessitselfandhoweveryonewasexperiencingthatprocess.To
ensurethatwekeptthisfocusweneededmechanismsofcheckingonourrelational
accountabilitytoeachother.Thesemechanismsemergedandevolvedastheresearch
progressed.Anextended‘conversationalphase’wasallowedforatthebeginningofthe
researchprocess.Thisenabledeveryonetodoasmuchtalkingastheyneededtoaboutthe
researchquestions,theimplicationsofparticipationandtheprocessofgatheringthe
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narratives.Italsoprovidedpeoplewithtimetohaveconversationswithfamilyand
communitymembersabouttheresearchandtheirrolewithinit.Thiswasimportantasit
oftenenabledtheparticipantstoembedtheirunderstandingoftheprojectintheirfirst
languagebyexplainingittoanddiscussingitwithotherlanguagespeakers.The
conversationalphaseenabledtheresearcherandtheparticipantstoconductonemain
groupdiscussionabouttheprojectwherealmosteveryonewaspresent.Italsoallowedfor
anumberofadhocindividualandgroupconversationstotakeplace.Itwasalsoduringthe
conversationalphasethatwehadconversationswithleadersandEldersintherespective
communitiestoexplaintheresearchweweredoingandinvitequestions,conversationand
inputaboutthepurposeandusefulnessofwhatweweredoingforpeopleinthatcontext.
Attheendofeachnarrativecollection,eachresearchparticipantandtheresearcherhada
finalreflectiveconversation.Thefocusofthisconversationwastodocumenthowboththe
researcherandtheparticipantwerefeelingabouttheresearchprocessthusfar.Ineach
instanceitwasamomentofethicalandrelationalaccountabilitytoeachother,toensure
thattheconsentgivenatthebeginningoftheprocessstillfelttrueforbothparties.These
conversationswererecordedonaudioonlyandtranscribed,againwithfullconsent.
5.4Participatorynarratives
Nonarrativerecordingsessionscommenceduntiltheindividualparticipantsindicatedtheir
readinesstobegin.ThefirstofthenarrativerecordingsbeganinJanuary2014andeach
narrativewasgenerallyrecordedoveranumberofsessionsatthetimeandplaceofthe
teller’schoosing.ThefinalnarrativerecordingshappenedinJanuaryof2015.
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Theteacherparticipantswerealsoinvolvedintheexplorationandanalysisofthefullsetof
narrativescollected.Thiswasanimportantwayofensuringthatimportantthemesinthe
narrativeswerenotidentifiedsolelybyonenon-Indigenousperson;thatis,measthe
principalresearcher.Thisworkwasdoneatatwo-dayseminarconductedinAliceSprings
withallresearchparticipantsinattendance.Eachparticipantreadandanalysedthe
narrativeofanotherteacherandprovidedcommentaryabouttheimportantthemesthey
feltwerecontainedinthatnarrative.Thissecondlevelofanalysisbythegroupgave
importantdirectiontotheinitialcodingwork.Ithelpeddirecttheresearchtowardsthe
codesandthemestofocusmorestronglyon.Therewerekeymomentsduringthistwoday
seminarwhenthetopicunderdiscussiongeneratedtheengagementofthewholegroup
andsomeadditionalexamplesandexpansionofthenarrativeswereofferedbythegroup
members.Theenergyofthegroupduringthosetimeshadadifferentfeeling.Thesekey
momentsofcollectiveresonancewereindicationsthatwhatwewerediscussingwasfeltto
beimportantbyallparticipants.Itwasaroundthesekeymomentsofresonancethatthe
initialseventhemeswereidentified.Duringthistwodayseminartherewerealsoongoing
parallelconversationsaboutthe‘rightway’toworktogether.Theseconversationsbuilton
theideasdiscussedintheonetooneconversationsattheendofeachnarrativerecording.
Theprocessofdoingandreflectingonwhatweweredoingbecamesymbiotic.
Theseongoingandintentionalconversationsthroughouttheresearchprocessprovided
whatVerran(2013)calls‘interruptingtools’.Shetalksabouttheneedinpost-colonial
knowledgeworktopayattentiontomomentsofepistemicdisconcertmentandtobealert
tothedifferencesweencounter.Theseintentionalconversationsabouttheresearch
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processhelpedusto‘godeeperinsidetheencounter’(Verran2013,p.147)toexplorehow
thewaywedidthingsactuallyhelpedustoworkin‘goodfaith’witheachother.
5.5Analysisofoursharedprocess
Theanalysisprocessthathelpedustothinkabouthowweweredoingtheresearchwas
twofold.Firstly,transcriptsfromtherecordingsofourintentionalconversations,atotalof
sevendocuments,wereuploadedintoNVivo©software.Ideasthatrepeatedinthetexts
wereidentified,oftenusingthewordsorphrasesfromtheconversationsthemselves.By
theendofthisprocesstherewerethreeareasthatrepeatedthemselvesoftenenoughto
makethemstandout.Thesethreeareasrelatedtonotionsoftime,thenatureofour
existingrelationships,andourabilitytoensurethatmultipleneedsweremetbythework
weweredoing.IfIhadleftitatthislevelthenIwouldhavebecomewhatVerran(2013)
callsananalystwhothinksshecanstepoutsidethesituation.Consciousofthisitfelt
importanttocheckinwiththeteachersagainanddiscussthepossibilityofgoingfurther
intothesethreeareas.This‘checkingin’happenedboththroughonetooneconversations
whereandwhenpossible,andthenagainwhenalloftheparticipantscametogetheratthe
twodayanalysisseminarinAliceSprings.Itwasduringthisperiodofdiscussionthatthe
useofthewords‘Anma’,‘Marlpa’and‘Ngapartji’increasinglybegantobereferencepoints
betweenallofustodiscusstheseareas.Waitingandallowingtimebefore‘comingto
concepts’(Verran2013)wasanimportantpartofthiswork.Itmeantthatwewereableto
discoversomeimportantinsightsaboutwhatmadeadifferencewhenweintentionallyset
abouttoworktogetherin‘goodfaith’.Thesediscoveriesarediscussedbrieflybelowas
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examplesofthepossibilityofgeneratingnewsharedunderstandingswhenworking
togetherinaPost-ColonialKnowledgespace.
5.6Insightsintohowwedoresearchtogetherin‘goodfaith’–Anma,MarplaandNgapartjiNgapartji
5.6.1Anma
‘…notusually,youknowstraightanswer'No'butyouknow,‘anma,givemetime'
Thefirstareathatweneededtopayattentiontoinhowweworkedtogetherwasinour
differingnotionsoftime.Togetherweultimatelycametotalkabouttheimportanceof
‘Anma’.ThisisaWesternArrarntawordthathasequivalencesinotherlocalIndigenous
languages.ForexampleasimilarconceptinWarlpiriisexpressedwiththeword‘murnma’.
InLuritjaandPitjantjatjarathewordoftenusedis‘wanyu’.Therearealsorelatedconcepts
inotherAustralianIndigenouslanguagesfurtherafield.Itcarriesepistemologicallycomplex
understandingsthatIcannothopetograsp,butmyimmatureandexperiential
understandingisthatitcanbeinterpretedinmanywaysincludingwaiting,givingspace,
waitingfortherighttime,notfillingupallthespace,beingpatientandwaitinguntilthe
otherpersonfeelsready.Whileitmightbeperceivedasapassivetermwherenothingis
happening,itisoftenquiteanactivespaceofpreparationandforeshadowing.
Wediscoveredthat‘Anma’orwaitingisimportant.Thiswaitingisaspacethatallowstime
formanythingstooccur.Itallowstimeforgoodcommunicationtohappenandallowsfor
everyonetofeelreadyandprepared.ThiswasreallyimportantforenactingtheWestern
academicresearchconsentprocess.Waitingforthe‘righttime’anduntilpeopleindicated
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theirreadinessfeltmoreinformed,morelikegenuineconsentandensuredthatthe
narrativesthatcamefromthatprocessemergedcomfortablyandconfidently.Thisperhaps
pointstowardsapointofdifferenceinrelationtoethicswhichcanbeidentifiedand
grantedintothefuturethroughawesternmetaphysics,butinIndigenousknowledgeand
understandings,itisalwaysprovisionalasrealityitselfemerges.Approachingthingswith
‘anma’createdaspaceforpatience,considerationandagivingoverofcontrolwhen
required.Thisenabledparticipantstonotfeelpressuredtothepointofoptingoutofthe
research.Participantscontinuedtoengageintheprocessuntiltheyfelttheytimewas
right,ortheirlivesallowedenoughtimeforrecordingthenarratives.Participantsalsofelt
somesenseofcontrolovertheirparticipationintheprocess.Itisaspacethatallowsfora
respectfulwayofenteringintoworkwithpeopleandprovidesenoughtimeforeveryone
whoneedstobeinvolvedintheprocesstobeincluded.Ofteninresearchtheperceptionis
thattheresearcherneedstobeincontroloftheprocess.ThereweremanytimeswhenI
neededtogiveupcontrolandtrustinmyresearchcollaborators.Sometimesthiswas
aboutlettingsomeoneelseplanhowandwhenwewouldspendourtimetogetherand
beingflexiblewhenplanschanged.Itisawayofthinkingabouttimenotassequentialand
linear,butaspatterned,seasonalandemerging.Itisnotsomethingthatyouplanfor,but
rathersomethingthatyoupayattentiontoandallowtounfold.Itissomethingthatyou
meetwithreadinessonlywhenthetimeisright.
5.6.2Marlpa
‘…wecan’tleaveyoubyyourself,wegottauseeveryone'seyesandearsandsearchforit.’
Thesecondareathatweneededtopayattentiontoinhowweworkedtogetherwasinthe
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natureandroleofourexistingrelationships.Togetherweultimatelycametotalkaboutthe
roleof‘marlpa’.ThisisawordthatisusedbyWarlpiri,LuritjaandPitjantjaralanguage
speakers.IthasequivalencesinmanyotherIndigenouslanguages,forexampleinWestern
Arrarntatheconceptisoftenexpressedusingtheword‘ilkwatharra’.Itisoftentranslated
simplyas‘company’butonceagainthedepthofepistemologicalunderstandingsofthis
wordisbeyondmyreach.Ihavecometounderstandthatatitscore‘marlpa’isrelational.
Itisaboutfriendship,doingthingstogetherandnotleavinganyoneout.Itisawayofbeing
withothersthatensuresharmony,connectednessandrelationalresponsibility.‘Marlpa’is
oftenexperiencedbodily,asa‘goodfeeling’.Itwasofcentralimportancetohowwe
workedtogetherinthisresearchprocess.
Havingexistingrelationshipswitheachotherenabledustooperatefromapositionof
relationaltrust,sharedexperienceandcommitment,andaccountabilitytoeachother.
Knowingeachotherforsolongandwithsuchfamiliarityenabledflexibility,gaveusthe
abilitytoreadthemoresubtlenuancesofcommunicationandstrengthenedour
commitmenttoworkingtowardsacommonpurpose.Newworkrequiredadditional
negotiation,butitmeantthatwewerestartingfromaplaceofknowledgeandtrustthat
doesnotexistiftheresearcherandparticipantsareunknowntoeachother.Alargepartof
thecommitmentoftheseteacherstoworkonthisresearchwasnotnecessarilyabouttheir
relationshiptome,buttheirrelationshiptoeachother.Theteacherparticipantshavea
senseofcommunitybornoutoftheirsharedjourneyworkinginschoolsandtheirteacher
education.Theyprovide‘marlpa’foreachotherthatcannotbeprovidedbyotherpeople,
includingme.Relationshipsand‘marlpa’providedanimportantaccountabilitymechanism
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intotheresearchprocess.Thisisimportantwhenconsideringthetraditionallyprivileged
andpowerfulroleoftheprincipalresearcher.IhavebeenabletotrustthatifIwasheaded
inthewrongdirection,thestrengthofourrelationshipsmeantthatpeoplewouldfind
honestwaystotellmeandshowmethat.Butthatfeelingof‘marlpa’wasalsoan
importantreminderthatitwasn’tallabouttheresearch.Sometimes‘marlpa’wasabout
makingtimeandspacetobetogetherdoingotherthings:storytelling,hunting,teachingor
laughter.Mostlyitwasjustaboutbeingtogether.Thesesharedactivitieswerealsowaysof
enteringintotheresearchprocessmoregentlyandcomfortably;ofstartingfromapointof
‘marlpa’andre-establishingthattrustrelationshipbeforetherecordingdevicesgotturned
on.Itwasimportantpreparationworkthatneededtobedoneeachtimewecame
together.
5.6.3NgapartjiNgapartji
‘…myhistoryishelpingbothyouandmebecausethat’slikeourcountryhelpsustodoour
languageandculture’
Thethirdareawhereweexperiencedbothdisconcertmentand‘goodfaith’asweworked
togetherwasinourabilitytoensurethatmultipleneedsweremetbytheworkwewere
doing.Togetherwetalkedaboutthisusingthephrase‘ngapartjingarpartji’whichcanbe
translatedinmanyways.IndiscussionwedecidedthatthebesttranslationtoEnglishto
usewas‘yougivesomethingtomeandIgivesomethingtoyou’.Warlpirispeakerswill
sometimesborrowthisphrasefromLuritja,butwillalsousetheword‘watinyarra’meaning
‘equal’or‘level’toexpresssomethingsimilar.InWesternArrarntaitisoftenexpressedas
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‘kapanha’.ToencapsulatethisconceptinEnglishwemighttalkaboutreciprocityor
mutualgenerosity.Inpracticethisconceptwasenactedinmanydifferentways.
Throughthisprocessofexplorationwecametoacknowledgewhatmutualgenerosity
actuallylookslikeinaninterculturalspace.Helpingeachotheroutisabouteveryone
gettingtheirneedsmetwiththecollectiveresourcesthatwepossess.Findingwaystodo
thatthatarebalancedandrespectfulofallcanbechallengingbutattimesalsomadethe
differencebetweenresearchsessionsgoingaheadornot.Learningfromeachotherhas
beenadefiningfeatureofthereciprocitythathasexistedthroughoutmytimeofknowing
andworkingwiththeseteachersandithasbeenacentraltenetofwhatwehavebeen
doinginthisresearchwork.
Thereciprocityofideasattimeshappenedineverydayconversationsaboutthingsthat
matteredtous,whiledrivingsomewhereorsittingtogetherofanevening.Thenthere
wereothertimeswhenIwastheonewhowasdoingmostofthelearningthrough
conversationswithElders,timespentoncountryandvisitstosignificantplaces.Itwas
throughmomentsof‘ngapartjingarpartji’thatIbegantounderstandtheresearchitselfas
beinganembeddedpartofthelivesofparticipants,mylife,andininterconnectedwaysto
thelifeofallthosewecameintocontactwith.Thestoriesbeingtoldwereindivisiblefrom
allknowledgeforthetellers,andIneededtobegintounderstandthisaboutthestorieswe
wererecordingtogether.Thiswaschallengingformeasitseemedtoincreasemysenseof
obligationandresponsibilitytodoit‘right’,whateverthatmeant.Perhapsthisjustpoints
towardsanongoingepistemologicaldisconcertmentthatneedstobedweltinlonger?
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FinallytheparticipantsandIfrequentlydiscussedthe‘goodfeeling’thatweoftenfelt
throughouttheprocess.Insomewaysthisisatypeofreciprocitythatliesinthewell-being
thattheteacherparticipantsgotinreturnforofferingtheirstoriesasthedataforthe
research.Atothertimesitwasthe‘goodfeeling’ofworkingtogetheronasharedproblem
thatweallcareddeeplyabout.StevenPatrickaWarlpirischolarfromLajamanucommunity
talksaboutthisinhiswritingsonNgurra-Kurlu.Heusesthefollowingphrasetodescribe
this‘goodfeeling’,‘Peopletastedit,theylikedthattasteintheirmouthandtheycameback
formore’(Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu,HolmesandBox2008,pp7-8).ThisissimilartowhatVerran
(2013)isreferringtowhenshetalksaboutdoingthingstogetherin‘goodfaith’fromwhich
somethingdifferentandinterestingemerges.
5.7Conclusionsabout‘howwedoresearch’
Theresearchprocessusedinthisstudywasnotwithoutfault.Itwasstillconfinedand
constrictedbythetrappingsthatcomealongwiththePhDframe.Thereweretime
constraints,languageconstraintsandethicalconstraints,tonamebutafew.Allofthese
werelimitedbythecapacityofmeastheprincipalresearcherandbytheadministrative
constraintsofthePhDprocessitself.Butbecausewehavenotsolelybeenfocusedonthe
narrativesastheoutcomeoftheresearch,buthaveintentionallymadespacetonotice
howwedothisworktogether,wehaveallbeenleftwitha‘goodfeeling’aboutwhatwe
havedonetogether.Inparticular,wehavethoughtandtalkedextensivelyaboutwhatwe
wantedtodotogether,wehavemadetimeandspaceinourmindsandinourlivesandwe
havekepttalkingtoeachothertofindthe‘righttime’todothework.Wehavediscovered
‘anma’asaninsightinhowwehavedonethework.Wehavealsoallowedthedeeptrusted
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relationshipsbuiltovertimebetweenmyselfandtheseteacherstoactasacompassto
helpusnavigatetherightwaytodotheresearchtogether.Wehavediscovered‘marlpa’as
aforcethatshapestheresearchspace.Wehavealsovaluedtheimmenseknowledge,
capabilitiesandexperiencethateveryonebringstotheprocessandhaveactedinaspiritof
reciprocityandgenerositytowardseachother.Ratherthantheresearchprocessbeinga
onewaystreetthatonlybenefitstheresearcher,wehaveactedinaspiritof‘ngapartji
ngarpartji’wherethemultipleneedscanbemet.Thereisaninherentdangerinlabelling
andcategorisingtheselearnings.Theyarewordsthatpointtowardssomethingdeeper,
withmultiplemeaningsand,insomeways,unabletobeknown.Weusethemherenotto
notbywayasestablishingthemasrecommendationsoraprescriptionforothers.Weuse
themasakindofnarrativethattellsthestoryofhowwetalked,thoughtanddidthings
together.Theywerewaysofdoingandbeingthathelpedustolearnaboutourdifferences
inhowweapproachthingsandinturnhelpedustofindwaysofdoingtheresearchthat
lefteverybodywiththat‘goodfeeling’indicatingthatwewereworkingin‘goodfaith’.Itis
this‘participatory’approach,wherewehaveallcollectivelysharedthisresponsibilityof
participationandreflectingonourparticipation,whichfeelsmostimportant.By
intentionallysettingupsome‘interruptingtools’andbycreatingthetimeandspacetotalk
togetherbothabouthowwearedoingthingsaswellaswhatwearedoing,wehave
learnedimportantlessonsabouthowtodoresearchtogetherin‘goodfaith’(Verran2013).
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Chapter6-Teachernarratives–groupthemeanalysis
Boththischapterandthenextonearefocusedontheteachernarrativesthemselves.This
chapterreportsthefindingsofthegroupanalysisworkdonecollaborativelywiththe
teacherparticipants.Chapter7thenusesthethemesproposedthroughthisgroupprocess,
tointerrogatetheindividualnarratives.
6.1Puttingthingsagainstacontextualbackground
AsestablishedinChapter2,itisimportanttorememberthatschoolingisstillarecent
developmentinremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory.Manyplacesdidnothave
anykindofschoolinguntilthe1960sor1970sand,priortothis,Indigenouschildrenwere
oftenspecificallyexcludedfromparticipatinginschools.Apartfromsomeveryearly
examplesofbilingualschoolsinplacessuchasNtaria/Hermannsburgmission,schooling
hasalmostexclusivelybeenconceivedoutofaWesternculturalframework.The
epistemologyandmodelthattheschoolingsystemwasbuiltuponcamewiththe
colonisers.Educationalprocessesandpracticeswereestablishedinignoranceorblatant
dismissaloflearningprocessesthatalreadyexistedwithinthelanguageandfamilygroups
thathadlivedandthrivedformanytensofthousandsofyearsbeforethattime.Incontrast
tothesteadinessandreliabilityofthetried,trueandtrustedtraditionallearningprocesses
theywereusedto,theexperienceofIndigenousAustralianswiththeWesterneducation
systemhasbeendefinedbyconstantandrapidchange.
Chapter3establishedthatthosepolicymakersdefiningtheexperienceofWestern
schoolingforpeopleinremotecommunitiesdosooperatingwithinaculturalmilieuthatis
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greatlyremovedfromthelocalcontext.Timeframesforeducationforbothschools
studentsandtertiarylearningaresetatStateandNationallevelsandaccordingtoWestern
knowledgeandtimeframes.Notionsofequalityorequityineducationaredefinedatthe
Nationallevelbyonesizefitsallcurriculum,standardizedtestsandprofessionalstandards
forteachers.Thesystempromotestheideasofsamenessandquality,buttheseconcepts
aredefinedbasedona‘mainstream’normthatscarcelyresemblesthelifeandrealityof
childrenoradultsinremotecommunitiesincentralAustralia.Anychangesthatcomefrom
outsideareimposedwithoutlocalchoiceorautonomy.
DespitethistherearecommittedanddedicatedIndigenousadultsinremotecommunities
whohavechosentogetinvolvedintheirlocalschoolsandhavededicatedtheirlivestothe
qualityeducationoftheirownchildren.Thereareparentsandcommunitymemberswho
absolutelybelievethateducationiscruciallyimportanttothefuturechoices,aspirations
andleadershipoftheircommunities.Someremarkableindividualshaveshownsuch
dedicationsoastopersevereandnavigatetheirwaynotonlythroughtheeverchanging
westernschoolingsystemtheyworkin,butalsothroughthechangingteachereducation
landscape,tocompletetheirteachereducationandbecomefullyqualifiedclassroom
teachers.Butthesequalifiedteachersarefewandfarbetween.Despitedecadesof
rhetoricaroundwanting‘moreIndigenousteachers’inremoteschoolsweseealmostno
newpre-serviceteachersfromremotecommunitiesintheregionofCentralAustraliaor
theNorthernTerritoryasawhole.Thereasonforthiscurrentsituationisthefocusofand
impetusfortheresearchforthisdoctoralstudy.Throughaseriesofteachers’narratives
theinsiderexperienceofbecomingafullyqualifiedIndigenousteacherinaremote
communityhasbeenexamined.Theseinsideraccountshavebeenanalysedatbotha
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collectivelevel,discussedinthischapter,andanindividuallevel,discussedinthenext
chapter.TheChapter8willthenexplorethefindingsoftheseanalysischaptersfurther
againstthecontextualbackdropestablishedinthetwoliteraturereviewchaptersandwith
dueconsiderationoftheoreticalknowledge.
6.2Collectiveanalysisprocess
Fromtheoutsetoftheresearchdesignattentionhasbeenpaidtothecollectivistnatureof
theresearch.Intheanalysisoftheteachernarrativesitwasimportanttofindamethod
thatwasinclusiveofmorethantheprincipalresearcher.Itwasimportanttoensurethat
themesinthenarrativeswerenotidentifiedsolelybyonenon-Indigenousperson,but
wereinclusiveoftheknowledgeexpertsinthefield;thatis,theteacherparticipants.Irefer
tothisstageintheresearchasasecondlevelofanalysis.Inordertomeetthisanalytical
imperativeatwo-dayseminarinAliceSpringswasconductedwithallteacherparticipants
inattendance.Eachteacherparticipantreadandanalysedthenarrativeofanotherand
providedcommentaryabouttheimportantthemestheysawemergingfromthatnarrative.
Thissecondlevelofanalysisbythegroupgaveimportantdirectiontotheinitialcoding
work.Ithelpeddirecttheanalysistowardsthecodesandthemesuponwhichwe
collectivelyfeltshouldbethefocus.Thediscussionduringthistwodayseminarincluded
momentswhentheenergyofthegrouphadadifferentfeeling.Thesekeymomentsof
engagementwereindicationsthatwhatwewerediscussingwasfelttobeimportantbyall
participants.Thesemomentsprovidedemphasisaboutwhatinfluencedandimpacted
upontheexperienceofbeingaremoteIndigenouscommunityteacher.
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6.3Seventhemes
Theseventhemesbelowwereidentifiedbytheteacherparticipantsthroughthisinductive
processasimportant,recurringandenduringideasthroughouttheirlivesandteaching
careers.Thischapterwillprovideanalysisofthethemesastheyemergedduringthegroup
seminarexperience.Inthenextchapterthisthematicframewillthenbeappliedtoamore
detailedanalysisoftheindividualteachernarratives.
6.3.1‘Ourfeelingforfamily’
Theteacherparticipantsplacedastrongemphasisontheimportanceofwhatone
participantcalled‘ourfeelingforfamily’.Thissenseofconnectiontofamily,cultureand
countrycamethroughasapowerfulandnot-negotiableimperativeinthelivesofthe
participants.Oneparticipanttalkedaboutitincomparisontothenon-Indigenousculture
saying,
there’speopleallthetimeinourlives,doingthingsandeveryoneknowseach
other...likeyouknowwhitepeoplesocietythere’sonlythatonehousethatyoucan
bein,yourownhouse,nextdoorneighbours-nothingtodowiththem.Butoutin
thecommunityits'ohthisisyouraunty,yourcousin'youknow...it'sdifferent
Severaloftheparticipantstalkedabouthowthis‘feelingforfamily’impactedontheir
schoolingexperience,especiallyinrelationtoattendingboardingschoolintheirsecondary
years.AlloftheparticipantshadattendedaboardingschoolinAliceSpringsforaperiodof
timebutnoneofthemhadstayedformorethantwoorthreeyears.Whenaskedwhythey
thoughttheydidn’tstaylonger,theuniversalresponsewasbecauseoftheexperienceof
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homesickness.Whenpressedforafurtherexplanationofwhatthatfeelingof
homesicknesswasabout,itprovedtobeacomplexsetofmotivatorslinkedstronglyto
that‘feelingforfamily’andcommunity.Anotherparticipantlinkedthistothefeelingof
beinginaspacethatjustfelttoodifferenttohomesaying,‘thechangeofthatfrom(going)
intothecollege,itwastoodifferent’.Oneparticipantslistedactivitiessuchas'hunting,
beingwithfamily,startingtogetmarried’asbeingthetypesofthingsshefelthomesick
for.Otherpartcipantsidentifiedthefeelingofpersonalandculturalsafetyasbeinga
motivationforleaving,
‘otherstudentsteasing,youwouldwanttogobackearly,wewanttobesafe’
'Andsometimesteachersgetsmartforstudentsandstudentsdontfeelsafeand
theywanttogobackhome'
Oneparticipanttalkedaboutthefeelingoflonlinessandthelossof‘company’asbeinga
reasontoleavesaying,
sometimeswecouldseeourfriendsnotstayingthere,goingearly,theykept
leaving,andyoumightthink'ohI'mbymyselfnow,Imightdosame,gobackhome'
Finally,thedeathoffamilyandcommunitymembers(referredtoculturallyas‘sorry
business’)wasidentifiedasamajorreasonforleavingschoolandmovingbacktothe
community,
'Andsorrytoobackathome,whenwelosefamilywewanttogoback'
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Alloftheseexamples,referringtotheparticipantsownsecondaryeducationalyears,
demonstratethatinthechoicebetweenschoolingandfamily,theparticipantsalways
chosefamilyfirst.Oneparticpantreinforcedthatshefeltthatpeoplestillfeelthatsame
waytodayasshedidwhenshewasatschool,
'Ithinktechnologyandallthisstuffhaschangedbutourfeelingforthefamilyand
thecommunityhasn’t,it'snotgonnachange,thatneedtobeclosetothefamilies...I
thinkthiscultureisreallystrongyouknow,familyandfamilyconnectionandsorry
business...you'reexpectingthemtogetagoodeducationbutthesethingsare
gonnacomeallthetime’
Theteacherparticipantsalsoidentifiedthatthis‘feelingforfamily’wasakeyaspectthat
supportedthemtobesuccessfulintheirteachereducation.Oneofthekeydeterminants
ofthembeingabletocontinueonwiththeirteachereducationwasthefactthat,atleastin
thebeginning,thecoursesthattheseteachersparticipatedinwerecommunitybased
whichenabledtheirfamiliestoengagemeaningfullyinwhattheyweredoing.
Ithinktherewasmoresupportatthattimeandliketheactivitiesweredoneinthe
communitysopeoplecouldseewhatweweredoingandthatmadeit,youknow
strong.
Oneteachertalkedaboutthisasbothbeingsupportiveofthelargegroupwhobeganthe
studyandthemainreasonwhypeopledroppedout,saying
Westartedoffinabiggroupanditwasjustcommunitybasedandwewerejust
travellinginbetweencommunitiesforworkshops.Andthenthebigonecame,you
knowtogotoBatchelororcomeintoAliceandeveryonethought'No!'
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Whenencouragedtoreflectonwhythisgroupofteacherscontinuedontocompletetheir
study,whileothersdroppedout,againthisthemeofobligationtofamilyandculturecame
through.Inthiscaseitwasthewillingnessoftheirfamiliestoreleasetheparticipantsfrom
theirobligationsthatmadethebiggestdifference.Oneparticipantsimplysaid‘family
supportedmetogoaway’.Whenaskedwhatsortsofthingsfamilydidtoprovidethis
supportanotherparticipantsaid,
‘Takingoverresponsibilities,likeifyou'reawaysomeonewillcomeinandlookafter
yourfamilywhenyouareaway.’
Anotherparticipantsuggested,
‘Evenmysickhusbandhe'sbeensupportingmetoo’
Sothissupportcameinthefamilygivingpermissionfortheparticipanttogoawayfrom
thecommunityforperiodsoftime,givingthempermissiontomissouton‘sorrybusiness’
andinpracticalwaystakingontheworkloadleftbehindsuchascaringforchildrenorsick
familymembers.
This‘feelingforfamily’isontological.Itspeakstoideasofculturalknowledge,connection
tocountry,participationinritualandceremonyandtheobligationofinterconnected
relationships.ItissomethingthatispartofwhotheteacherparticipantsareasWarlpiri,
Luritja,PitjantjatjaraandWesternArrarntapeopleandwillneverbesupersededbyother
demandssuchaseducation.However,theseparticipantsareproofthatthis‘feelingfor
family’,andallthatthatrepresents,mustbeaccommodatedandrespectedaspartofthe
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educationaljourney.Whenunderstoodandappliedcreatively,thisontologicalimperative
canactuallybeatremendoussupportstructuretohelpAboriginalTeacherssucceed.This
isexpandeduponthenexttwothemes.
6.3.2Learningwith‘marlpa’
‘Marlpa’meanscompanyintheWarlpiri,LuritjaandPitjantjatjaralanguagesofCentral
Australia.Itisaconceptthatis,atitscore,relational.Itisaboutfriendship,doingthings
togetherandnotleavinganyoneout.Itisawayofbeingwithothersthatensures
harmony,connectednessandrelationalresponsibility.Itwashighlightedbytheteacher
participantsasbeinganimportantpartofthedeliverymodelofteachereducationthat
theyexperienced.Manyoftheparticipantstalkedaboutthefactthattheyfoundstudying
atthatlevelforthefirsttimedauntingandwerecomfortedbythefactthattheycoulddo
thestudyintheirhomecommunityandwithagroupofpeople.Forexample,
Itwasfirsttimeforusandeasybasedatthecommunity,
Thatfirstyearwewereluckythatwehadlecturersortutorsworkingwithus
sometimessomeofusweren’tconfidentbutwefeltlikewewantedtostudytohave
experience,moreexperiencethroughthatprogram,tobecometeachers.
…andsecureaswell,andlikethatwas,Ithinkwealldidn’thaveaqualification.
Studyingwasnew,somethingnewtous,cositwasn’treallythoughtof.Wehad
otherjobsbeforebutdidn’thaveanytraining.Ithinkreallyit’sjustthatstudy,when
there'sotherpeoplewecanfeelconfident.
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…butthatwasreallyeasywecouldseethatwewereallcomingtogether,sharing
ideas,talkingup.
…anditwasalsobiteasybecausewehadalreadybeenteachingintheclass,and
therewerealsoalotofpeople.
Thiscohortmodelwasmentionedrepeatedlybytheteacherparticipantsasbeingakey
determinantintheirsuccess.Theyidentifiedthisasbeingpartoftheirearlysuccessinthe
programwhenitwascommunitybased,butalsoinlaterstageswhentheyhadtotravelto
workshops.Therelationshipsbuiltacrosscohortsfromdifferentcommunitiesalsoplayed
animportantroleinsupportinglearning,anddeviationsfromthatmodelimpactedupon
theirlearning.
Thatshowwegettoknoweachotherbecasuewewerealldoingthesamestudy.
SeelikeRATEprogramwewerealldoingthesamemoduleatthesametime.We
didn’tknowanythingaboutitbutwewerealwaysingroupworkingtogether,
sharingideasandpresentingtoeachother,that'showwewerelearning.Andthen
whenwewenttoBatcheloritwaslikeseparateworknow.
TherelationalaspectwasanimportantelementinthewaythattheoriginalRemoteArea
TeacherEducation(RATE)programwasdeveloped.Participantswerenotleftby
themselvestolearnindividualistically;theyhad‘marlpa’.Theseteachereducationstudents
didnotfeelleftalone,butthroughthecohortmodelfeltapartofagroupworkingtowards
thesamegoal.
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6.3.3Mentors,supportandencouragement
Alloftheparticipantsidentifiedtheroleofcommunityandfamilyencouragementasbeing
veryimportantintheirearlydiscernmentaboutbecomingateacher.Manyofthe
participantstalkedabouthavingsupportiveparentswhoencouragedthemfromayoung
age,
WhenIwenthomemymumsaid'you’vegottobeworking,getajob'...Andlike
beforecomingtoboardingschoolweusedtohelpmumoutinherworkplace,go
andsweep,whateverjobshewasdoingandshewouldtakeusinandsay'youdo
thisyoudothat',thisishowwelearnt.
Thisalsoextendedtofamilymemberswhoworkedintheschoolandwhotheparticipants
gottoseeplayingaroleinlearninginboththeschoolandhomeenvironments,
…likefamilyworkingintheschool,likeassistantteacherteachingtheminthe
schoolandthengoinghomeandteachingthemathometoo
….shetalkedaboutatschoolshehadoneofherfamilyworkingthere,heruncle,he
usedtobeateachingassistantandthenalsotaughtherwhenshewentbackhome,
tellingstories.Andthat'sgoodwhensomeone'slikethatinthefamilysowecan
passontothelittlekidsafter.
Someoftheparticipantsalsoexperiencedthiskindofsupportandencouragementthrough
beinginspiredbyothersfromtheircommunitywhowerestartingtoundertakefurther
education,
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Like(name),whenIwasastudentatYirarawewentonanexcursiontoDarwinand
thenBatchelorandwesaw(name)shewasdoinghertrainingandIstartedthinking
'onedayImightcometothisplace,Batchelor'.
Thisinspirationofseeingothercommunitymembersgoingonandsucceedingintheir
studywasanimportantformofencouragementthroughoutthelearningjourneyofthe
participants,
…justinspiringseeingothersonvideoorgoingtoceremonywheretheyactually
graduated,andfromthatthatIsaid'ohnextoneI'mgoingtobelikeher!'youknow
lookingatstudentswhograduatedbefore.
Familymembersworkingintheschoolalsoplayedastrongroleinencouragingthe
participantstostartworkingintheschoolthemselvesandthenplayinganimportant
ongoingmentoringrole,
LikeIhadmycousinthere,sheencouragedme'cometowork,theyarelookingfor
peoplelikeyou,comeandworkwithus...Shewasastronglady...andwealsolearn
fromher,shealsotookmetoAdelaideforconference,Indigenouslanguageand
cultureconference,firsttimeItalkedinfrontoflotsofpeople.Iwasyoung,Iwas
justlearningbutIthoughttomyself'I'vegottofeelstrong'becauseshewantedme
totalk...yuwaishewaslikeamentorperson.
Alloftheparticipantstalkedaboutanongoingneedforencouragement,supportand
mentoringthroughouttheircareer,evenaftertheyhadcompletedtheirqualifications.This
wasseenbymanyasanormalpartofreflectivepractice,
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AndalsohavingatutorinsidetheclassroomwhenIwasteaching,observing,she
usedtotakenotes,observationofwhatItaughtandthenshewouldinmyfreetime
gothroughwhatshewrote,'ohthisiswhatyouhavetodonexttimetomakeit
improve'.Thathelpedmeasateacher.Thathelpedmeandmademeastronger
personandabetterperson.AlwaysI'daskwhoeverwasinsidetheroom,other
teacherorothertutor,Iusedtoaskthemtobecriticalbecausethat’showIwantto
learn.Comeupwiththecriticalquestions.
Thisneedforongoingin-servicementoringwasoftenduetocurriculumandpolicychanges
intheNorthernTerritorythatwereconstantlyalteringwhatitwasteacherswereexpected
todeliver.Attimesitwasalsoneededtomakeupforthefactthattheywerenotgetting
thatsupportfromtheschoolleadership,
Becausewe'reateacher,we'vegottotakeonthatroleandteach,butwestill
weren’tconfidentaboutplanningandprogramming.Weneedsomeonetocome
andsitdownwithusandplanwithus.Westilldidn’tunderstandtheNTCF
frameworkcurriculum.
Likeamentorcomingoutinthecommunity,like(name)usedtocomeoutand
supportme.Likesomeoneoutintheschoolalreadydoesn’thelpus.
Thismentoringroleisalsosomethingthattheparticipantsidentifiedasaroletheynow
playedforotheryoungIndigenousteachersintheirschools.Oneteacherparticipantspoke
eloquentlyaboutthis,
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Iwanttoworkwithadultsandmentorthem,theyneedyapapersonhelpingthem
withthatexperience,andIwanttoencouragethem,wedothat,weorganiseyapa
staffmeetingandthoseyoungwomentheyhaveopportunitytotalkupaboutwhat
theydointheclassroom…Theyaskforadvice…Ialsowenttotheirworkshopin
(communityname)fortheseyoungATsandI'vealsohelpedthemwithplanninga
programandtalkingaboutplanning.
Soonceagainwecanseethatthissupportandencouragementplaysanimportantrolein
thecareersoftheseparticipantsrightthroughfromwhentheywerechildren,throughthe
discernmentprocessofchoosingtoworkintheschoolandintotheirteachereducation.
Certainmentors,especiallykeyfamilymembers,havehadastronginfluenceonthe
careersandsuccessesoftheseteachers,suchthattheyhavenowdevelopedasenseof
themselvesasmentorstoothersforthefuture.
6.3.4TeamTeaching
Alloftheteacherparticipantsemphasizedthecentralityofteamteachinginbothhow
theydevelopedtheirunderstandingoftheworkofteachersandhowtheybuilttheir
confidencetodothiswork.
Andteamteaching,likethewayitwasbuildingconfidenceandthenafterthat
takingsmallgroups
Manyoftheparticipantstalkedaboutthevalueofworkingwithotherteachersandstaff
membersintheclassroom.Theytalkedabouttheimportanceintheirearlyyearsof
workingintheschoolofhavingopportunitiestoworkasateamwiththefullyqualified
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teacherandoftenaliteracyworkerortutoraswell.Theparticipantssaidthattheteam
dynamicallowedforthemtowatchbutmoreimportantlyparticipateinallaspectsofthe
teachingcycle,
Youaretheretoworkwiththeteamandlearnfromthem
Itwasn’tonlyherteachingteam,theybothplannedit
Weneedtobetheretoteachthemandtakethatgroup,bepartofthatteam,be
partoftheplanning
Sittingdownandtalkingabouthowdidthelessongo…
Whileparticipantstalkedagreatdealabouttheimportanceandeffectivenessofteam
teachingtheyalsoidentifiedthedetrimentaleffectofnotbeinginvolvedinteamteaching
andsomeofthewaysteamteachingbecamedifficult.Insomesituationsthefullyqualified
teachertheywereworkingwith,whomostoftenwasnon-Indigenous,didnotknowhowto
workinateamteachingenvironmentandwouldendup‘usingassistantteachersfor
languagelessons’only.Atothertimestheassistantteacherwouldnotbeinvolvedin
anythingotherthanbeingcalledontotranslateandmonitorchildren’sbehaviour.The
participantspointedouthowthisnon-colleagialbehaviourdiscouragedmanyasssitant
teachersfromtakingtheirworkandlearningseriously.Asoneparticipantsaid,
Ifyou'rejustsittingdowntherewatchingthekids-itsboring
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Anotherparticipantpointedoutthechallengeofthepowerandhierarchicalissuesthat
existedinsomeclassrooms,
seelikeforexampleifmeandmyteamteacherworktogetherbutsometimesthat
teamteachercanbelikeabossinthatclassroom,andshe'sputtingmedown,but
whoisfeelingbadthereandfeelingboss.Therearesometeacherslikethatwhoare
bossybutwe'vegottoreportthembecasuewe'vegottolearntogetherasateam
andteachtogether
Sometimesthesehierachicalissueswithinteamswereenactedbypassiveresistanceonthe
partofthefullyqualifiednon-IndigenousteacherrefusingtolettheIndigenousassistant
teachersparticipateinupskillingandeducationcoursesonthebasisthattheywereneeded
intheclassroom,
nowadayswe'vegotmorethanoneATintheclass.Inourschoolwe'vegottutor
aswell,andstillthat'snotenoughwhentheATgoesforstudyandthetutoris
there.It'sjustreallydifferentnow.Inourschoolwe'vegotAssistantTeacheranda
tutorineachclassandIthinkthat’snotenoughforthewhiteteacher.They'renot
lettingpeoplego.
Thisparticipantsuggestedthatthiswassomethingthathadchangedfromwhenshe
completedherstudyandfeltthatitwasoneofthereasonsthatmoreassistantteachers
werenotcompletingtheirteachereducation.Otherparticiantspointedtothekeyrolethat
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thePrincipalplayedinwhetherornotteamteachingwasvaluedandimplementedina
school,
Sometimesithappensifthatschoolhasbeendoingitforalongtimeit'llgothat
way,youknowteamteaching,butifPrincipal-youmightgetagoodoneorabad
one,itjustfallsapart...
Alloftheparticipantssawtheteamteachingworktheydidinclassrooms,whetherbefore,
duringandaftertheirteachereducation,asacornerstoneinlearningabouttheroleofthe
teacher.Havingtheopportunitytomeaningfullyparticipateinandcontributetothe
studentlearningthathappenedintheclassroomwasoneofthemostpowerful
experiencesinhelpingtheseteachersdeveloptheirprofessionalidentity.
6.3.5Leadership
Thetoneofthegroupconversationbecamealmostwistfulwhenwebroachedthetopicof
leadership.Oneparticpantcommentedsimply,
…beforewehadagoodprincipalbutnowadaysIdon’tknow,noonesupportsus.
Whenencouragedtoidentifywhatmadeagoodprincipaltheteacherparticipants
identifiedthefollowingqualities,
- onethatlistens.
- goingaroundcheckingeachclassroom.
- workingstronglywithIndigenousstaff.
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- talkingwithalltheyapaandkardiyastaffandaskinghowitisgoing.
- Someonewhomakesusfeelcomfortableandsafe.
- Havelearningtogethersessionsandsharingideas.
ParticipantsthoughttheyweremorelikelytogetaPrincipalwiththesequalitieswhen:
- YapashouldbeonthatpaneltointeviewthatPrincipal.
- theyshouldbechosenbythecommunity.
Inthegeneraldiscussionaboutleadershipitbecameclearthatthekindofleadershipthat
theseteachershadfoundthemostusefulandpowerfulhadbeenacollaborativemodel
thatwasfocusedonlearningtogetherandteachingtogether.Whenaskedwhatkindof
leadershipshefoundhelpfuloneparticipantsaidthefollowing,
Havingprofessionaldevelopmentforthewholestaff,talkaboutstuffandthen
doingit,checkinghowwellitwent.Wehavealotofthoseatschoolbutreallyit
doesn’twork,it'snotfollowedupandit'snotdoneintheclassroom,whatwetalked
about.It’sjustsomethingthattheEducationDepartmentwantstohear'Ohthisis
reallygoodwhatthey'redoingatthatschool'butit'snotfollowedup,itsnotdone.
ThisiswhatIseeallthetime.‘Cosoneofthethingsweweretalkingaboutwas
teamteaching...stillnothappening!Weneedtogetbacktogetheragainandtalk
andmaybechangesomethingsthataren’tworking…Andlikethereshouldbe
evidenceaswell,likeshe'stakingasmallgroupthereandI'mtakingtheother
group,thereshouldbeevidenceinthoselearningtogethersessions,youknow'this
iswhatshe'sdoing,thisiswhatI'mdoing'
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Thisagainshowsastrongdesireandcommitmentonthepartoftheseteacherstobe
reflectivepractitioners.Manyoftheparticipantstalkedabouttheirownleadership
aspirationsaswell.Theyreferredtopartoftheirteachereducationcoursethatsupported
thiskindofdevelopment,
Alsolikefieldtripsmadeusconfidentinleadinginotherareastoo,likewhenwego
backandbealeaderandbetterpersontobeaspokespersonforyourcommunity,
that’sanotherwayIlookedatitwhileIwasdoingfieldtripstoothercommunities
andlookingathowtheircouncilworkedandschoolworkedandbothcommunity
andschoolwhereyoucangainyourconfidenceandbealeaderinyour
position....andputitinpractice.
Sadly,manyoftheparticipantsalsotalkedabouthowtheseleadershipaspirationshad
beenblockedorstymiedthroughoutthecourseoftheircareers;atopicthatwillbe
discussedfurtherintheindividualnarratives.
6.3.6Exclusionandpower
Inthetwodayseminarwhereallparticipantscametogetherandanalysedtheindividual
teachernarratives,themostanimateddiscussionhappenedinrealtionshiptothe
experienceofexclusionandpower.Itbeganwithoneparticipanttellingthefollowingstory
aboutherexperience,
…wegotanewfencebuilt,they'redoingitnowandPrincipalcameuptomewitha
planbeforeitwasstarted,andsheshowedme'ohIwanttoshowyouthisiswhere
thenewfenceisgoing'.AndIsaid'nonono',thatswhatI'mjustfeelingabitbad,I
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wentandseenityesterdayandsawthefenceisstillgoingwheretheoldfencewas
before.AndIsaid'noweneedtoputthisfence,makeitbigger,morespace'.AndI
hadspokentothePrincipalandshehadsaid'yeahthat'salright,we'lldothat'and
thenyesterdaywhenIwentaroundit'sstillgoinginthesameplacewheretheold
fencewas.Shedidn’tlistentome.It’sstillgoingwheretheoldfencewas....Ithink
it'sherdecision'I'mjustgoingtogoaheadandtellthemwheretoputit.I'mthe
boss!'.Idon’tknowwhyshecomesandasksme?...ifshe'snotgoingtolisten,just
tomakemehappy,showmethepieceofpaper,soIcan’tthink'OhI'mpartofthis
aswell'.That'swhatIthought...andovertheholidaysIwentandsawwherethe
picketswereputinplacewherethefenceisgonnago,anditswaybackthatway.
Butthefenceisstillgoingwheretheoldfencewas...it'shurtingmebecasuewe're
beingusedinallofthesesortsofthings...assoonasschoolstartsIwasgoingtogo
backandasktheschoolcouncilifsheshowedthemtheplantotheschoolcouncil,
didtheyagree?..Ithinkshealreadyspokentothosefencepeoplebeforegoingon
holidaysandwhenshewasawaytheystartedbuildingthefence...’cosIwassaying
'where'sthegategonnago,coswecanputthegaterightnearthekitchenwhere
wecanseethekidsgoingout'.'Noitcangobackovertothesameplace,nearthe
toilet'.Shedidntreallywanttolistentome.
Inresponsetothisstoryoneoftheotherparticipantsobservedaboutthebehaviourofthe
Principalinquestion,
Shewantstodoitherownway...shewasusingherownpowertorunherdown,run
overher...shedidthatwithherownpowerbutshedidntsharethatwithothers
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Thisledtoanumberofotherstoriesbeingshared.Alloftheparticipantshadexperienced
somethingsimilarduringtheirworkinglife.Somestorieslikethefirstexamplefocusedon
theroleandpowerofthePrincipalintheschool.OnthesubjectofPrincipals,one
participantremarked‘Theycomewithbadpowers’.Anothertoldthefollowingstory,
WehadonePrincipalcomeandsaytous'I'mnotheretomakefriends,I'mjusthere
tofixtheschool,that'sall!'Andweusedhavealotoffightswithhimandonetime
hesaid'YoushouldgoandgetCentrelink'.IwasntgoingtogetCentrelink,I'mhere
toworkinmyownschool.Hewasaracist.Hetookhisfamilytogotothetoilet
backhome.Theirkidsweren’tinvolvedwithyapakids,lawa.Theyusedtoteach
theirownkidsintheprincipal’soffice.Theyweren’tsupportingus.Hehadthat
powerforhimselftoruleoverusandhewasn’tlistening,hewashurtingus,hewas
doingthingshisway.Hedidn’twanttolistentoanybody.It'salifetimestoryand
I'vestillgotitinmyheart,thatbadfeeling.
Otherstoriesfocusedonthebehaviourofothernon-Indigenousteachingstaffandeven
curriculumadvisorsvisitingtheschool,
Wewerehavingastaffmeeting.Onlynon-Indigenousstafftheytalktoeachother
insteadoftalkingtoanangustaff,andonedayIbangedthetableandsaidtothem
'heyweareanangustaffhere,we'renotinvisible.Wewanttoshareourideastoo!'
Theyallstoppedtalkingandputtheirheadsdown.Isaid'youonlycomeandgo,but
wearehere,westayhereforalongtime'.
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Istayedinoneafternoontoworkwithmyteamteacher,butshewasalsotalking
with(anothernon-Indigenousteacher)aboutWalkingTalkingTexts.Isatthere,
theywereyappingaway.Isattherewaitingforher,thinking'whenwillshecome
anddoplanning?'Theywerejusttalkingaway,lookingatthebooksandgetting
ideas.AndwhileIwassittingthereIthoughttomyself'I'maninvisiblepersonhere
inthecorner'.Shedidn’tevensaytome'comeoverandjoinme!'Ididn’twantto
waitanymore,Ihadtowalkaway.Andshesaid'Oh(name),areyougoinghome?'
NextdayIcameback,feelingsad,andshesaid'I'mreallysorryforwhathappened'.
Isaid'No!youmademefeelinvisible!Youdidn’tincludemeinthatteaching,
becauseIamyourteamteacher,youshouldhaveinvolvedmeinthat.AndI'mreally
sad,Idon’tknownowwhatwe'regoingtoteach.Youtheonewhoknows
everythingandIdidn’tplanwithyou.I'mjustgoingtobesharpeningthepencils
becauseyouhaven’tincludedmeinyourplanning'.Sheleftmeout,shedidn’t
includeme,Iwasjustaninvisiblepersonsittingthere.Ireallywantedtolearn,listen
towhat(name)wastryingtoteachher.
OneAssistantTeacherinJuniorclass,Iwentpastandshesaidtome'Canyoucome
here?'SoIwentovertoherandshesaid'LookI'msittingawayfromthekids,what
canIdo?Wedidplanningtogethermeandher.'SoItalkedtotheteacher'excuse
mewhatisshedoingsittingoverthere?Isshedoinganythingorjustsittingand
watching?Howcanyouteach?There'salotofkidshereandshedidplanningwith
you.'Theteachersaid'Ohhhyoucomeover'.ButItoldher'Youshouldhave
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involvedher,youdidplanningwithher,andinsteadshe'sjustwatchingand
sharpeningpencils.Butwearealltheteachers!'.Butwhenthekidsstartfightingor
notlistening,that'sthetimetheystartusingIndigenousstaff.'
Manyoftheotherstoriessharedinthisthemerelatedtothelackofsupportthese
teachersfelttheyreceivedfromtheleadershipoftheschoolandhowthiswasaformof
inequalityandexclusion.Oneteachertalkedabouthowthiswassomethingtheyfirst
discoveredwhencompletingtheteachereducationcourse,
See…wefoundoutthatthereweren’tanyequalrightsnotrightsforyapateachers,
Indigenousteachers.Thingsweren’tsameforusbecasuetheyusedtobringkardiya
teachersfromsouth,usingallthatmoneytobringthemintoworkinour
communityandwestartedfeelingsad.I’mateacherandIneedtohavesameequal
rightswithkardiyateacher.Justgivingushousing,butlaterontheytookthataway.
Thingslikethatwelearnedabout.Itwassodifficultforustobeayapateacher.
Thissenseofneglectcontinuedonformanyintotheirpracticuumteachingexperience,
somethingthatdoesn’tgounnoticedbythecommunitymembers,
WhenIdidmypracteachingandIwasworkinginthatlittleroom,doingplanning,
nohelpfromthePrincipal,lawa,nohelpingwithplanningoranything...she'snot
helpingyapa,lawa.Theyapapeoplewholivethere,theydon’tgoandaskherfor
jobbecausetheydon’twanttoworkthere
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Oneparticipantcommentedspecificallyonthelackoforientationtothe‘educationlaw’
thatshereceivedwhenshefirstbecameafullclassoomteacher.
SowhenIfirstbecameateacherinmyclassroomtheysaid'yeahgoaheadthisisall
yourstuffand...teach!'Buttherewerealsorulesthere,andlawsfromeducation,I
wasexpectedtolearnthembutIdidn’thaveanyonetellingme,Ihadtogoalone
andjusttryingtodomybest.
Otherparticipantscommentedonhowhardtheyfoundittotransitionintotheroleof
beingthefullyqualifiedclassroomteacher.Thiswaschallengingforthempersonallyand
forthestudentstounderstandasgenerationsofinternalisedassimilationhadcausedthese
childrentobelievethatwhiteteacherswerethe‘real’teachersand‘black’teacherswere
justthehelper,theassistanttothewhiteteacher.
Butsomekidsusedtotalklike'You'renotEnglish!You'reWarlpiri!'Mainlyinthe
school.You'vegottohaveboththose...explainingtothem'Thisiswhatwe'vegotto
teach,Englishsideofthings.I'vegottoteachboth'.ThisiswhatIwasexplainingto
thekids"Becausesomebodyiswatchingmeinthecorner,youknow?'Thosekids
werelookingforakardiyateacher.Iwasshowingthemmycertificate'ThisiswhatI
got.I'mlikekardiyateachernow'.Thekidshadtoknow.Aftertalkingtomeand
saying'noyou'renotourteacher'Ittookalongtimeforthekidstoknow.
Sameat(communityname).Wealwaysusedtokeeponsaying'Wearethe
teacher!Iamyourteacher.Doesn’tmatterpangki(colour?),butIamtheteacher'.
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Inthiswayitwasthecontacthistoryandthecoloniallegacythatwascausingtheexclusion
fortheseteachers,andtheyreceivednosupporttohelpthemnavigatethistransition.
6.3.7‘Notlookingatuslevel’
Thesevenththemeisconnectedtothepreviousthemeofexclusionandpower,butitis
morestronglyrelatedtothisideaofthecoloniallegacyofIndigenousteachersworkingin
schoolsintheNT.Manyoftheparticipantsspokeoftheirexperiencesbeingtreated
unequally,evenoncetheyhadcompletedtheirfullteachingqualification.Theparticipants
sharedanumberofexamplesofthiskindofunequaltreatment.Attimesthiswas
expressedbyexpectingfullyqualifiedIndigenousteacherstotakeonextraworkandroles,
I'vebeentakingthepreschoolersforayearandIhaven’thadanyoneplacedwith
measanAssistantteacherbecasuetheythink'Ohshe'sIndigenousshecando
everything!'Costherequirementistenkids,can’tbealoneintheclassroomwith
anymorethanthat,andI'vegotabout14or12.Theynevercomeandaskorlook
forsomeonetoworkwithme.Butifawhiteteacherhadfivekidsohshe'llbe
screamingherheadoff'Ohhhthey'regoingtoattackme!'
Anotherparticipantspokeaboutbeingcalledonwhenevertherewerevisitorstothe
schoolwhowantedto‘consult’withthecommunity,
Sometimesit’snegotiatedtoobythePrincipalandwhoeveriscoming,theypullyou
out,nowarningjustcomeanddragyouout.
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Otherstalkedabouthowitfelttobeconstantlycalledontodealwithbehaviourproblems
inawaythatthenon-Indigenousstaffwerenot,
Likewearequalifiedteachers.Theydon’tuseusasaqualifiedteacher.Theyuseus
tolookafterthebehaviour.'You'vegottotalktothischild!You'vegottostopthem
fighting!'That'swhattheyuseusfor.Notlikeactprofessionallikethem.Even
thoughwestartedworkingalongtimeagowe'restillgonnabestoppingfighting.
That'swhattheyareusingusfor.
Soitseemsthattheschoolleadershiptreatstheseteachersasfullyqualifiedstaffmembers
orevenschoolleaderswhenitsuitsthem,likeleavingsomeonebyherselfinaclasswith
toomanystudentsandpullingIndigenousteachersoutofclasstoconsultwithvisitorsto
theschool.However,theyareequallyprepararedtoexpecttheIndigenousstafftoactas
the‘behaviourpolice’anddoallofthecommunicationwiththefamiliesandcommunity
members.
They'renotlookingatuslevel,whereweare.We'resupposedtobesame
professionallevelandtheystillputusdownlikewe'reanAT
Theyalwaysgetustotelltheparents,talktotheparents,butIalwayssay'Wiya,
youandme,we'llgotogether'
Theyarefrightenedofthekids!AlotofthetimeIseeteachersareondutyandkids
startfightingandtheyruntotheIndigenousstaff,‘canyoucomeandtalktothe
kids,findoutwhathappened’.Andthey'reonduty!
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Aswellasbeing‘frightened’oftheirpupils,bynotwantingtovisitparentsand
grandparentsthesenon-Indigenousteachersareshowingthattheyarealso‘frightened’of
thecommunity.Thispointstodeepculturaldisconcertmentonthepartofthenon-
Indigenousteacherswhocomefromaverydifferentculturalandknowledgetradition.
Inlargepartthisexclusionandinequalitytranspiresintheeverydayactivities,actionsand
reactionsoftheleadershipandstaffoftheschools;selectivelyignoringsomerulesand
theninsistingthatIndigenousstaffdothingsthatthenon-Indigenousstaffrefusetotake
on.OneparticipanttalkedaboutthisinacurriculumsenseaswellsayingthatPrincipals
insistthatsomeelementsofthecurriculumweretaughtwhileignoringandnotmaking
timeforotherpartsofthecurriculum.Thisisparticularlysointhecaseoflocallanguages
andculturebeingtaughtaspartofthecurriculum.
Howcomethiscurriculum,thisiswhatyou'vegottodointheclassroomandthis
Principal,boss,doesthewrongthings.Andwe'retryingtolearnandteachthekids
andthebossesarenot….We’vegotthatlanguageandcultureprograminthe
schoolandthey’vegotnothingtolose,whiteteachers,ifthatprogramgoes,‘cos
they’vegottheseotherprograms,Englishones.Theycanteachitbecausethey’re
expectedtoteachitintheclassroom.Theycanjustchange,change,changethe
program.We’veonlygotthisoneprogramthatwewanttoholdontoandit’svery
sadtoseeitgo.Notgobutdoesn’tfollowon,doesn’thappenintheclassroom.It’s
important,wewanttoholdontoit.Itcomeswithouridentity.Theydon’tcare.
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Soinadditiontotheteachersnotbeingseenas‘level’,therearealsodecisionsbeingmade
intheschoolsaboutwhatcurriculumismostimportantthatexhibitsaninequality
regardingthestatusofIndigenousandnon-Indigenousknowledgeitself.
6.4Conclusion
Thereweremanymoreexamplesofthethemesincludedinthischapterintheindividual
narrativesrecordedwitheachoftheindividualteacherparticipants.InChapter7these
seventhemes,‘feelingforfamily’,‘learningwithmarlpa’,‘mentors,supportand
encouragement’,‘teamteaching’,‘leadership’,‘exclusionandpower’and‘notlookingatus
level’,willbeusedasananalyticalframeworkforfurtherinterrogatingtheindividual
narratives.
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Chapter7–Individualanalysisoftheteachernarratives
Theseventhemes,asgeneratedinthegroupanalysisprocessoutlinedinChapter6,were
appliedasananalyticalframeforthedetailedexaminationofthemuchlongerindividual
narrativesoftheseventeacherparticipants.Thisexaminationprovidedincreasedrichness
anddepthandsomeexpandedunderstandingsoftheseseventhemes.
7.1‘Ourfeelingforfamily’
Oneofthethemesthatemergedascentralduringthegroupdiscussionwaswhatone
teacherparticipantdescribedasour‘feelingforfamily’.Thisphrasepointstowardsalarger
truththatiscentraltounderstandingthejourneyoftheIndigenousteachersinthis
research.Thisthemeisontologicalbecauseitissomethingthatisatthecoreofwho
peopleare.Itisnotsomethingepistemological,somethingtheyhavelearned.Neitherisit
axiological,somethingtheseteachershavechosen.Thewaytheteachersspokeofit,itis
clearlyanotnegotiablehumanconditionforthem.Itisexpressedinchoicesthataremade,
prioritiesthataredecidedanditregulatestheirparticipationinthelifeoftheirfamiliesand
community.Itisapowerfulobligatoryforcethatwillalwaysremainmoreimportantthan
anyotherresponsibility–includingeducationandwork.Theteacherparticipantsspokeof
ittounderlinethatthis‘feelingforfamily’,andallthatthatrepresents,mustbe
accommodatedandrespectedaspartoftheeducationaljourney.Additionally,these
teachersarelivingproofthatwhenunderstood,respectedandappliedcreatively,such
ontologicalunderstandingscanactuallybeatremendoussupportstructuretohelp
Indigenousteachersachievesuccesswhilenavigatingtheinterculturalspaceofeducation.
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Thefollowingexamplestakenfromtheindividualteachernarrativesillustratefirstlyhow
this‘feelingforfamily’isalwaysforemostintheheartsandmindsoftheIndigenous
teacherparticipantsandhowseparationfromfamilycancauseintenselonelinesstothe
pointofderailingpeople’seducationaljourney.Secondly,theexamplesexplorehow
culturalobligation,asanexpressionofontology,meanthatthosepursuingteacher
educationwillalwaysbeforcedtojugglemultipleresponsibilities.Thirdly,theexamples
showhowacommunitybasedmodelofteachereducationthatenliststhesupportof
familiesandcommunitymemberscaninfactgreatlyassistIndigenousteachersto
completetheirlearningjourney.Finally,theexamplesillustratehowthis‘feelingforfamily’
actuallyprovidesIndigenousteacherswithuniqueinsightsabouthowbesttoteach
studentsfromtheirhomecommunities.
Lonelinessandthecomfortoffamily
Manyoftheteacherparticipantsspokeofgivingupontheireducationatvariouspoints
becauseofafeelingofextremelonelinessandisolationwhentheywereawayfromtheir
community.Thiswasespeciallytruewhentheytriedtocompletetheirsecondaryyearsat
BoardingSchool.
Iwasthereforoneyearandgotlonelyandcamebackto(communityname).Iwas
lonely(for)family,yuwa,
…itwasjustlikeyouwanttobehomeandnotwanttoleavethathomeandjustlike
youknowwhenIgotoDarwinorAdelaideIwanttocomebackhomeandthat'sthe
homesickIusedtohavewhenIwasthatstage.
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NoneoftheteacherparticipantsstayedatBoardingSchoolthroughtotheend.Allofthem
endedupbackintheircommunitiesandthiswasthepointatwhichallofthemstarted
workingintheirlocalschooleitherasassistantteachersorLiteracyWorkers.Oneteacher
participantsaidthefollowing,
I'mnothomesick(when)I'mathomeI'myouknow,workingandmorethemore
prouderIgot.Andmymumusedtocometotheschoolandseemeteachingand
usedtopraisemeandallthatpraisingmadememoreconfident….andmysister
usedtocomeandtakephotosandusedtostayaround,bringthechildrentoschool.
'Yeahshe'sgonnabeyourteachersoon'
Theteacherparticipantsalsostronglyemphasizedthatthisfeelingforfamilywasnot
somethingthatcanbeignoredorswitchedoffwhenpeopleentertheschool.Infactinthe
samewaythatbeing‘athome’madetheteacherparticipantsfeelcomfortable,manyof
theteacherparticipantssuggestedthathavingIndigenousteachersmadeIndigenous
studentsfeelmorecomfortableandlesslonelyintheforeignandWesternenvironmentof
school.
forIndigenouskidstheylookatusandthey...we'retheirfamilyandtheyknowus,
wehavegoodrelationshipslikewe'refamilyandkidslookatusandwearetherole
modelsforthem…IfIndigenouskidshaveIndigenousteachersandlanguageand
cultureprograms,they'lllistentousandtheelderscominginteachingthem
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Thisfeelingforfamilywassomethingthattheteacherparticipantsenlistedasapowerful
allyinensuringstronglearningandengagementfortheirstudents.
Culturalobligation
Thisontological‘feelingforfamily’,wassomethingthattheteacherparticipantshadto
continuallybalanceagainsttheircommitmenttostudyandwork.Tryingtofindequilibrium
betweentheculturalobligationsthatareapartoftheirontologicalexistencewhileatthe
sametimecontinuingonwithstudy,workandteachingcommitmentsissomethingthat
hasbeenapersistentchallengethroughouttheircareers.Manyoftheteacherparticipants
talkedabout‘familyproblems’andinparticulartheobligationsthatcamewiththedeathof
apersonintheirfamily,referredtoas‘sorrybusiness’.
Yuwaibutalsolikefamilyproblems,sorryproblems,wehadtogoalongwithallof
thosethingsandwestillhavechallengingthingsyouknowlikefamilyproblemis
alsoreallyimportanttoo,yuwai.
Maybefamily,problemwithfamily,maybewife.Orsomebodygetssickintheir
family,sorrybusinessallthat.Becausewhensorrybusinesscomesandwehaveto
goforayearyouknowandthenwedon’tknowwhattodoyouknowwhenwego
backteaching.Youloseallthatthing,thatexperienceofhowyouwanttoteach
back.ButIhadlikeIwentbacklikewhenIwasinsorry,Istayedoutforayear.
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Travellingtoanothercommunityforsorryandtakingextratimes,comingback,not
goingtoschoolearlyandstufflikethat
Oneparticipanttalkedofhowsheneededtoenlistastrategyof‘postponement’todealing
withfamilyproblemsandculturalobligation.
EventhoughIhadfamilyissuesbackhome,Ididn’tpicturethat,youknow.Ialways
leftitaftercourseorwhenIgotback.AndIfeltstrongandyouknowsaidtomyself
'I'mnotgoingtoforgetthat,carrythat,I'lldealbackinmycommunity,butthat's
notgoingtobemybigissue'.SoIkeptongoingandgoing.
Howeverthereweresomeculturalobligationsandresponsibilitiesthatwereso
overwhelmingthattheyalmostderailedpeople.Atthesetimesthefeelingforfamilyand
familysupportwasoneofthethingsthathelpedkeeppeoplegoing,
Andthen.....andthenIlostmysister(in1996).Iwasjustabouttograduate.
Mmm….Irangmymotherandtoldherthatmysisterwas,shewasdeteriorating
fromhersickness,andIrangMumandMumwalkedsevenkilometresandhada
heartattack…that'swhenIsortofwentdown…andmyhusband'sfamily,myother
familycameandsupportedme,…Ihadtwolossesandstayedandhadafuneralfor
herandpeoplefromschoolcame,teachers,ananguteachers,andfamiliescame
andtalkedtome'bestrong,Iknowyoucandoit,butdon’tgiveuponstudying,still
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doyourstudy,you'vegotonlyonemoreyeartogo'andyeahitwaslongtimeIwas
ongrief,longtimeandmyhusbandsupportedmetoo,keptongoing.
Fortheseteachers,thefurtheralongthatprofessionalpathwaytheyventuredthemore
challengingthisbalancingactbecame,
youknow,forexample,ifIlosemysonIwouldfeelsadandIwouldn’twanttogoto
schoolbecauseIstillfeelnogoodinmyheartandImissmykid,mysonandIwould
rathersayohIdon’tfeellikegoingtowork…butthenIstressaboutit,‘YeahIhave
togotowork,whyamIsittingdown?...IhavetoforgetaboutitandIhavetostart
workingagainandbestrong'.Butweneedtobethereforourkids,ourkidsthatare
learning.It'simportanttheyneedtolearnfromus,weneedtobearolemodelfor
them.
Oneteacherparticipanttalkedabouthowherschoolenlistedculturalknowledgeto
facilitateboththeculturalandeducationalresponsibilities,
Iwouldbeinsorrybusinessyouknowlike.Wethoughtabouthavinglike,for
exampletwoTAswereworking,maybeateacherandaTA,ifforexamplesomeone
losessonandI'mnotallowedtowork,soIwouldgo,ATwouldstayandworkthere
tohelpkardiyateacher…someonealwaysthere,forexampleifanAT'sfamilypass
awayIwouldbethereworkingwiththeteacher,kardiyateacherandaliteracy
worker.
Sowhiletheculturalobligationsthatcomewiththis‘feelingforfamily’canbeastrong
challengeforthosewhochosetobeteachers,adetailedunderstandingofhowthese
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culturalobligationsworkcanalsohelptheteacherstonavigatebothculturalandeducation
obligationssuccessfully.
Communitybasedstudyandsupportfromfamily
Alloftheteacherparticipantstalkedabouthowmucheasieritwasforthemtonavigate
thedualpressuresofstudyandculturalobligationwhentheteachereducationdelivery
washappeningasacommunitybasedmodel.
…soitwasn’tjusthappeninghere(AliceSprings),ithappenedthere(community
name)too…wehadyouknowourchildren…andtheywereallsolittle.That’swhy
weaskedforacommunitybasedlecturersothelecturercanbethereandsothat
weneededtobewithourfamilytoo.‘Cosjusttomakethecourseworkout
well…everyonewasreallygoodandtheyfelt'Ohthat'sworked'youknowand
'that'smakingitbetterforeveryonetoyouknowbeathomeandbewiththeir
family'
Thisgroupingofcommunitiesseemedacommonpartofthecommunity-basedmodel
theseteachersparticipatedintodotheirteachereducation.Oftenacohortwouldconsist
ofgroupsofteachersfromseveralsmallremotecommunitieswhowouldcometogether
forworkshopsinacentralremotelocationratherthantravellingtoanurbancentresuchas
AliceSpringsorDarwin.
…wehadlecturersbasedinthecommunity,theywerestayingthereallthetime,
awa,andwehadtimesthatwecangoandyouknowdoourstudy…schooltime,
andwehadworkshopsinthecommunitylike(communityname)moband
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(communityname)andwecansometimeswegooutto(communityname),have
workshoporgoto(communityname)foryouknowlearningtogethersessions.
Mmm,Ithinkthatwasbetterinthosedays…becausewewerealwaysathome,not
goingaway…likewehadkids!AndIthinkwefeltrelaxed,notstressingoutwhen
yougo,youknowwhenyougosomewhere,yeah.Wehadtogobacktothefamily.
Oneteacherparticipantspokeabouthowproudhercommunitywaswhenthecommunity
baseddeliverywashappeningandhowitfacilitatedmuchgreatercommunityinvolvement
inthecourse,
…thatRATE(BatchelorCollegeRemoteAreaTeacherEducation)programwasreally
big,everyonewasjustlookingatus'ohthey'redoingagreatjob'youknow,yeah
andIthinkeveryonethoughtitwasagoodthing,yeahthecommunity…inthat
coursewedoneitinthecommunitylikeweinvitedoldpeopletocometothings
withus,yeah,wewentoutbush,mmm.Itwasallcommunitybased,youknow
doingalotofthingsinthecommunityandeveryoneknewwhatweweredoing.
That'swhyalotoftheotherpeoplewantedtodotheirstudy
Manyoftheteacherparticipantstalkedabouthowthisdeliverymodelchangedoverthe
courseoftheirteachereducationandnotedthatfundingwasthemainreasongivento
themforthechangesmade.Theshiftwastoamoreconventionalcampusbasedworkshop
modelbasedinBatchelor,AliceSpringsandTennantCreekatdifferentstagesoftheir
teachereducationcourse.Manyoftheteacherparticipantssurmisedthatthisrequirement
toleavethecommunitytoattendworkshopswasoneofthemainreasonsthatmanyof
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theteachereducationstudentsfromtheircohortsdroppedoutatthattime.
…Ithinkthatchangeiswhatmadepeopleunhappyandalotoftheotherstudents
left,yeahcomingintotown,leavingfamilybehind,mmm,didn’twanttogoaway.
…it'sahardjourneyIknow,weallknowthatourfamily'simportant,wecan’tleave
ourhusbandandgoandspendtwoweeksandcomeback.
…yeahsomepeopledroppedout,maybeinsecondyear,yeahmaybehadproblem,
familyproblem…likehusband,children,theydon’twanttomisstheirkidsyouknow
…someofthempulledout,andBatchelorsaidwecould(not)havewhenthere's
only5,like10or11or12studentsyoucanhavetutorandlecturerthere,butif
studentsfalloutorstaybehindthenwecan’thave.Mmmthatmadeitsohardfor
us.
Becauseshesaidtomethatitwasreallyhardstudyingyouknow…shewasmaybe
worriedforherhusbandhewaslikeoldman,justworryingforhimnow.Mighthave
tostayhomeanddoherworkthere.Butshesaidtome,‘yeah(Name)youcando
yourstudybutI’vegottostayhereandhelpintheschoolhere.Idon’twanttogo
outnow’.
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Forthoseteacherparticipantswhomanagedtokeepgoingandcontinuewiththeirstudies
theyallnamedthesupportoftheirfamiliesasthemainthingthatfacilitatedthis.Thisis
discussedinmoredetailinalatersectionofthischapter,butitisimportanttonotethat
evenforthosewhocontinuedtheshiftawayfromacommunitybasedmodelmadethings
morechallengingasitevokedfeelingsofhomesicknessforthemagain,
…backandforwardsbutthenweweregettinghomesicksowethoughtnowe
wouldcomeback.Maybewehadagap,anotheryeardidn’tfeellikedoingstudy,
wewereonlyworkingasafulltimeATnow,butwewerealsothinkingabout
working(and)doingourtrainingtobecomeateacher.
Theperiodsdescribedaseasiestandbestfortheteacherparticipantsintermsoftheir
teachereducationjourneywerethetimeswhentheywereparticipatinginacommunity
basedmodelandnothavingtomakethehardchoicesbetweenthat‘feelingforfamily’and
theirdedicationtobecomingteachers.
Knowledgeoffamilyandculture
Alloftheteacherparticipantstalkedagreatdealaboutthis‘feelingforfamily’andthe
intrinsicunderstandingoftheircommunitiesasbeinganassetintheirteachingwork.This
ontologicalpre-conditionhelpedthemtobebetterteachers.Ithelpedthemintalkingto
familiesabouttheirchildrenandtheworkoftheschool,
…Igotta...talktopeoplerightway,mightberighttime,rightway,yeah…andcos
we'reinonecommunityandweknoweachother,knowfamily…awa,yougotto
haveatalkattherighttime,getpeoplehow...explainittothemsotheycan
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understand,mmm,likeIsaidyouknow,Ican’ttakethepre-schoolersmyself,Itake
themumsaswell…ButIneedtotalktothem,youknowinawaytheyfeel
comfortable.Yeah
…we'refamilies,we'reconnectedtoeachotherinfamilylineandweliveinthe
samecommunityandalotofthetimesIseewhat'shappeningyouknow,to
childrenandthefamilies.AndIknowthosefamiliesmightbehavingbitofproblem
orawa,Iknowthelifestyleofthefamilies,yeah,soIcanknowifthey'renotdoing,
ifthey'renotlearningproperly,cosIknowit'sgottheseotherproblemsathome
andIcanyouknowencouragethestudent.Andtalk,cosalotofthetimeItalkto
thefamilyaswellifthatstudentisnotdoingwellinclass.Italktothe
families….awalanguageisabigpartofit.Youknowwe...Ithinkmewiththat
languageithelpstalkingtofamilies…ithelpsstudentsaswell.Youknowwecan
...theycaneasilytalktomeaboutwhat'sgoingon.Mmm.…andforfamiliesaswell
youknow,theymightbethinkingthesameasthestudent.That’swhytheydon’tgo
totheschool,yeah.AndIcanseethemathomeoryouknowbumpintothematthe
shop,yeah.It’seasyforme,youknow,yeahcosIliveouttherewiththeminthe
community.Iseethemeverytime.
They(parents)lookatusasopenheartteachers.Theycancomeandtalktome,we
letthemtalk,wetalkasnormal,likewe'reyapafriendsandwe'reyapafamily.They
cancomeandtalktous.Butlikewethinkasateacher,yapateacher,wethinkalot
abouteducationandwetalktotheminaneducationalway,likeactingasaperson
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thathasbeenthereforalongtimeasaneducatorandparentssometimeswantto
learnfromusandwanttoknowwhat'shappeningfortheirkids,butwetellthem
whatthekidsaredoingnow.
Thissharedfeelingforfamilyenabledtheseteacherparticipantstoalsohaveuniquely
helpfulrelationshipswhendealingwithstudents,
Iwouldsaytothem…’(We’re)family,we'renothereassomeoneelse,soweneedto
youknowlistentoeachotherandyouknowlookaftereachother‘coswearehere
asone….thatmadealotofdifferencecosI'manangutheyknowme.
…maybetheysawyapanotkardiya…maybeyouknowtheyknewthatperson
speakssamelanguage,yeah…theywerereallygoodtotalktome,yeah,nomatter
theyshame,theycouldcomeandtalktome…theyfeelmorecomfortable
ThisinsiderunderstandingalsomeansthatoftentheseIndigenousteachershavebecome
bothadvocatesforthestudentsandtheculturalinterpretersbetweentheschoolandthe
community,asevidencedbythefollowinganecdote:
…yuwa,Iwasa,likeIwasadvocatingforallofthechildrenthatwasgoingthere,
alsoforMumsandfamilies…becauseIknowtheananguwayandhowtodealwith
ananguwayandtoalsotoeducateandmentorforthatwhitefella,tjulkurra,who
don’tknowanytraditionalknowledge...Liketherewasanincidentwhereyoung
fellaswhojustcame,wantedtogotoschoolandthePrincipalwouldn’tletthem
comein‘costheyworethis,wecallit(language),headband,tosaythatthey're
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manandjustgotoutfrombush.AndIusedtosay'ohyouknowthoseyoungmen
needsbitofspacewheretheycanseethemselvesasyoungmen,notputoff,butthe
Principalwouldn’tlisten.Shekeptonsaying,'Ohyouknowtheynotman,they
youngboys'.Youcan’tsaythat.Itoldthatperson,'Youcan’tsaythat,ifwe
acknowledgethemandsaytothemthatthey’reyoungmenthat'syouknow,we
respectthemandyou'reheresayingthattheycan’tcometotheschool
environmentbecausetheyarelikeboys'.Andoneoftheteachershelpedme,
tjulkurra(non-Indigenousperson),shesaid,‘Youknow(name)'sright,sheknows
thebackgroundandsheadvocatingforthem,soweunderstandasthepeoplewho
don’thavethatknowledgeforanangu,wecomeandlearnfromthem,wecan’tput
barsorbarriers,we'vegottounderstandtheirculturalawareness,that'showshe
puttingintohowwecanengagewiththem'.
Thisadvocacyoftenextendstowhatisbeingtaughtintheschools.Alloftheteacher
participantstalkedpassionatelyabouttheteachingoflanguageandculturalknowledgeas
acentralpartoftheschoolcurriculum.Itwasevidentthattheseteacherssawlanguage
andculturalknowledgeasanextensionofthisfeelingforfamily.Inorderfortheirchildren
togrowupstrongtheyhadtobegroundedinastrongsenseofwhotheyareandwhatis
valuedbytheircommunity.Allofthiscomesfromthelandandthelanguage.Theteacher
participantssawschoolandcommunityworkingtogetherashavingacentraland
importantroleinsupportingandmaintainingthisknowledge.
Ithinkbestwayisgoing,youknowgoingouttoplaces…theycanlookatthingsas
well,lookwhatthisis,it'sreal,youknow…Ithinkit'simportanttogototheactual
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placeandseeitandyouknowdoit,dothings...Ithinkcommunityisabigpartof
it....andit'slikethekidscanfeelit’safamilyoutingandtheycanknowalltheserich
youknowlanguageiscomingoutfromfamilieswhentheyareoutbush.Andthey
canseethedifference,youknowit'sdifferentinthehomeenvironment,different
wayofdealingwiththelanguagethanoutbush.Yeahit'smore,Iguessit's
stronger,yeah.Likeit’ssomething,it’sserious…takingitserious,thelearning.
…theycan’tstopWarlpirilawa,theyareWarlpiriliteratekids,yeahtheylearnto
speaklanguagewhentheyweresmallandtheyneedtokeeptheirlanguageand
theirculture
…becausetheyreallyhavetoknowtheplacesnameswheretheygoforcountry
visitsandallthatandtheskinnamesystemandwheretheycomefrom.Because
thekidsknow,someofthekidswereknowingtheycomefrom(communityname)
ortheycomingfrom(communityname),ortheirfather’scountry,theycanknow
theirfather'scountry.
yeahsomethingswecan’tlearninaclassroom,wehavetogoout.Youcanonlydo
liketeachingotherthings,likereadingandmathsandallthatthere,butforlike
animaltrackingorplants,everythingyouhavetogooutsideofthecommunity.Alot
oflearningforthekidsislikegoingoncountryvisits….WeusedtotakeElders.
BecausewithouttheElderswecan’ttakethekidsoutbecauseEldersarethemost
importantpeoplebecausetheyknowtheknowledgeandtheycantalkaboutthe
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countryandallthat.Ancestorsandallthat.
Alloftheteacherparticipantsinthisresearchwerepowerfullydedicatedtotheir
professionalidentityasateacher.Butthisidentitycameasanadd-ontotheidentitythey
alreadyhaveasaWarlpiri,Luritja,WesternArrarntaorPitjantjatjaraperson.The
ontologicalidentityoftheteacherparticipantsandthelanguage,cultureandpracticesthat
embodythatidentity,camefirstandwillalwayspre-supposeanythingrelatedtobeinga
teacher.Asevidencedbytheteachers’stories,thisontologicalstandpointcaneitherform
astumblingblockforIndigenousteachersoritcanbecarefullyandrespectfullyenlistedas
astrengththatinfactsupportstheseteacherstobethekindofteachers,accordingtotheir
professionaljudgement,Indigenousstudentsneed.
7.2Learningwith‘marlpa’
‘Marlpa’isawordusedintheWarlpiri,LuritjaandPitjantatjaralanguagesofCentral
Australia.Itcanbetranslatedas‘company’.Morespecificallyitmeansnotleavinganyone
out,orbythemselves.Thisconceptwasrepeatedlyidentifiedbytheteacherparticipants
asbeinganimportantpartoftheirteachereducationpathway.Theteacherparticipants
clearlyarticulatedthathaving‘marlpa’intheformofbothotherstudentsaswellas
lecturersandtutorshelpedthemtosuccessfullycompletetheirteachereducationcourses
andthengoontodeveloptheirprofessionalteachingidentities.
The‘marlpa’ofotherstudents–acohortmodelofteachereducation
Alloftheteacherparticipantsinthisresearchtalkedaboutthestartoftheirteacher
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educationjourneyasbeingsomethingtheysharedwithothers.Alloftheparticipants
talkedabouttheotherpeoplewhostartedtheprogramatthesametimeasthem,
sometimesinsmallgroupsoftwoorthreeandatothertimesinlargegroups.
…soIwasfeelinghappytostartdoingtheteachertrainingbecausetherewasalso
coupleofotheryapateacherstherewhowantedtodoteachertrainingalso,sowe
startedtodoteachertrainingthroughRATEprogram.
…then1990'salltheTAssomeYapa,Aboriginalteachers,TAswantedtodotheir
studiessowealldecidedtogetherweweredoingRATEprogram...wehadmeeting
allofus'Ohwe'lldoRATEprogram,youknowdofirstyear'sowedidfirstyear…we
werestillTAsbutdoingcoursesametimeanditwasreallygood.
Sothat'swhenwe,meandotherladiesfrom(communityname),starteddoing
RATEcourse…Fourorfiveofus…IstartedworkingasaLiteracyworkerthenstarted
doingstudy,RATEcourse.MaybeIsawsomeladiestheyweretalkingabout'oh
we'redoingcoursesinAliceSpringswithBatchelor'.ThenIjoinedwithladiesfrom
(communityname)andthenkeptondoingit.
…thenaladyandafellacametoschoolandcametoameetingwhereallthestaff
wasandstartedtalkingaboutthistrainingforBatchelor,thatyouknowAssistant
TeachersmightthinkaboutdoingtrainingandthenIsaid,'Ohthat'sme,I'mgonna
putmyhandupstraightaway'andthenPrincipalsaid'ohanyofyouladiesormen
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wantstostudy,soyoucangetqualifications?'andtherewerethreeofusputting
ourhandsup.
Theteacherparticipantsspokeabouthowhaving‘marlpa’aspartofthischallenging
processprovidedgreatsupportasthestudyprogressedandhelpedthemtofeellikethey
couldkeepgoing.Italsohelpedthemtobuilduptheirindividualconfidenceandself-belief.
Thisisbestexemplifiedbythefollowinganecdote,
…reallygoodpeople,alwayssupportedmetooandweusedtositdown,talkand
talkaboutthetrainingandusedtohelpeachotherhowstrongwewillbeyouknow
whilewe'redoingthiscourseandgaveallour,youknow,encouragingeachotherin
apositiveway.Mmm,travelledonfieldstudy,lookafterourselves,yuwaand
someonewouldgetaphonecallfromhome,weusedtositdownwiththatperson
'youknowthishappensbutyouknowthisisgoodwaytoyouknowsolveit'weused
tohelpeachother,sothatweusedtomakethatpersonlaughandthennext
morningwecouldseeyouknowgoodnewscomingbackfromhome.Yuwa…Mmm
feelingthatpersonisnotalone,mmmandthat’swhatstudentsandfamily'sabout
encouragingoneanother,supportingoneanother,mmm.Yuwa,marlpa
Partofthecohortmodelthattheseteachersexperiencedinvolvedbringingtogethersmall
groupsfromanumberofnearbylocalremotecommunitiestodotheirstudyworkshops
together.Manyoftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthesignificanceofjoiningtogether
withtheseothergroups,
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…weweretoldyouknoweveryAssistantteacherthatworksatthisschoolneedsto
dothistraining…yeah,wewereallsignedup…westartedoffwithaboutten…from
(communityname)aswell…Ithinkprobably3or2from(communityname)and8of
usfrom(communityname)schoolwestartedoff.
Ithinkwehadeachother,yeahtohelpusout,yeah…likesomemightn’tunderstand
whatwe'regoingtodo,whatwe'redoing,awa,andtalkinArrarnta,explaining'oh
thisiswhatwemightneedtodo',andbeingprepared‘ourworkshop'scoming’
and…remindingeachotheryeah.
Istartedoffwith19studentsfromthisregion…wesortoftalkedtooneanother
andsupportedoneanother,youknow'feelstrong,don’tgiveup,tryandgetitover
anddone,thisisgood'…andthatmademeevenbecomemorestronger,in
studying.Andwedidreportwritingand,discussedgroupdiscussions.
Thissenseof‘marlpa’,ofnotbeingleftbyyourselftodothestudyalone,providedagreat
senseofcomforttotheseteachersastheyprogressedintheirteachereducation.They
formedstrongsupportbondswiththeotherstudentsbothfromtheirowncommunities
andfromthecommunitiesnearby.Oncethedeliverymodelchangedandtheworkshops
werebeingheldinurbancentresratherthancommunitybased,theteacherparticipants
maintainedthatthis‘marlpa’continuedtobeimportant.Theteacherparticipants
developedadditionalsupportandencouragementnetworkswithothergroupsof
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IndigenousteachereducationstudentsfromacrosstheNorthernTerritory.
IdidtrainingatBatchelor,teachertraining.AndImetalotofstudentsfrom
differentcommunitiesandtopendschools,topendteachersandIwashappy
studyingatBatchelorandsharingideaswithotherteachersandworkingwith
lecturers.
…ithelpedmeliketobeconfidentinmyteachingandlearningfromotherstudents
andbecausewecamefromthesamecommunityandjoiningwithothersfromthe
Barklyregionyouknowandlearningthroughthat.Itwasreallygoodyouknow
learningbecauseIlearnedalotofgoodthings,whatIlearnedfromthem.Because
it’salwaysdifferentfromwhereIcomefrom.
Ireallylikedcomingtogetherandmeetingtheananguteachersfromdifferent
communitiesliketalkingtothemandgroupworkandstudyingbackandyouknow
feelingproudandsayingyouknowwe'retherefordoingourbestforour
communityandstrivingmoreandmore…Sogettingbacktostudywasmore
importantsowecanmeetourselvesback,meetalltheananguteacherswhoI
workedwith,whoIstudiedwithandI'mstillreallyproudthatthey'regoingon.
Manyoftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthisfeelingofhaving‘marlpa’asbeingone
ofthereasonstheycontinuedwiththeirstudies.
IfeltgoodwhenbothofusweredoingitandifIwouldhavestarteddoingitby
myselfIdon’tknow...wouldhavebeenquitedifferent...
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The‘marlpa’oflecturers,principalsandteamteachers
Theotherkindof‘marlpa’discussedbytheteacherparticipantswasthecompanyprovided
bytheteachereducationlecturerswhoworkedwiththeircohort,thePrincipalsoftheir
schoolsandtheteamteacherstheycontinuedtoworkwithintheirclassroomsbetween
teachereducationworkshops.Thesekeypeopleprovidedimportantsupportthatassisted
theteacherparticipantstokeepgoingwiththeirstudies.Someteacherparticipantstalked
aboutthekeyrolethatPrincipalsplayedespeciallyinsupportingandfacilitatingthemto
knowabouttheopportunitiestostudyandtocommencetheirstudies,
…likewhen(non-IndigenousPrincipalname)and(anothernon-IndigenousPrincipal
name)maybewasworkingat(communityname)theymusthaveknownabout
thoseothersyouknow,maybedoingmaybeRATEprogramat(communityname).
BecauseIwasstartingtoasknow,'Isthereanytraininggoingonyouknow?Any
teachertraininggoingon’?'Yeahthere'ssomepeoplewhostartedit,like(name),
(name),and(name),(name)andtherewasacoupleofotherstooIcan’t
remember…andIaskedthem,'Canyouhelpmetodoanapplication’?SoIwanted
todothisstudy.Solikemeand(name)weredoingit.
Theprincipalswhowereidentifiedasbeinghelpfulandsupportivewereoftenoneswith
experienceinotherplacesworkingcross-culturallyandwhowereabletoprovidethe
ongoingsupportaroundtheRATEworkshopsthestudentswereparticipatingin.
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…yeahtheywerereallysupportingmelikeIremember(name),Irememberthose
othertwolike(name)and(name),becausetheyknewyapaat(communityname),
theyworkedthereandtheywerereallysupportive.
…yeahsupportingme,givingmeideas,likeIfeltconfidentlikeafterthatone,
talkingtokardyiasnow,tellingthem'thisiswhatIlearnedandcanyouhelpme
out,tomaybegetbetteratlikestartingtowritedowninmyworkbookwhatIneed
todo'.Andlittlebylittle…yeahtakingitbackandtheytoldusyouknowlecturers
'you'vegottogobackandthisiswhatyou'vegottodoandwhenyoucometothe
nextRATEprogramworkshopthenyoucantelluswhatyoudidthere'.Yeahthisis
whatwedid,wentbackdidwork.
Theteacherparticipantsalsoidentifiedthepresenceofteachereducationlecturers
workingwiththemintheirschoolsandclassroomsasacrucialsupportduringtheirstudy.
Thisreflectivepracticemodelwherethestudentwasabletoimmediatelyreflectontheir
practiceseemedtobeparticularlyeffective.
…thereusedtobealecturer,RATElecturerhere…wedidlessonwithherandwe
(talkedabout)whatwentwrong,youknowwewouldtalkaboutourlesson,we
lookedbackeverythingandwrotethingswehaddone,youknow
…andthenitwastimewhenthelecturercameandshedidoneweekhereandwe
wasintheclassroomandwedidapresentationonwhatworkweweredoingandI
gotthebestmark,cosIwasgettingstrongerandpractisingandthatmademeeven
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more,morecleverandmoreunderstanding,whichIcanyouknowgofurther…cosI
wasn’tlikeumIwasn’tburnedoutoryouknowtiredIwas,costhegoodnessIwas
gettingisfromwhatwasrelatingtomyworkplace..(and)communitytoo,like
communityandschool,howweshouldmakeabetterplaceforpeopletocomeand
itwasreallyhelpingmetoanalyseandfindoutwhatwasinthatschoolandinthat
communityhowwecanworktomakeabetterschool.
Whentheteachereducationlecturerswerenotpresentthisreflectivepracticeandday-to-
daylearningwascontinuedonintheworktheteacherparticipantsweredoingwiththeir
teamteachers.
…wewoulddolittlebitof....practiceteachingandwhatsortofcurriculumwould
weusetowriteImeantoplanalesson,whatsortoflessonwouldIteachtolook,
butIwasn’talsoconfidentaboutreadingcurriculum….Myteamteacher,shewould
sitdownandhelpmeandotherswouldalsohaveteamteacherhelpingthem,
becausethenwewerestilllikeATs,yuwai…weweredoingtrainingbutwewerealso
basedin(communityname)usingresources,butalsoourteamteacherswouldhelp
uswiththetrainingandwiththeteaching.
Oneteacherparticipantdescribedindetail,andbasedonherownexperience,herideaof
howthiscommunitybasedreflectivemodelsupportedyoungteachersintheirworkand
theirstudy,
…thelecturerandthetutorcomesinandyouknow,mainlythelecturercomesin
andtalkstothatteamteacheryouknow,who'sthatassistantworkerworkingwith,
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saytoheryouknow,'Okwehaveidentifiedtheweaknessthatthisgirlishaving,
let’swork,youworkonthisonesoshecanimproveonit’,andthenshe’sgotta
writeumwhattheycallachecklistofwhatsheimprovedonandshecantakeit
backandshe'llsay,'Ohyeahyou'regettinggoodatthis',youknowalotofpraising
andthat'showpeoplefeel,'OhnowI'mdoinggoodthings‘cosmylectureris
praisingmeandmyteamteacherispraisingmenowIcanputitinpractice'…ifthey
gotagoodsupportfromtheteamteacher…Hardwork!Butatleastit'sidentified
bythatpersonandthenitcanbeimprovedyuwa.Littlesteps.
Theteacherparticipantswereabletoidentifysignificantchangesthathadoccurred
betweenthecommunitybased,reflectivepractice,teamteachingmodelofTeacher
Educationthatwasinplacewhentheywerestudying,comparedtowhattheysaw
happeningintheirschoolsnow.Theyidentifiedtwomainchangesthathadoccurred.The
firstrelatedtothelecturingmodelandisbestexemplifiedbythefollowinganecdote,
Ithinkalotofchangesgoonattheschool,youknowchanges.Notatschoolbutthe
courseitself,thetrainingatBatchelor…Ithinklecturers…youknow
different…anotheryearsomeoneelseturnsuportheydon’thaveanyonefora
wholeyear,nobodygoesouttothem,tothecommunitynowadays.Ihaven’thad
oneBatchelorpersoncomeintothatschool,haven’tseenanyone!Ithinkthat's
lackingyouknow,thatIthinkyouknowpeopleloseinterest…I'veheardyouknow
themsay,that'sIthinkthemainimportantone,lecturersnotgoingoutvisiting
studentsinthecommunity.
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Thesecondareaofchangethattheteacherparticipantsidentifiedwasintheareaofteam
teachingandtherolethisplayedinsupportingassistantteacherstodostudy.Theteacher
participanttalkedagreatdealaboutthefactthatmanyfullyqualifiedclassroomteachers
didnotunderstandtheroletheyneededtoplayinsupportingIndigenousteacher
education,
yuwa,cosumatthemomentIfeelthattheydoinglikewhattheteamteacheris
saying,youknow'youdothis,youdothat,youdothisinthemorning,thisiswhat
we’regonnadonextweek'-weekbyweek,notactuallyyouknowsittingdownwith
herorhimandgoingthroughwhatshe'sweakat,allthat
Insteadwhatmanyoftheteacherparticipantssawhappeningwasthenon-Indigenous
expressinganxietyaboutbeing‘leftalone’intheclassroomwhentheassistantteachers
wereparticipatingintheirownstudytime.
IcanonlysayifIhearteacherssaying,'I'mreallysupportiveofhis/her'.Ihaven’t
heardanyonesaythattome…OnlythingIhearis,'OhamIgonnabe
alone?'…that'stheonlythingthatIhear.WhatIwasthinkingisyou
know…unqualified,apersongoingoutoftheclassroomandleavingaqualified
teacher…doneallthistrainingyouknow,knowswhattodointheclassroomand
thispoorassistantteachertryingtogettothatlevelyouknow…That’swhatI'm
thinkingyouknowabouttheclassroomteacher,ishejustfeelingsafe‘costhe
assistantteacher’sthere?Andisthattalkingfromhere(pointstoheart)or...?
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…what'slackingthere?What's(he)worriedisgonnahappentohimortheclassor
thestudentswithouttheassistantteacher?...I’malwaysthinkingaboutthat,you
know,whenclassroomteacherssay,'OhI'mgonnabeleftaloneintheclass'you
know.
Theselastcommentspointtowardsasignificantshiftthathashappenedinremoteschools
inCentralAustraliaandshineslightonwhywearehardlyseeinganyqualifiedIndigenous
teachersemergingfromtheremoteschoolteachereducationpathway.Thisabsenceof
supportfromtheschoolleadershipandtheclassroomteachers,inadditiontothesporadic
supportprovidedbylecturingstaffhasleftthenextgenerationsofIndigenousteachers
feeling‘leftbythemselveswithno‘marlpa’fromthesystemtheyareworkingwithin.
7.3Mentors,supportandencouragement
Support,mentoringandencouragementhaveallplayedavitalroleinthecareersofthe
teacherparticipantsinvolvedinthisresearch.Manyofthemidentifiedpositiveand
encouragingmessagesfromtheirparentsandotherfamilymembersasbeinghighly
influentialontheirdecisiontobecomeateacher.Manyoftheteacherparticipantstalked
abouttherolethatmentors,familyandcommunitymembersplayedintheirdiscernment
processofchoosingtoworkintheschoolandintotheirteachereducationcourse.This
mentoringsupportbecameevenmorevaluedandvaluableastheteacherparticipants
embarkedontheirinitialworkintheschoolandthenmovedintotheirTeacherEducation
program.Alloftheteacherparticipantswereabletoidentifyacleardesire,andinmany
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cases,astrongtrackrecordofbeingmentorstootheryoungIndigenousteachers.However
whatdidbecomeclearwashowfewstructuralopportunitiesexistedfortheseexperienced
teacherstotakeonmentoringroles.
Growingup
Acommonthemeamongsttheteacherparticipantswastheimportantrolefamilies,andin
particularmothers,playedinencouragingthemalongtheirteacherpathway.Receiving
strongsupportfortheirowneducationgrowingup,aswellasparentsdisplayingastrong
workethicwereextremelyinfluentialonthesewomen.Manyspokeatgreatlengthabout
theimportantroletheirmotherandotherfamilymemberplayedinprovidingthisexample
andencouragement,
Childrenusedtomakefunofmebutmymotherandmyotherfamilyusedtotellme
'they'renotfoolingyoubecauseyou'reugly,they'refoolingyoubecauseyou're
gettingsmarter,seeyou'regoingtoschooleverydayandthat’showtheydon’tlike
you.Butkeepongoing'.Andsometimessheusesmetaphor,like"sometimeswhen
yougoingthroughastrongwindorstorm,yougettotheotherside".…Iusedtosay
tomysisterabouthowIwantedtogotoschoolandthenMumsaid'ohyoucan,if
yougetajob,youcanstillgeteducated'…Icouldseethat(others)wereyouknow
havingjobsandhelptheirmotherandgettingeducatedandlookingaftermy
motherwasthereallytoppriorityforme,cosIreallywantedtoyouknowhelpmy
motherandalsogetmoreeducation,cosImissedoutonthat.
…thenIthought'nah'didn’twanttogotoschoolnow.ButwhenIleftschoolmy
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mumdidn’tletme,mymumencouragedmetogetajob.Yeahstraightawaywhen
Ileftschoolshesaid'ohyou’regonnadothis'.Cosshewasacleanerattheclinic
andshesignedmeupstraightawaytobeacleanerattheclinic,yeah,andIdidit…
Ilearnthowtolookafterkidsbywatchingmymother.Sheusedtolookafterkids
yeah…(Ilearned)tobegentletothekidsandcleanupandforyouknowschool,
…sheworkedandshekepteverythingneatandtidy,yeah.Iseenmymotherwork.
Nomattershewentto(communityname)sheworked.Whenshewentbackto
(communityname)sheworked…yeahwhenIwasalittlegirl…I’veseenlotsof
peopleworkingthosedays…IsawMumworkingandshewasagoodmother,no
mattershewasasinglewomanandsinglemother,toraisetwochildren,shewas
reallygood.
SoIhadastrongfamilyanditwasreallyyouknowstrictearlydays…goingto
school.Nowit'sabitdifferentnowdays…backthenparentswerereallystrict.We
hadtobeinschooleverydayandtherewereonlyafewthingshappening,good
things…youknowafterschool,wehadtolistentothestoriesofoldpeopleatnight.
Andafterschoolontheweekendparentsusedtotakeusouthuntingandcamping,
outforbushtucker.That'swhyyouknowwehavelearnedgoodthingsinthepast.
Anumberoftheparticipantsmadecommentsaboutthevarietyofinfluencesanddifferent
parentingstylesincontemporarylifebeinginpartareasonwhytheremaybefeweryoung
peoplepursuingtheteachereducationpathwaynow.
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Encouragementtoworkattheschool
Manyoftheteacherparticipantsalsospokeaboutthespecificencouragementthey
receivedtoworkintheschoolandtotrynewroleswithintheschool.Manyofthewomen
identifiedspecificlinguists,Principalsorteacherswhoactedasmentorstothem,building
theirconfidencetobelievetheywerecapableoftheworkbeingsuggested.
…thenoneladycamealongofferedmeajob.…AndIsaidyesI'llcometowork.So
oneyearIworkedatLiteracyCentre,cameeverydayandtheteacherssawme
comingthereandtheteachersthought,'ohshe’sagoodworkerandshecomes
everyday,we'llgethertobeourTA'.Sotheteacherswereracing'ohwe'llget
her…’
…thePrincipalsaidtome'IthinkyouneedtoworkasanAT,helpintheclassroom'
sowiththatexperienceIstartedworkingintheclassroom.Thefirstteacher,kardiya
teacherthatIworkedwith….wasyoungteacher.Mainlyshedidlotsofplanning,
andlotsoftalkingandteachingbutIwasthereasanAT,Assistantteacher,helping
withsharpeningthecolouredpencils,butIalsoknewhowtodoWarlpiri,butIwas
alsohelpingherwithEnglish,Englishteaching…Iusedtositdownwithanychildone
toone,helpingthemtoread,helpingthemtowritetheirrecountsorotherwriting
activities,likehandwritingmaybe.Ididlotsofthat.
Oneteacherparticipantalsoidentifiedtheimportanceforherofhavingafamilymember
workingatschool,andtheimportantrolemodelhewasforhercareer.
…atschoolIhadoneofmyfamilyworking…myuncle,butheusedtobemy
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assistantteacher.Healsotaughtusafterschoolathometoo…AndIremember
whathesaid-'whenyougrowupIwantyoutobelikeme!'soitdidhappen.But
whenIgotolder,wenttoboardingschoolandthenfinishedboardingschooland
wentback,hekeptonsaying.Soafterthat,straightawaywhenIfinishedmy
schoolingIwentworkingasassistantteacherat(communityname).
Theteacherparticipantsallidentifiedtheseearlyexperiencesofbeingassistantteachers
andworkinginateamenvironmentintheclassroomasbeingakeyfactorinthemdeciding
togoonanddotheirteachereducation.Thisissummedupbythefollowingstatement,
‘CosIreally,fromworkingasanAssistantTeacher,Ireally,Isawwhatourkids
reallyneeded,youknow…Likesomeoneintheschool...andIthinkitwasforthe
communityaswell,toseeanIndigenouspersonattheschool…Asaclassroom
teacher,yeah.
Therewasalsosomequitespecificencouragementfortheteacherparticipantstopursue
theirstudy,andoftenthementorsandrolemodelsforthiswereagainotherIndigenous
peopleandfamilymembers,
IusedtoseealotofmycousinsdoingtrainingthroughBatchelorandtherewasthis
RATEprogramthatwasgoingonandpeopleweresigningonforthenextyearandI
cameupandasked'ohwhat'sthisfor?…Isthisgoingtodoliteracytoo?"andthey
said'yeahit’sgonnadoalotofreportwriting,narrativewritingallthat'.‘CosI
wantedtoimproveonspellingandwritingandwritingreportsand...alsotobecome
ateachertoo.
186
Thislastexampleshowshowmanyoftheteacherssawgoingtoworkattheschooland
subsequentlyundertakingtheirownteachereducationwasawayforthemtocontinue
theirowneducationwhichhadbeenpreviouslyinterruptedorcutshort.
Familysupportduringstudy
Manyoftheteacherparticipantsalsoidentifiedthecrucialrolethatfamilysupportplayed
whiletheywereactuallycompletingtheirteachereducationstudies.Thiswasespecially
importantwhenitcametolookingafterchildren,
Mymumanddadandmyotherfamilywaslookingafterthem.Likeifwehavea
workshopinAliceSprings,workshopagaininDarwininBatchelorandinTennant
Creek.Yeahthat’swhenweusedtohaveworkshops.
Oneteacherparticipanttalkedofthebigdecisionshemadetomoveherselfandherfamily
uptoBatchelorcampusforayeartofocusonherstudies.Thiswouldnothavebeen
possiblewithoutthesupportofherpartnerwhoagreedtothemoveandtotakeonthe
mainresponsibilityforthechildrearingduringthatperiod,
…westayedatBatchelorforayearbecauseItoldJakamarra'Ineedtodostudyto
becomeateachersoIcanhelpmoreouthere,Icancomebacktobeateacher'.I
reallywantedtodothatyouknowcommitmyself.SoJakamarrasaid'yeswe'llgo
I'llhelpyououtwiththekids'.Whichhedid,yuwaihewasreallygoodhelpingout…
Yuwai,Jakamarralookedafterthem.IleftthosekidspoorthingsbecauseIwentout
twoweeks,oneweek,twoweeks,(for)practeachingyuwai.
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Otherteacherparticipantstalkedabouttherolethatfamilyplayedinreleasingthemfrom
certainculturalobligationssuchasfuneralsduringtheperiodwhentheywerestudying.
Thesupportprovidedherewasintheformofpermissiontoprioritisethestudyoverother
importantculturalandfamilycommitments.
….myfamily,mysisters,mymothersupportedme,andIwasmissingfromfunerals
frommymother’sfamilywhileIwasstudying,thatwashelpful,shewashelpingme
alotbysendingmeaway'youcangoforyourstudy,don’tworryaboutthefuneral'.
Iwasdoingfulltimestudy.
Interestinglyalloftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthisneedforincreasedand
intensivefamilysupportduringtheperiodwhentheywereparticipatinginacampusbased
workshopmodelofdelivery.Thesesamecommentswerenotmadewhenthedelivery
modelwascommunity-based.Manyoftheteacherparticipantsreiteratedthatthose
teachereducationstudentswhodidnotreceivethisleveloffamilysupportforcampus
baseddeliverywerenotinfactabletocontinuewiththeirstudies.Thisisastrong
indicationthatthedecisiontopursueteachereducationisnotonethatcanbemadeby
theindividualalonebutneedstheengagementandsupportoftheirfamily.Ifthesupport
comesfromtheentirecommunitythisplacestheindividualsinthestrongestpositionto
succeed.
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Supportatworkwhilealsostudying
Alloftheteacherparticipantswereworkingintheirrespectiveremoteschoolswhilethey
wereundertakingtheirteachereducation.Theyspokeabouttheimportantsupport,
encouragementandlearningthathappenedintheirclassrooms,aswellasthepractical
supportgivenbytheschoolandthecommunitywhenthestudywasbasedintheir
community,
…theschoolwouldmakeaspace,oneoftheclassroomssothattheBatchelor
studentscanhaveaspace,andwealsonegotiatedwiththefamily.Likewhenwe
hadCDEPtheschoolwouldpayacoupleofmumstocomeorfamiliescomeand
workasaTeachingAssistant,yuwathroughCDEP2
Additionally,whenthedeliverymodelchangedandstudentswererequiredtotravelto
Batchelorfortheirstudy,theytalkedoftheadditionalsupportprovidedforthematthat
time,
…wewouldhave3or4tutorscomeintoBatchelorandhelpusatnighttutoring
anddoingour,whatevertheygaveusfor,andthenjournalwritingafterthat.
Acoupleoftheparticipantstalkedabouttheimportanceofreceivingexplicitpraiseand
encouragementasbeingvitalforthemtofeelthattheywereabletokeepgoing,
Praising,thathowIusedtogetstrong,praising.It’sabigchallengeItookonand
that'swhatyouknowafteritbecomesanachievementcosyoudoit,youpracticeit.
2 Community Development Employment Projects: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Products/6287.0~2011~Chapter~Community%20Development%20Employment%20Projects%20(CDEP)
189
Ifitdoesn’twork,youknow,doitagainuntilyoumettherequirements.
…thestudyyouknow,itwasgettingharderandharder,andwhenIgottostage3I
wasfeeling,youknowtryingtoquitandmylecturerkeptsayingtome'thisisStage3
andkeepitupandtryandfinishyourstudy'andIdid,Ifinished.Stage3andStage4
washard.
Finallymanyoftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthevalueofhavingongoing
mentoringastheytransitionedfrombeinganassistantteacherwhowasstudyingto
becomeateacher,andthenfinallytalkingontheroleofafullyqualifiedteacher.Thisis
bestexemplifiedbythefollowinganecdotes,
…maybeforlikeacoupleofmonths,yeah.SomeonecamefromAliceSpringsand
mentoringmetodothat.…someonecameandhelpedme,mentoringandlike
doingplanning,beforeIcanstartteachingintheclassroom.Sheshowedmehowto
setuptheclassroom'thisiswhatyou'vegottodo'thisisfortheearlychildhood/
transition/yearone.Theywereallamixtureofkidsintheclassroom...butasitwent
alongmyteachingwaslikegoodnowyouknow…Iwasgoodatthatnowbecause
that’swhatI’velearnedthroughthatmentor.
...thepeoplewhocameouttherementorpeople.Theybroughtmelikeresources
youknow'thisiswhatnewthingsthatyoucandototeachthekids.Ifyouwantto
doanotherthingthisiswhatyoucanplananddo'.
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…whenIwasteaching…someonewasobservingmelikewhenIwasdoingteaching
there…shewasonmypaneltooyouknow,whenIwasteaching…yeahshedidmy
probation.Butwhentheprobation,they'retheonewhocameandsaid'ohyou
passedyourtest,youareareallyqualifiedteachernow'andthatmademefeel
reallyhappyandproudnow.Ican’tbelieveitI'moneoftheyapateachershereat
(communityname).Iwishsomeonecoulddothesamelikeme,youknowIwas
thinking,‘yeahImightbehelpingotherswhentheywanttodostudy’.
ThisideaofwantingtomentorotheryoungIndigenousteacherswasraisedrepeatedlyby
theteacherparticipantsandwillbediscussedingreaterdetailattheendofthissection.
Professionallearning
Anotherkeysupportstructureidentifiedbytheteacherparticipantswasaccessto
professionallearningopportunitiesthroughoutboththeirstudyyearsandtheirteaching
years.Oneparticipanttalkedabouthowthishappenedverysuccessfullyinherhome
communitywiththeinvolvementoflocalElders.
...professionaldevelopmentandcomingintolikedoingworkshops…tomakeit
stronger‘cosincommunitieswehave…Elderscoming…likeeveryfortnightthey
usedtocomeandhelpushaveresourcesandIusedtorunaroundandhelpthem.
WewashelpingeachotherandwhenwecametoworkshopsIsortoflearnedhow
togetstrongeratplanningandprogramming,andteaching.
Oneparticipanttalkedabouthowshewasabletolearngoodideasfromherworkshops
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weresheinteractedwithotherIndigenousteachersandheardaboutwhattheyweredoing
intheirschools.Shewasthenabletooffertheseideasbacktoherownschool,
Iusedtowriteitdown'ohthisisworking,thisiswhatthey'redoing.I'lltakeittomy
schoolandseeifitworks'.AndonPDsIusedtotellthisPrincipalwhosaid,'Ohthis
ishowwe'regonnawork',andsay,‘Ohyouknowlet’sworkthisway?'
AlloftheWarlpiriteacherparticipantstalkedabouttheimportantrolethattheirown
WarlpiriTriangleprofessionallearningcycleplayedinsupportingthemandhelpingthemto
feelmoreconfidentintheirteaching.Attheheartofthisprofessionallearningmodelisthe
understandingthatitisrunbyWarlpiriteachersforWarlpiriteachersinWarlpirilanguage.
…whenwecometoWarlpiriTrianglelikeeverybodygetstogether…wegettogether
and…wedopresentation'thisiswhattheschooldoes'showtheworkandallthat.
Soeverybodydoesthat.Andthenwegotodifferentworkshops,youknowlike
singingworkshops,readingworkshopandlikeoldpeoplegotolikelookingaround
forbushmedicinesandallthat….notkardiyas,onlyalltheyapasdothat.
WarlpiriTrianglealsohelpedusplanlessons.Weusedtodolotsofworkshops,song
writingworkshops,lookingatcurriculumsbutplanningprogramswith(name)and
whoevertheteachercurriculumpersonwas…andweusedtodothatandweusedto
havealotoflinguistteacherscomingfromotherplacestoteachusabout
recording,transcribingbutwritingstoriesfromWarlpiribook,learningtoread
Warlpiribook,sothatwecanreadthatbookwiththechildrenintheclassroom.And
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wedidlotsofprogramthroughtheme.
ThingslikethatwedidatWarlpiriTriangle,teaching,talkingabouthowweteach
mainlyinWarlpiri.(Teaching)themaboutculturearoundthecommunity,culture
days,what’shappeningintheschoolandallthat…yeah(and)themeslikemaybe
with'Watia',trees,and'Ngapa',water,likewedothatforlikeamonthforwhole
theme,ormaybetermtheme,andthenanotheronenow.Butlikeeverybodywas
doingthesame,youknowlikefourWarlpirischools.Wetalkedaboutit…what
themeweweregoingtodo.Butwesharedthat,thisiswhatwe'regoingtodowith
thethemes…wesharedthat...like'(name)canyousendmesomethingthrough
withlike...faxitovertome,becausesomethingsthatIhaven’tgothere'.Because
wedidn’thaveateacherlinguistoverthereat(communityname),lawa,for
teachingWarlpirilikethat,lotofthingsthatweusedtogetwasfrom(community
name),someonecameoverandbroughttheresourcesover.
Interestinglyanotherteacherparticipantidentifiedthesheernumberofotherteachers
thatshehadworkedwithinherschoolasbeingoneofherkeyprofessionaldevelopment
activities.Shetalkedaboutwhatshehadlearnedfrombothseeingmanydifferentteaching
styles,butalsopointedoutthatshehadlearnedcopingstrategiesfromhavingtodealwith
pointsofdifferenceorconflictwithotherteachers.Shehadlearnedtodefendherown
professionalpositionthroughthesecontestedmoments,
…Ithinkithelpedmelikealotofteacherscomeandgoandallthedifferent
experiencesandthatreallyhelpedmegetstrongatmyprofessionalteaching,
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workingwithdifferentpeople,yeah…awaandlearningaboutdifferences'ohshe's
gotagoodidea'yeahandallthesedifferentwaysofteachinganddifferent
teachersthatcomesthrough,yeah….Ipersonallyreallythinkthatit'sreallyhelped
me…awamakesmefeelstrong,yeahfromalotoftheways,ifIdidn’tunderstand
tothiswhiteteacher,likeIsaid,'Idon’tunderstand'andIargue,'Ohwemighthave
abitofa...'andallthathelpedmetolikeIsaidbefore,Imightn’tagreeonwhat
you'resaying,butithelpedmetoseehowtodealwithit,andI’velearned.Apart
fromteachingandallthatotherstuff,yeah,talkingtootherteachers.
Thisisaninterestingspintoputonthe‘comeandgo’syndromethathasplaguedremote
schoolsinCentralAustraliafordecades.Whilemanyseethishighteacherturnoveras
problematicforremoteschools,thisIndigenousteacher,whohasnointentionofever
leaving,identifieditassomethingsheinfacthaslearnedfrom.
Mentoringothers
Thefinalconsistentmessageaboutmentoring,supportandencouragementthatcameout
oftheteachernarrativeswastheclearandunequivocaldesire,thatalloftheseteachers
felt,tobecomeamentortootheryoungIndigenousteachers.Someoftheteacher
participantstalkedaboutthishappeningfromthemomenttheybecameaclassroom
teacherandworkedwithotherIndigenousassistantteachers,
…firstofallwhenIhadmyownclassroomIwas,IreallylikeditandIreallyenjoyed
ittoo,cosIhadmyownspaceandownlikecurriculumtofollowonandtoteach
andalsoIwasworkingwithayounggirlandIwasteamteachingatthattimeand
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reallylikealeadershiprole,andalsosomeonetolookatmelike,I'mateacherandI
gotownclassroomandusedtotalkinstaffmeetingssothatyoungpeoplecansee.
ThissenseofbeingabletosupportandencourageotherIndigenousstaffmembershas
becomeasourceofgreatpridebutitalsobringswithitasenseofresponsibility,
….alotofthetimeIfeelproudofmyselfbecausetheylookuptome,youknowthe
otherAssistantTeachersandusemeifanyissuesariseandsometimesItellthem
'youknowyougottostepupanddothingsyourself',yeah.
…thoseotheryapateachers,ATs,becausetheyneededmeand(name)toteach
themifwearetheleaderintheschool,andoldteachers,youknowElders,still
there,sothatwewantedtoteachthoseyoungteachers,AT’s
ItrytoencourageothernewTA’syouknow'yougottacometoschool'...someof
thoseladiesaredoingstudies…andItellthemyouknow,asateacher'yougotta
walkaround,don’tjustsitthere,yougottawatchthekidsandyougottawalk
around'.Forpreschoolkidstheygottawalkaround,becausetheyneedhelpallthe
timeandthere'ssomeonetowatchthem…andIdon’twanttotellthemyouknow
'Yougottacomeontime!….Idon’twanttoforceyoutocomeearly,it'syour
decisiontocomeearlyandstayatwork'
TheytalkedabouttheresistancethattheyoftenreceivefromotheryoungIndigenous
teacherswhofeeloverwhelmedbytheideaofworkingintheschoolorbytheideaof
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doingstudy,
Whentheyhadworkshopsat(communityname)theyusedtoinvitemetotalk
abouttrainingandhowIgotinto(beinga)qualifiedteacherandlotsofthemwas
alwaysasking‘costheyareyoungallIcouldhearwasyoung....'It'strickycoswe're
young'.AndIsaid,'YeahIwasyoungwhenIstarted.Ihadonepiperi(child)notwo
piperi(child),Iwaschallenged,yougottayouknowhavestrongcommitment
…Itellthemyouknow'it'salongwaytogo,andI'mstilllearning'andweboth
sidesneedtolearnandItelltheAssistantTeachers'youneedtoinvolveyourself,
talk,that’showyou'regoingtobeunderstanding,understandwherethey're
comingfromandwhatyou'retryingtoexplaintothem'.
Ithinkit’simportantforthemtoseeandlearn…yeahteamteachingit'syourturn,
andItellthemyouknow,theseAssistantTeachers'youknowyoudon’thavetoget
shy'theygetshamefromthekids,youknow,'ohIstartedofflikethatIgotreally
shamefromthekidsandIhatedbeinginthefront.Yougottagetusedtoit’.
Alloftheteacherparticipantswerepassionateabouttheneedtohaveyoungpeoplefrom
theircommunitieslearningtobeteachers,
Iwantyoungpeopletocomeinandworkintheclassroomasatutorandthey'll
learnstepbystephowtobeateacherandiftheyfeelconfidentdoingliketeaching
intheclassroom,theymightdecide,theymightthink'ohI'llgoanddotrainingat
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Batchelor'
…somelikewhenI'mlookingatsomepeoplewhenthey'relookingaftertheir
family'schildren,maybetheyarethekindofpersontoworkintheschool?...starting
outfromtheagedcare,preschool...mmm.Wewantpeoplewhostayinthe
communitytoworkintheschool.Wedon’twantpeoplewhocomeandgo.
Havingmyownclassroommademehappyandworkingwithchildreninthe
classroom,mademehappytoo,teachingfamily'skids.AndIwasthinkinglikeI
wantyoungpeopletocomeinandworkintheclassroomasatutorandthey'lllearn
stepbystephowtobeateacherandiftheyfeelconfidentdoingliketeachinginthe
classroom,theymightdecide,theymightthink'ohI'llgoanddotrainingat
Batchelor'
Onlyoneteacherparticipantwasabletoidentifyanavenueforhertobeinvolvedinthis
supportandencouragementofthenextgenerationofIndigenousteachers,
I’vealsogotinvolvedwithBatchelorworkshopinlearningcentreandhelpingthose
ATs.Theywerejustsittingtheredoingnothingandthatteacher(lecturer)inthe
frontasking'whatwouldyoudotobeateacher?'youknow.AndIsatthere
thinking'whatanswerwilltheygivethatteacher,theirlecturer?'Andtheydidn’t
answer.Shestartedgivingoutbooks,programbookand'lookatthis,whatwould
youdotobeateacher?'AndIsaid'youneedtoplanyourprogramtobeateacher.
Youneedtolookatoutcomesandlookatallthelearningstrategiesandmaterials'.
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That’swhatIsaidtothemandtheylookedatme'that’sright!'andtheystarted
speakingandgivingfeedback,yuwai,ngurrju.Startedmakingthemtalk,theywere
likeachildsittingdownwiththe...yuwaiandoneofthelecturerssaid'goodonyou!
Youmovedthem,youmadethemtalk'.CosIknewalotofthingswhatIneededto
tellthem,yuwai…They'recleverwomen,ATs,teachers,they'reclever,andthenIleft
themworkingawaynow.Yeah,thatwasareallygoodrolemodel,yuwai.
Noneoftheotherteacherparticipantsidentifiedanyopportunitiesavailabletothem
beyondtheirroleasaclassroomteachertosupport,encourageandmentornewyoung
teachersintheirworkandstudy.Thisisdespitethefactthatallofthemhaveatleast20,
somemorethan30,yearsofexperienceworkingintheirschools.
7.4TeamTeaching
Thepointofstrongestagreementbetweentheteacherparticipantscamethroughonthe
subjectofteamteaching.Alloftheparticipantsregardedtheteamteachingworkthey
experiencedbefore,duringandaftertheirteachereducationasprofoundlyimportantin
developingtheirprofessionalidentityandlearningabouttheroleoftheteacher.
Oneparticipantwasabletorecallherownexperiencebeingastudentandhaving
Indigenousstaffintheclassroom.However,shemadethedistinctionbetweenwhatshe
experiencedasastudentandwhatsheconsideredtobegoodteamteaching,
…yeahsomeYapaworkingthere…workingintheschoollikelookingafterus…like
supervisingoutsideandinside,andlikecounsellinglikethattootheywerebecauseI
remembertheywerelikecomingintotheclassroomsifwewerenaughtyandwe
wouldsitdowninthecorner,puttingusinthecornerformightbeforanhourand
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you’renothavingrecessoranything,you'vegottobedoingyourwork.Itusedtobe
hardlikethat….Ican’trememberthemteachingus.ButIremembertherewassome
Yapathereintheclassroomallthetime.Lookingafterustellingus'yougottabe
listening,yougottalearnfromthem,yougottalearnfromKardiya,yuwaiyoucan’t
benaughty'.That’swhattheyweretellingus,yeah.
Experiencesofteamteachingasanassistantteacher
Alloftheteacherparticipantsbeganworkingintheirrespectiveschoolsasassistant
teachers(AT),teacheraides(TA)orliteracyworkers(producinglearningmaterialsinfirst
languageinbilingualschools).Soitfollowsthattheirfirstexperienceofteamteaching
happenedwhileundertakingthisinitialwork.Insomecasesthisexperiencewasnot
particularlyproductive,
…whenIwasassistantteacherIusedtocomeinandjustlookat,youknowsitand
sitandlookquietlyonthecorner,almostasleep,cosIdidn’thaveajob…that
teacherwouldsay'(name)canyousharpenallthepencilsandmakesurethey're
readyforthenextday?'andgotallthebooksneatlyandeveryFridaytheyusedto
getitbackintheirlittlecupboardswheretheyhadnames….that'showIusedtodo.
Insomecasestheteacherparticipantsreportedhavingtheirroleextendedslightlyto
contributelanguagerelatedassistance,
Iwasassistantteaching…justhelpingout,handingoutstuff,yeahthatsortof
things…explainingthings.Ithinkmostimportantwasthelanguage,youknow
explainingtothekidswhattodo….forthemtounderstand,understandwhatthey
199
needtodo,liketheteacherwouldsayitinEnglishandIcantelltheminArrarnta,
whatthey'resupposedtodo.
Overtimethisrolechangedfortheteacherparticipants,particularlyonceformallearning
wasaddedtotheirrolesintheschool.Oneteacherparticipanttalkedabouttheincreased
confidenceshefelttospeakup,challengeideasandmakeacontributionasadirectresult
oftheteachereducationworkshopsshehadbeenundertaking,
…thenatthemeetingIsaid…'whichclassroomworkswell?Let’sdoafloodwalk
aroundtheclassrooms'andweusedtoseethatone'sworkingandweusedtotake
ideas.IwasassistantteacherandIsaidtothisgirl,younggirl,andshedidn’tlikeit.
Shesaid'ohbutthisishowwedoit'.'Butyourwaysisn’tworking,let'sdoitthisway
andwe'llseenextweekitmightwork'andshehuggedmeandsaid'thisisworking,
howdidyoudothat?''Isawallthisinaworkshopwherethisladywassayinginthis
schoolitworkslikethat,likethis,soItakeit,Ibringwhatthey'redoingthereto
practicehere'anditwasworking…Istartedtalkingbecausemyworkshopshadbeen
helpingme.
Thispowerfulcombinationofreflectivepracticewheretheteacherparticipantswereable
tostudyandworkatthesametimegavethemamechanismtotrynewideas,implement
changesandmaketheimportantconnectionsbetweentheoryandpractice.Itwaswiththis
stronggroundingandexperienceofteamteachingthatthesewomenwerethenableto
commencetheirworkasthefullyqualifiedmemberoftheteam.
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Experienceofteamteachingoncetheteacherparticipantsbecamequalified
Havingthemselvesexperiencedtheroleofassistantteacher,thesenewlyqualified
teacherswereabletobringthatknowledgefromthatexperiencetotheirwaysofworking
withassistantteachersastheytransitionedintobeingqualifiedclassroomteachers.In
particularitisquiteclearhowhighlytheseteachersvaluedtheworkdonebytheirteam
teachersandalsotookseriouslytheprocessneededtoteam-teacheffectively.
Ihadanassistantteacher,reallygoodone,I'mgladIhad(name)…yeahwewerea
goodteam…Ithinkthatgotme...throughtheyear,Ithink(name)andmewerea
strongteam…Shereallygotintoteaching…wewereliketeamteaching…equalyeah
Ididn’ttakethejobonmyown…weplannedthingstogether…groupwork,whatto
do,whatlessonstotake…Groupworkwhichkidswecanhaveinourgroups.Yeah
(name)wasjustexcellent!
Iwasteachinganditwaschallengingbecausethat'swhenIwasleftinaroomon
myown,butluckyIhadassistantteachercoswecouldyouknowcommunicatewell
intheclassroomandweweregettinglotsofchildren…theywereconfidentand
comfortableseeingbothAnanguthere…Andtheyusedtocomeandsitatmydesk
andsay'oh,I'mteachernow'theyusedtoseemeandtheyusedtobeproud…they
want(ed)tobelikethattoo.
Anotherteacherparticipantalsohighlightedthecentralimportanceofgroupworkina
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multi-levelclasswithlargenumbersofstudentsallatdifferentlevels,
…firstItaughtmaybeyear1,maybeT/1?Itwasreallygreatcoslittlekidscameand
theyknewtheyhadWarlpiriteacherandtheywerehappy…wetookgroups...and
literacyworkersusedtocomeandtakegroups.Itwasreallygoodlikethat.Yeahwe
don’tdothatnow…weusedtorotatewhenweusedtohaveWarlpiri…andfor
Mathswedidsame,meandmyTAdid,tookgroups…becausetherewerelotsof
kids....forexampleifthere’s20kidsmaybemyTAusedtotake10,Iusedtotake
10…andjustsetthemaroundthecircle.
Anumberoftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthesignificanceofcontinuingtowork
collaborativelywithnon-Indigenousteachersduringthisperiod.Thestrongfeelingwas
thatthingsworkedbestwheneveryonehadgoodrelationshipsandworkedwelltogether
andeveryonewasworkingtowardsthesamegoalsandsupportingeachother,
…therewasthisyoungteacherthatIworkedwith…weusedtoteachinteambecause
IwasaWarlpiriteacherandshewasanEnglishteacher,soshewoulddoEnglish
lesson,maybereadingandwriting,IwouldmaybeafterrecesswouldbeWarlpiri
learning,yeahWarlpiriteaching,thenIusedtoplananddoWarlpirilessons….Yuwai
therewerelotsofkidswhoweretryingandtherewerelotsofkidswhowerehaving
difficulties.Yuwai…myteamteacherwashelpingmetohelpwithotherkids,butshe
wasalsolearningWarlpiribecauseshewasn’taWarlpirispeaker.Sometimeswe
couldworkwithtwogroupsorthreegroups.TherewouldbelikeATinbetweenfor
meandher,myselfandthekardiyateacher.
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Weworkedasteam,teacherandassistantteachers…threeineachclass…andone
Principalwhousedtobeintheofficewhilewewereteachingintheclass….butnow
Principalisteachingnow.Andweusedtohaveateacherlinguisttoo.Teacherlinguist
andliteracyworkerusedtocomeouttotheclassandteach.Palyalingkueverything
wasworkingwellbefore,youknow?Teamteaching.Andweusedtohaveastaff
meetingandallpalya.Staffmeeting,teamteaching,planningtogether,planning,
staffmeeting,teamteaching.Butnotnow….
Anumberoftheteacherparticipantsalsonotedtheimportanceoffeelingliketheywere
offeringleadershipandmentoringtotheyoungerteacherstheywerenowworkingwithin
ateamteachingenvironment,
….myprofessionallearningformyself,Idomyownplanningandprogramwithmy
ATandshesitsdownwithmeandwebothtalktoeachotherandyouknowlooking
atoutcomesandtalkingaboutoutcomesandwhereitfits.That'smylearning,
learningmyselftoteachthatotherteachers,likeATandbeingastrongteacher,
talkinginmeetings,goingtomeetingsandbeingarolemodelfortheleadership.
IhadmyownspaceandownlikecurriculumtofollowonandtoteachandalsoIwas
workingwithayounggirlandIwasteamteachingatthattimeandreallylikea
leadershiprole,andalsotosomeonetolookatmelike,I'mateacherandIgotown
classroom.
Oneteacherparticipanttalkedabouthowmuchmoredifficulthertransitionintobeinga
203
fullyqualifiedteacherwaspreciselybecauseshewasnotinateamteachingcontextand
waslefttocopeinaclassroombyherself,
…atfirstitwasreallyhardyouknow,afterallthosestudiesthatIdid.WhathaveI
gottodotoorganisemyself...andthenwhatcanIteach?Anditwasreally(hard)at
first.Yuwaithat’swhenIstarted…todomyownpreparationandallthat,lesson
planningbecausethere’llbenooneheretohelpme….ItwasreallyhardbecauseIhad
noAssistantTeacherwithme.
Ideasaboutwhatmakesgoodteamteaching
Alloftheteacherparticipantshadverystrong,clearideasaboutthekindsofthingsthat
madeteamteachingworkwell.Attheheartofthisistheideaofplanningtogetherfor
whathappensintheclassroom,
…bothteachersneedtobethere,likeassistantteacher/teamteacher.We'vegotto
reallyincludethemaswellforplanning.Andalsoyouknowwetalkedaboutitvery
stronglyandweteamteachingteamsshouldbeplanningtogether,yeah….Ithinkit
teachestheother,theassistantteacher,it'stheirwayoflearningyeah.Andtheycan
seehowit'sdoneandyouknow'it'snotjustfromtheirheadthey'redoingit,these
resourcesthatweneedtoaccessandwhateverwe'replanning'.Ithinkit’simportant
forthemtoseeandlearn.
…workingtogetherandsupportingeachotherandsittingdownandplanningwith
teamteaching,butmakesureweneedtobetheretolookafterkidsasweare
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workingtogetherandbeateamteacherbutwegottalearnfromeachother,both
WarlpiriandEnglish.Weneedtoinvolveothers,weneedtoworkwithmentorsto
keepusgoingtodotherightthingswhatwe'retryingtoteach.
…teamteaching…goodprogramandsharingideas…planningtogether…sitwiththe
kids…teachinginmulti-agegroups…makeagoodprogram,whatissuitableforthe
kidwho'sgotadifficultlearning…fordifferentagegroups…goodresources.
Anumberoftheteacherparticipantstalkedabouthowcrucialitisforallmembersofthe
teamtofeelempoweredandactivelyengagedintheteachingprocessaswellasthe
centralityofbuildingstrongandbalancedrelationshipsbetweenteamteachers,
Iseethemcomingtoworkeverydayandjoininginwithteachingandliketaking
groupsitisreallygood,andaskingquestionsyeahlike'whatwedoingtoday?'…
(Important)tobeactive,activeanddoeverything,yeahnotsittingdown.
It’snotaboutyouknowonebeinggreat.It’sbeingyouknow,it’sgoodtobeworking
witheachotherandlearningtogethertoo.
…relationshipsthatthemainthingyougottalookatforrelationshipandtobuild
that,tobebetterpersons.
Anotherteacherparticipanttalkedabouttheabsolutenecessityinaremoteteaching
environmenttoworkasateamifyouwanttobeabletohaveanykindoflongevity,
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Ifyou'reonepersontryingtoteachyouwillstressout,youwon’thaveanyidea'what
amIdoing,there'skidsplayingeverywhere'.Youwon’teversitthemdown.You
won’teversettlethemdown.Youneedagroupofteamteacherstohelpyouandto
workwithyouandtoworkhowwewantthekidstolearn.
Thisphilosophyofteamteachingbasedonplanningtogether,activeengagementinthe
teachingandlearningprocess,andstrongandbalancedrelationshipsprovidesapowerful
roadmapforremoteschoolswantingtoengageineffectiveteachingandlearning.This
finalexamplegivesastrongindicationofhoweffectiveteamteachingcansupportteachers
andstudentsalike,
…butifyou'retogetherintheoneclassroomyouneedto…planandprogramthen
thatpersonneedstohaveaclassonherown….Likeifthere’sumtwentythensayten
each,ifthere's30wellmaybe15eachandthat'showyouteachandthencomeback
and(discuss)'soandsoisreallow,howcanwemakehimmeettotheothers?'…and
comeback…andlookatit'ohthiswasreallylowandneedstomoveontothislevel
andhowcanwehelpthatstudenttobecomeinthatgroup?'Wecan’tleaveherand
say‘that'sit,youareinthecornerandyou'retheweakest!'No.Andthat'swhereI
seethebehaviourcanimproveinschools….andalsohe(thestudent)thinksthathe's
beingcaredabouttoo,sohe'snotshoveddowninthecorner,heknowsthat'ohboth
teacherscareformesoI'llcomeyouknowandI'llputmyeffortinlearning'.
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Thecurrentteamteachingenvironment
Sadlymanyoftheteacherparticipantscommentedrepeatedlyonhowfarfromtheideal
thecurrentteamteachingexperienceseemedtobe.Asalludedtoinpreviouscomments
theparticipantsoftenspokeofhowthingshadbeeninthepastbut‘notnow’.
…feelslikenowthatweareoutside.Onlythenon-Indigenousstaffplanning.
Everythingchangedandbeforewhenwewereworkingwhenthereusedtobea
NAPLANtesting(communityname)schoolwasalwaysnumber1and2,because
therewereIndigenousteachersworking.Palyalingku,itwasreallygoodwhenwe
wereworking.Kidshavelearnt.
…nowadaysit'sreallyhardtohandlethekids…maybeit’sbecausetherearenon-
Indigenousteachersintheclassroomallthetimeteachingthosekids…there'sabig
differenceyuwa…yeahmaybethat’saproblemthekidsnotresponding
Cosyouknowalotofthetimesyouhear,(and)Ijustreallyhate,alotofthetimes
whenyouhearassistantteachercomplain'OhI'mjustthereasapolicemaninthe
classroom'.Ijusthatethat.IfIhadassistantteacherIwanttotreatherlikea
classroomteacherwhentheyworkwithme.
…atthemomentIfeelthatthey(assistantteachers)doinglikewhattheteam
teacherissaying,youknow'youdothis,youdothat,youdothisinthemorning,this
iswhatwegonnadonextweek'weekbyweek,notactuallyyouknowsittingdown
withherorhimandgoingthroughwhatshe'sweakat,allthat.
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...sometimestheydon’tseetheir…programandtheydon’tplanwitheachother…
someofthepeoplewhotheywereteamteachingwithweresometimescritical…yeah
costhatperson,youknowtheonewho'sfullytrainedmightthinkoh'she'snogood',
or'he'snogood',butactuallytalkingandprogrammingandsharingmakesagood
teamteacher.
….andthat’showIthoughtumsomeofthetrainingisn’tgiventopeople…Howabout
youknowgivethattrainingtoimproveinthatarea,andthat’swherethestrengthis.
Andtheyseetheweakness...theycandoit,buttheyneedsupport,youknowandnot
tobecriticalbutactuallyhavesupportandlookatthestrengths,lookatthe
weaknessandbuildonthat,ratherthanbeingcriticalandsaying,what'stheword...
patronising?
Itmightseemobviousenoughthatteamteachingreliesupontraining,supportive
relationships,collaborationandconstructivefeedback.However,basedontheexperience
andevidenceprovidedintheteachernarrativesitwouldappearaswhereasonceteam
teachingwasvaluedandeffectivelyimplemented,wearenowseeingareturntothekind
ofclassroomenvironmentdescribedbyateacherparticipantattheverybeginningofthis
section.InmanyschoolsandclassroomstheIndigenousstaffarethereasclassroompolice
andtranslatorsratherthanaseducators.Thisabsenceofapedagogicalrolefor
paraprofessionalstaffcouldbeconsideredoneofthereasonswhywearenotseeingmore
youngteachersprogressthroughtobecomingfullyqualifiedteachers.
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7.5Leadership
Inlinewiththegroupanalysisthethemeofleadershipcamethroughstronglyinthe
Individualteachernarratives.Therewereanumberofaspectstothediscussionaround
leadership.TheseweretheroleofschoolPrincipals,collaborativeleadership,supporting
leadershipaspirations,cross-culturalleadershipandhierarchy.
TheroleoftheschoolPrincipal
Oneofthestrongpointsmadebyallteacherparticipantswasthepowerfulroleplayedby
theschoolPrincipalineithersupporting,enhancingandleadingtheirschooltowardsthe
kindofworktheteacherparticipantsfeltshouldbeprioritised,orbeingthecauseof
significantdifficultiesandbarrierstothiskindofwork.Anumberoftheteacher
participantstalkedaboutthechallengingroleofthePrincipalwhoareoftencomingto
contextsinremotecommunityschoolsthatareoutsidetheircomfortzoneandmarkedly
differenttotheirpreviousprofessionalexperiences,
…youknowwhenthePrincipals,newPrincipalscameanditwasalsochallengingfor
thembecausetheyneverworkedinabilingualschoolbefore,whichwaslike
differentforthem.LikePrincipalwouldbeahighschoolPrincipalorteachercoming
intoourcommunitytoteachinaschoolandsomePrincipalsfounditdifficultand
challenging.
AnothercommentwasonthehighturnoverofPrincipalsandthelackofpower
experiencedbylocalcommunityteachersinmattersoverwhichteachersgettostayand
whichonesneedtoleave,
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…Badonesstaylongtime,butwewanttotrytogetridofthem,wepushthem
awaybutgoodonestheygoquickly…Theyfindanotherjobbetterthanwhatthey
aredoingthere?Youknowtheymovearoundalotbecausetheyjustavisitorand
theymovealong,theywanttogo.Wearelocalpeoplewealwaysstay,butwesee
lotofmovements,lotofgoodPrincipalsgoaway,yuwai.
Examplesofpoorleadership
Thereweremanyexamplesofwhattheteacherparticipantsconsideredtobepoor
leadershiponthepartofPrincipals.TheseexamplesrangedfromPrincipalsactinglike
parentswhoscaldedtheIndigenousstafflikechildrenandspokeinawrongwaytothe
students,
…cosIhadbadPrincipalsbefore,whenIwasassistantteacher.Ifsomeofuswould
comelate,theywouldgrowlus.
Andthenanotheronecameinwithanutritionprogramandthekidscominginwitha
coke'Younothavingthis,youcanhaveitthisafternoon,I'llputitaway!'Madekids
cry…..Yes,kidsshouldn’tbedrinkingcokebutshewouldhavedoneitright…She
would’vesatdownwithusandexplainedit,shewaslikeacting,shewasthe
Principal.
TherewereotherexamplescitedbytheteacherparticipantsofthePrincipalsbeingopenly
hostiletotheirteachingstaffandcausingagreatdealofanxietyandconflictattheschool.
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…wehadalotofchangesofourPrincipals,yeahtheycomewithdifferentideas.
Somewouldcomewith'I'mnotgonnabeafriendhere,I'mjustheretocleanupthe
mess'youknow'withmypower'.Theleadershiprolehewasn’treallycleaningupthe
mess,hewasmakingthingsworseforus….yeahgivingushard,badtimeandhard
time…thatwasreallysadbecauselikehesaidhewouldcomeandcleanupthemess,
buthemadelotofmess.Anditwasreallychallengingforus…Hewasn’talsoasking
forhelpbuthewasbyhimselftryingtocleanthismess,tryingtodothis,buthe
wasn’tgettingother...peopleinvolved,that'strue….henevercaredaboutany
parents.Wewouldn’thaveparentsmeetingtotalkaboutthis,lawa….hedidn’tgoto
talktoparents,lawa,hewasjustaPrincipalinhisoffice
Thisinmanycaseswouldbedirectlyrelatedtothehighturnoverofnon-Indigenous
teachersatthatschool,addingtotheinstability.
…shekeptonpickingonkardiyateachers,Idon’tknowwhy.Theyweretryingtodo
theirjob,becauseshe’sthePrincipal'dothisproperly,dothat’!Theywouldcometo
uswithtearsrollingdowntheircheekandIwouldsay'Ireallydon’tknowwhattodo
butweneedtofight,bestronginagroup'.Yuwaisometeachersleftbecauseofher,
yeahtheysaid'Ican’tworkwhenshe'shere,Iwillcomebackwhenthere'sanother
Principal'.
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ThelackofsupportfromthePrincipalfeltbytheteacherparticipantswasalsoarecurring
messageinthenarratives.Attimesthislackofsupportoccurredwhiletheywere
simultaneouslyworkingintheschoolandundertakingtheirteachereducationstudies.At
othertimesitwasrelatedtoimportantdecisionsbeingmadeabouttheschoolprograms.
InallexamplesthereisthesuggestionthatsupportwaswithdrawnwhenthePrincipaldid
notunderstandthingsfromaculturalorcommunitybasedperspective.
He(Principal)wasn’treallysupportive….becausemaybehedidn’thelpmethrough
alotofthings,likemaybehedidn’twantmetostudyoranythinglikethat….Maybe
hedidn’tknowsorrybusinessorthingsthatwerehappening?…somekardiyaslike
himweren’treallysupportiveandgood….
…weusedtogotoleadershipmeetingsandIusedtoseethem…coupleofPrincipals
…notwhereIwantedtoseethem…Iwasyouknowforthatparticularprogramand
theywereagainstus.AndIthought…shewasgonnabewithme‘cosIwasgoingfor
programs,butshewasagainstme.
Oneteacherparticipantsummedthisexperienceofthelackofsupportupwiththeideasof
‘righttime’and‘badfeeling’
….wedidn’thavethatinotherPrincipalswhoweren’tworriedaboutsupporting
yapateachersorkardiyateachers….becauseyouknowwedidn’thaverighttimeto
gettogethertotalkaboutprogramandstufflikethat.Yuwaiandwhichweallhad
badfeeling.
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Goodcollaborativemodelsofleadership
However,theteacherparticipantswerealsoabletotalkextensivelyaboutexamplesof
wherethe‘righttime’andthe‘rightway’ofdoingthingsledtoa‘goodfeeling’for
everyoneaboutthedirectiontheschoolwastaking.Thismostoftenwaslinkedto
collaborativemodelsofleadershipwithintheschool.
…lateronwehadtoget,aladyPrincipalcameandshedidhelpfixitandthingswere
goingsmoothlyandwewereteachingwell.Wewerehappybothyapaandkardiya
teachers,wewouldsitdownandhelpeachother.
Thefollowingstrongexampletalksabouttheimpactontheeverydayteachingthatthe
leadershipcanhave,
….wewantPrincipal…thatlovesworkingwithyapaandlovesdoingtheirjobright
way,notlookingatproblemsandgivingproblems.Yuwai.That’swhatwewant.We
wantpeoplewholoveworkingwithyapapeopleandlovehelpingmakingprograms
workwell,yuwaiandourteachingworkswellbecausewhenweteachingourlessons
intheclassroomwefeelmuchbetter,youknowwefeelhappyyeahthisiswhatthey
learn.AndifyouhavethosekindsofhardfeelingsandhardproblemwithPrincipal
andyou'retryingtoteachyourlesson,youwon’tfeelright.Yuwaiandyou'rethinking
alotaboutit,'howcanImakemyteachingtodaybettertomorrow?'Yuwai,butyou
needtolookathowwouldyouworkwithaPrincipalthatisgivingyouahardtime
andnotworriedaboutwhatdidthekidslearntoday.
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OftentheseexamplesofgoodleadershipcamewhenPrincipalsarrivedwithexperienceat
anothercommunityorwithpre-existingrelationshipswiththecommunityandtheschool.
Inotherwordstheywere‘known’topeoplealready,
….butlike(name)and(name)theywereworkingat(communityname)before,but
theyknew,andweknewthem.Butweworkedtogetherverywellafterthat.Butnot
likebefore,likenewkardiyascameandcameandcameandwentback.Likethey
wereinarunyouknowcomingandgoing,comingandgoing.
Anotherteacherparticipantwhenaskedaboutpreferredmodelsofleadershiptalked
abouttheneedfortheissueofpowertobeaddressed,particularlythedangeroftoomuch
powerinthehandsofthenon-Indigenousleadership.Shesuggestedtheneedfornon-
IndigenousstafftounderstandtheirroleasbeingtheretomentorIndigenousstaffand
providesupportandconstructivefeedbacktohelppeopleimprove,
Tjulkurraonlycomesasamentor,onlytheretoteachthatpersonandnottoreally
takeover,yuwa.Justsayyouknowthisishowyoucandothis,thishowyoucan
teach,butdoingitinabothwayculture.Yuwa,ratherthansaying'ohhe'shopeless
atthis,he'suselessatthis'insteadoflookingatthatbuildingonyouknowlikethe
strengthsandtheweaknessandmovingwhoeverisinthatposition.
Anotherteacherparticipanttalkedaboutthecollaborativemodelofsharedleadershipthat
hadbeendevisedatherschoolthroughtheuseofgroupsorcommittees.Thesewere
groupsthatallstaff,Indigenousandnon-Indigenousparticipatedin,andtheytookcarriage
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ofimportantaspectsofschoolplanning,programmingandfunctioning,
…there’sIthinkfourotherlittlegroupsdownbelowus.Wefeedintothemlikewe
talktothemandtheyorganisethingsnow.Whattodoyouknow,gooutto
community,outtofamilies.There'scommunityengagementandotherone'sabout
behaviourmanagement,andotherone'ssomethingelse.Yeahandeveryone'sinthat
group,likenon-IndigenousstaffandIndigenousstaff….Iwasinthecommunity
engagement,thatmeansplanningthecampfiremeetingandyeahgoingoutto...and
likewhenithappened,notonlycampfiremeeting,eventsthathappen,likeKupurilia,
Easter,wedoalotofworkaroundthoseevents,liketheChristmasparty.
Inalmostallexamplesgivenbytheteacherparticipantstherewasaclearpreference
shownforleadershipthatwascollaborativeandinclusiveofbothpeopleandthe
knowledge,experienceandskillstheybroughtwiththem.
Leadershipaspirations
Inadditiontotalkingabouttheirexperiencesofleadershipoverthecourseoftheircareers,
theteacherparticipantsalsotalkedquiteextensivelyabouttheirownleadership
aspirationsandexperiencesasdevelopingleaders.Someofthekeyinfluencesthathelped
theseteacherparticipantstodeveloptheirleadershipskillsweretheirstudy,community
supportandencouragementandworkingwitharangeofdifferentpeople.
IwasthereallyquietonewhenIfirstgotmyjobandasIwasstudyingIbecamenow
tospeakupbecauseIcouldseethatsomeofthediscussionwasrelatingtomystudy
andthat…sortofgavememoreknowledgeandunderstanding,yeah‘cosIalready
hadwisdomfrommycommunityandthelocallevelbuttogetintowisdomIwas
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morecarefuland…findingoutasIwentalong….wheneverwehadstaffmeetingI
startedspeakingupandsaying'ohyouknowthisisnotrightandthatisnottrue'all
that,sothat'swhenourPrincipalstartedgivingmemorepractice….
…yeahcommunitywassupportivetheysaytheleadersweresaying'ohyouknow
she'sgoodatdoingthatandshe'sgonnabeyouknowmorequalified'andsomeof
theleadersIgotgoodfeedbackthatafterwhenIgraduatedwhenIdidtrainingthey
gavemegoodfeedback….schoolonlymainlytheteachers,notthePrincipal,wiya
AndinstaffmeetingIwaschanged,cosIwastalking,likewhenourPrincipalwould
goIthenwasacting,forthreedayswhenshewasawayonmeetings,Iusedtoacton
someofthePrincipalrole,whichmadememoreconfidentandIfounditchallenging
butsomethingIliked(the)challenge.
Buteventhemostaspirationalofstatementsmadebytheteacherparticipantsaboutthe
desiretotakeonleadershipwithintheschoolstillhasatitscoretheneedforcollaboration
andsupportiverelationships,
Iwanttobeanordinaryteacherbuthavethatleadershiproletorunmyownschool
butwiththesupportofmentor.Yuwai,ifIwouldbecomeourPrincipalIwouldwork
withamentortohelpmealongmyleadership,toruntheschool.That’swhatI
think,butIcan’tbeleaderorPrincipalmyself,butIneedpeopletosupportmeto
directmeintherighttrack,onthatjourneytorunmyownschool….Iwouldliketo
workwithAT’s,newAT’sthatI'vebeenworkingthereandolderAT’sthathavebeen
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workingthereforlongtimeandnewonesthatarecomingin.Theyneedtosee
Yapapersonworkingwiththem,butwiththesupportofmentor…Yuwai,
ngurrjunyana
Thisaspirationtobealeaderismotivatedbythedesiretoseeothersfollowingintheir
footsteps,beforeitistoolate.
Wetalkedaboutthatinourmeetingsyouknow'wewanttoseealotofyoungpeople
doingstudies,likeme'.ItalkedaboutmyselfwhenIwentthroughthisstudy,whatI
toldwasthatitwasreallyhardinmyfirstyearsbutastheyearswentbyyouknow
whenIdidmytrainingbackinthecommunity,Ifounditreallyeasybecausesupport
ofthecommunity,supportofmyfamily,supporteverybodysupportedme,youknow..
AndthatmeetingtimeIusedtotellthembecausewewanttobringinmoreyoung
peopleyouknowtobecometeachers.Becausewewon’tbethereforlong,we'reold
ones,we'resick.
Cross-culturalleadership
Theteacherparticipantswerealsoacutelyawarethattheywerecalledupontoprovidea
greatdealofcross-culturalleadershipwithintheirschools.Assomeofthemost
experiencedandlongestservingstaffintheirschools,theyoftenfoundthemselvesasked
tomentornewnon-Indigenousstafffrequentlyarrivinginthecommunity.
Likementoringteachersthatcamefromyouknow,firsttimein(communityname)
andthePrincipalsyouknownottohaveissuesagainstanangupeopleyouknow,
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helpthemhowtobehavetherightway.Itookthatroleandbecameyouknowgood
role,goodleaderforyouknowbothananguandtjulkurra.
Oftentimesthiskindofculturalorientationworkwouldcontinueastheteachersfrom
outsidethecommunityweredealingwiththecultureshockandadjustmentoflivingina
remoteIndigenouscommunitysodifferenttotheirown,
…sometimes(they)didn’tfititwellandthat’swhenwesaidyouknowit’snotthe
sameasyourculture,ifyouhaveyourculturedifferenttoourculturesoweshould
besittingdownandyouknowlookingatthis,whatbarriersarethere,sowecan
workandmakeitbetter…sometimesresponsesaresometimesquestionable,
sometimeswewouldyouknowdisagreeoneachother,butoncewepracticedon
andmakeanaction,thatwouldwork,andsometimesyouknow,somenon-
Indigenousdidn’ttakeitsotheyendedupgettingburntoutcostheyweren’tfitting
intoourculture,whichsometimescanbehard.
…likewhen,liketjulkurraaskanangu…sometimestheananguisnotreadytoask
thattjulkurra.…alongthewayI’velearnedquiteanumberofthingsthatwasn’t
giventome,toworkincommunityschools,remoteschoolsyouhavetobetrusting
eachotherandworkingonthatinaparticular...maybehowwecanlikeIsaidbefore
behaveintherightway,insteadofyouknow.Cossomeofthebehavioursisnot
appropriatetoourculture.
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AsthemoreexperiencedstaffmembersotherIndigenousstaffmembersalsolooktothese
qualifiedteacherstotakeontheleadershiproleandprovideguidanceforhowtonavigate
andbeheardintheschoolenvironment,
…hadaPDwhenananguandtjulkurrayouknow,whenwetogethersometimesthe
ATsdon’tfeelcomfortableandyouknowtoanswerquestionswhensomeoneasks
youknow,andIusedto,withthePrincipal,Iusedtonegotiatesomewaysof
improvingthat.Soweusedtocomeupwithaplanoflikewe'lldotheintroduction
withallofusinthesameroomandthenwe'llsplitupintoseparategroupssothat
anangucanbejustananguandtjulkurracanbejusttjulkurra.Andthat'showwedid
it…sowhenananguwantedtoaskquestionstheywereconfidentandcomfortable
cositwasjustananguintheroom…Yuwa,andthatwentaroundinlanguageand
thathelpedumsomeoftheyoungeronestogettohaveasayonwhattheywanted
andwhattheywantedtoimproveon…thenafterthatwecametogetherandIwrote
downsomeofthethingsthatwassaid…andIusedtointerpretforthem.
Itoftenfallsontheseteacherparticipantstoalsoplaythisculturalinterpreterrolewiththe
parentsandcommunitymemberstoo,actingasculturalbridgesbetweenthecommunity
andtheschool.
Ithinkthelanguage(is)…important!TalkingEnglish…ifthey(parents)allcameand
satalongwayandtheteacherswentovertothem,yeah…theyfeltcomfortable
wheretheyweresitting...AndIdidn’treallywanttomakethemshame'ohyoumob
don’tsitlongway,comehere!'youknowIdon’treallywanttodothatIjustleave
them'ohtheycansittherewheretheyfeelcomfortable'yeah.Andeverytimeyou
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knowwewentouttothecommunity'ohkala!'theyknownow,theycomenow
morewithoutgettingshame…
BecauseafterschoolIusedtogoandsitdownwithparents'you’vegottotellyour
kidstocometoschoolsoshecanlearn…sometimeswegettheirparentstocomein.
Theyusedtositdowntohelpus,youknowifhedoesn’tfullyunderstandandthen
that’showwecanassessthekids,wherethey’relearningfromboththeteachers
andtheparents.
Oneoftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthechallengesplayingthiscross-cultural
leadershiproleposedforher,butalsohowithadmadeherstrongerandmoreconfident
asaleader,
…it’shardyeah,it’shardformewhenI'malwaysputinthemiddle.I'vegottoreally
youknowtrytoexplaintobothsides…it’shardforme,yeahthey'retryingtosaythat
andthisgrouptryingtosaythisandyouknow.It’salwayshardforme,yeah.AndI'm
reallypleasedthatI'vereallylearnedallthisyeah,howtodealwithit.Dealwith
issuesatschool,theschoolissues.IthinkI'velearnedenoughtosay'ohthisiswhat
youneedtosay/do'tobothsides.I'vegotthatknowledge…tosaythatwhatIthink
'ohyouprobablymusthavemisunderstoodaword'or'thisisnotthewaytogoabout
it'toIndigenousstaff.‘Cosalotofthetimeswhiteteacherscomesupwith'ohmust
havemisunderstood'thisisthewayofsayingallthetime.Butgettothepointyou
know.'Whatisitshemisunderstood?'reallygointoitandtalkaboutit.
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Leadershipvhierarchy-‘Aleaderonthatsamelevel’
Onefinalthingthatstoodoutinthediscussionofleadershipwastheverystrongopinion
thatleadershipshouldnotimplyWesternstylehierarchy.Eventhefactthatsomestaff
membershadcompletedqualificationsandsomehadnotdidnotequate,intheviewsof
theteacherparticipants,tosomestaffmembersbeingmoreimportantorhavingmore
powerthanothers.Oneteacherparticipantexpresseditsimplyintheseterms,
…thelaststaffmeetingIwasinIsaid'listennobodyishigherthanmeandI'mnot
higherthananyofyouteachers.We'reallequal.'
Anotherteacherparticipantgavemorewordstothesameideaandexplaineditinmore
detail,
IreallywanttoshowthatleadershipforIndigenousstaff….Ireallywanttobejusta
leaderonthatsamelevel,yeah.Workingwiththem,yeah,Idon’treallywanttherole
modelterm.That'smyreallystrong...Idon’twanttohavemyAssistantTeachers
down,youknow'I'mthebossandIknoweverything!'…‘cosIseeotherIndigenous
workersasimportantasIamintheschool.Likewe'realltheretodothesamething,
yeahteaching…I'mnotdoinganythingdifferentfromthem,we'realldoingthesame
thingintheclassroomsowhydoIhavetobehigherthanthem?IcansaythatI've
donethetraining...yeah…(Iwantto)helpthem…Idon’twanttobebetter,Iwantto
helpthem,yeah,tobecomewhereIamnow.Awa….howcanIputit,whenpeopletell
me'ohhhyou'reareallygoodrolemodelforthese...'andassoonastheysayit,it’s
myheartthatnogoodfeeling.'NoIdon’twanttobearolemodel,Iwanttobeatthe
samelevelastheyare'yeah.Andjustgivethemsupporttowheretheywanttoget
to,yeah....Idon’twanttobesingledout.IwanttobepartoftheIndigenouscrew
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thatareworking…anddoingthesamethingintheclassroom.WhyshouldIbehigher
andI'mnotdoinganydifferentfromthem.
Thislastpointlinksstronglytothenotionofthe‘feelingforfamily’discussedinthefirst
themeasanontologicalstandpointthatplacesharmoniousrelationshipwithfamilyasa
centralwayofbeing.Itinturnposessomeinterestingquestionsaboutthepossible
misunderstandingsandmisinterpretationsabouttheperceivedrolesandresponsibilitiesof
peopleworkinginremotecommunityschools.Thiswouldparticularlybethecasefornon-
IndigenousPrincipalsandteacherstakingonaleadershiproleinschoolswheretheybring
Westernisedunderstandingsofhierarchyinschoolsanddon’tunderstandthecultural
nuancesofbalancingfamilyandleadershiprolesinthatcommunitycontext.
7.6Exclusionandpower
‘Wedon’tmakeittothetop.Lawa’
Intheteachernarrativestheexperienceofexclusionwascommonlytalkedabout.Allof
theteacherparticipantshadhadsignificantmomentsintheirworkingcareerswhenthey
hadfeltpowerfulforcesmovingagainstthemandhadexperiencedasenseofbeingside-
linedorshutoutofthepowerwithintheirschool’soperation.Thiswasexperiencedina
varietyofwaysandcontexts.
ThepowerofschoolPrincipals
Manyoftheexperiencesofpowerandexclusionofferedbytheteacherparticipantswere
connectedtohowtheyexperiencedtheleadershipwithintheirschools,andinparticular
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thewaythePrincipaloperated.Oneofthemostcommonexperienceswasthefeelingof
beingexcludedfromtheconsultationordecision-makingprocessesoftheschool,despite
beingthemostseniorandexperiencedIndigenouspersononstaff,
…thingswerehappeningaroundlikePrincipalwouldspeaktoastaffmemberor
othertjulkurrainsteadoftellingoraskingme'thisoneheisn’ttherightonefor
this’…that’swhatthepointIgottothatIwasn’tbeingasked,beingnotifiedor
beinglikeIwasn’ttold'ohthiscanhappenifthishappens'.Principalwouldtakeit
overandstartdoingitonhisown.
OtherexamplesinvolvedthePrincipalcircumnavigatingthelocalstaffbyrecruitingtheir
ownpeopletoworkintheschool.Thissortof‘stackingthedeck’wasexperiencedasaway
ofkeepingallthepowerinaconcentratedway,
….hebroughthissister-in-lawand(her)husbandtothatET2job….buttherewere
teachersalreadythere,thattheywouldgetthatposition.Thatwasreallyhard
becausehehadhispower,heusedhispowertorunonlyhisfamilymember,allof
hisfamilymember,likehissister-in-law,hisbrother,Imeanhissister-in-law's
husband,hiswife,allhavingposition,buthealreadyhadahighpositionwhenhe's
aPrincipal,butgivingthatET2positiontohisfamilywhichnoteacherstheredidn’t
getit.Evenusasayapateacher,lawa.
Anothermoreinsidiousformofexclusioncamedisguisedoftenintheformoffriendshipor
kindness.Manyoftheteacherparticipantsdiscussedtimeswhentheywereexperiencing
difficultiesintheirpersonallives–managinghealthproblemsforthemselvesorfamily
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members,navigatingthecomplexculturalobligationsrequiredofthemandotherpersonal
matters.TherewereanumberofexamplesgivenofschoolleadersandPrincipalsin
particularusingtheseissuesasanopportunitytorelegatethesequalifiedteachersto
paraprofessionalandassistantlevelpositions.
Iusedtoteachyouknow,MathsEnglish,Science,butnowI'monlyteaching
language,becauseI'maliteracyworker.
…insteadofjustputtingusintoassistantteacher(roles)youknowtheyshouldhave
givenusleave,likewhenI’vebeenhavingproblemwithmyhusbandbecausehe'ssick
andsometimesIalwayscomelateandsoIwasPrincipalatthattime.Butinsteadof
justgivingmeayear(off)…theysaid'ohyoujustneedtosignthisformhereand
thenyou'llbecomeanassistantteacher',straightawayinsteadofgivingusahand,
'we'lljustgiveyoumaybesixmonthsleaveorayearoff'
(Principalsaid)'youwillstillbeateacher'…butnotonthesalaryside,palya?It'sonly
assistantteacherpay….hewastryingtohelpmelike'you'rehavingproblemsathome
andgettingstressed,andIwanttohelpyou'.
Itishardtoimaginesuch‘solutions’beingsuggestedtoqualifiednon-Indigenousteachers.
Thepowerofnon-localstaff
Therewerealsonumerousexamplesoftheteacherparticipantsexperiencingexclusionin
theirdealingswithnon-localteachersaswellascurriculumadvisorswhocomefrom
outsidethecommunitytoworkintheirschools.
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…feelslikenowthatweareoutside.Onlythenon-Indigenousstaffplanning.
Newstaff,non-Indigenousstaff,cominginandtakingover….programchanging…like
beforewhenwewereteachingherenowweareteachingtheirkidsnow,beforewhen
wewereteachingtheolderkids,them(thepreviousgeneration),they'velearnedbut
nowwewereteachingtheirkidsnow.Butit'sreallyhard,we'restruggling.Beforethe
kidsusedtolistentous.(Speaksinlanguage)....kidswerelearningbecause
Indigenousteacherwasteachingthem….(now)wehavesit,Ihavetositandsee
the(m)teaching
Thisstatementisreflectiveofjusthowlongtheseteacherparticipantshavebeenworking
intheirlocalschools.Theyhavebeentherelongenoughtoseethegenerationalchange
happeninapproachestoteaching,fromatimewhentheywere‘inside’and‘kidswere
learning’tonowwhentheIndigenousteachersfeelliketheyare‘outside’and‘it’sreally
hard’.
Oneteacherparticipantinparticularexplicitlyquestionedhowanon-localpersoncould
achieveahighlevelpositioninherschoolwithoutknowledgeaboutIndigenousculture
thatshefeltwasapre-requisitetoworkinaremoteschool.Shemadethecomparisonthat
toattainanequallyhighpositionshewouldhavetodemonstrateahighlevelofknowledge
andcompetenceintheWesterneducationalsystem,
…thisparticularteacherreallydoesn’twanttolistentome,youknowwhenI(say)'oh
youneedto...'…probablyhe'sthinking…I'mprobablysmarterthanhim?…youknow?
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Hedon’twanttolistentome.I’mreallytryingtoopenupwhathe'sthinkingyeah,
andhe'sthrowingalltheseotherthingsatmeyeah.That'stheotherreasonthatyou
knowprobably(I’m)abitcareful….andsomeonethat'snotreally,youknow…never
haslearnedanythingaboutIndigenouscultureisalwaysgoingtobethrowingthings
atyou,youknow,blockingit.Hepretendsheknowsbutthewaywhathetalksabout
isdoesn’tmakeanysensetome….hecan’tlisten‘coshecan’ttakeit,hedoesn’t
knowwhattosayaboutit,torespond...IfanIndigenouspersonwant(s)tobeina
higherposition(we’ve)gottogothroughall,gottofaceallthat,butsometimesyou
knownon-Indigenousteacherignoresandtryandpushitback…Thisiswhat’sI
think…(is)holdingthem(otherIndigenousstaff)back…TheyseeanotherIndigenous
persontryingtohavethatgowiththewhiteteacherandthink'ohit'sveryhard,what
amIgoingforwardfor?'youknow(laughs)….yeah'amIgonnadealwiththat,go
throughthatwhenIgettoahigherpoint/higherlevel’?Noitmakesyouscar(ed).
Itisinterestingthatthisteacherparticipantmadeadirectlinkbetweenthisformof
exclusion,seeingthestruggleofotherqualifiedIndigenousteacherstogainrecognition
andequality,asareasonthatwoulddiscourageotherIndigenousteachersfromwantingto
pursuefurthereducationandtraining.
Someexperiencesoftheteacherparticipantswereactuallyphysicalactsofexcludingthem
fromparticipatinginprofessionallearning,asevidencedbythisstory,
Seethisladycameintoourclassroomandsheonlytalkedtomyteamteacherand
youknowIwastherealsoasateacher,butinvisiblesittingthere.Andtheywere
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whisperingaway,talking,openingtheirpageandtalkingaboutsomeareasthatthey
gottofocusonteachinginEnglishandIwasjusttherelisteningwithmyear.'Oh
whataboutme'youknowIwasthinkingtomyself'Iamaninvisiblepersonsitting
here,Ineedtolearnthattosupportmyteamteacher'andtheydidn’tsay'(name)
comeoverhere,you'repartofthisteam,let’slookandtalkaboutthisprogramthat
we'regonnabedoingasateamteaching'.Isattherefeelingsadjustmyselfwhile
theywereyappingawaytalkingaboutallthesegoodideas,thatIwasmissingout.
AndIfeltreallysad.ThentheyfinishedtalkingandIhadtosneakaway,walkoutside,
justfeelinglow,feelingsad,Iwantedtobepartofthatgrouptolearnaboutthatnew
program,newidea.Iwenthomejustfeelingandthinkingallaboutit.Howcouldmy
teamteacherbenotlettingmein,rejectingme?
Theteacherparticipant,ratherthanstayingquietspoketoherPrincipalaboutthis
exclusionandreceivedaresponsefromthecurriculumadvisor.Theteacherparticipant,
whilestandingupforherselfwasalsoabletoreflectonthelongertermimplicationsof
suchexclusion,
Andthenwhenshewasgettingreadytogobacktotownshecalledme,shesaidshe
invitedmetostaffroomandsaidtome'I’mreallysadforwhatyoutoldyour
Principal'.'YesI'malsoaprofessionalYapateacherandIwanttolearnyourideas'
that’swhatIsaid'youreallymademelooklikeIwasaninvisibleperson.Weall
teachers,bothYapaandKardiya.Iwantedtolearn'.Isaidthattoher.'Ifeelreally
guiltybutIwillbringaworkshopandyouwillbeinvited,Yapateacherswillbe
invited'.'Wellwhataboutwhatyoudidandwhatyoutalkedabout?Iwouldhave
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learnedthefirststep'…Yepmaybeafteranotheryearshedidcometoourschooland
sheranthisworkshopabout(programname).…YeahIwasnotfamiliaraboutit,butI
thoughttomyself'Idon’treallycare',seeIneverlearnedwhenshefirstcametoour
school.AndYapaladieswereasking'what'sthis?''Idon’tknow,Idon’thaveanyclue'
yeah.Itwasthatfirststepthatwouldhaveopenedmyhearttolearnwhatshewas
tryingtoteach….wehadsomegoodteamteaching,Kardiya,theywouldsitdown
withme'Thisiswhatshemeant'andwewouldopenthatpage'Youknowhowshe
came,longtime''YeahIremember','Thisiswhatshetalkedabout'yeah....difficultfor
metothinkifIwouldhavebeensittingdownwiththeminthefirstplaceIwouldhave
learned…Iwantedtobepartofit.
Thisisapowerfulexampleofboththeexclusionthattheteacherparticipantshave
experiencedthroughouttheircareersaswellastheunequalregardinwhichtheyareoften
heldbycolleaguesandleaders.Thisideaisexploredfurtherinthefinaltheme(7.7).
ThepoweroftheDepartment
Theteacherparticipantsalsospokeofthegreatshiftsinpowerandcontrolthatthey
experiencedatthehandsofwhattheycalled‘TheDepartment’or‘TheOffice’.Herethey
arereferringtothebureaucratic,policyandfinancialpoweroverthedailyoperationof
remoteschoolswieldedbytheEducationDepartmentoftheNorthernTerritory.
Oneteacherparticipantreflectedontheschoolthatshehadhelpedtostartundersome
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beantreesnexttoasandduneinhercommunity.Inthesehumblebeginningsthe
communityandtheteachershadcontroloverhowandwhatwastaught.However,once
‘TheDepartment’gotinvolvedandstartedprovidingresourcessuchasclassroomsthey
alsogotinvolvedindictatingwhatneededtobetaught,
DepartmentofEducation…Youknowtheygotabit'youneedtostartteachingthe
goodthingsnow,goodway.Becausefromthattreetothatclassroomnow,youcan
teachlikebetterEnglishyouknow'.
Thisexperienceofpowerinrelationtoresourcesandfundingwasacommonexperience,
…weusedtohaveasecondaryclasstoobutgovernmentnowIdon’tknow,
governmentcuttingfundingandteachers,cutting...
Someoftheteacherparticipantsnoticedashiftinthispoweroncetheybecamequalified
asteachersandbegantakingonleadershiproleswithintheirschools.Thiswasexpressed
inthefollowingexamplesfromthenarrativesasbeing‘inside’andthenapowerfulforce
comingalongandpushingthem‘outside’,
…mustbesomeoneintheOfficeischanging,awa…changingandputtingwhitefellas
andpushingAnanguoutside…wiya,...Italkedaboutthatatthestaffmeeting.Idid
mytrainingtobeaclassroomteacher.AllthoseyearsIdidmytraining.
LikeyouknowthatwashardworkthatIdidlearn,I'veyouknow,itwasreallyhard,
I'vestruggledandtriedhardandthengotthroughandnowIwentthroughallthe
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thingsIdidbutnow,youknow,I'vegotmygoal,what'snow?What'shappening
now?It'sreallyhard.DidallthosethingsandI'mjustdoingnothingnow.Outside...
(of)thebuilding,theschoolhere.Wedidalotofstudy,alotofhard
work….somethingcameacrossandtookitover.Ididalittlebit,maybeforcoupleof
yearsItookover.Thensomethingcameoverandpushedmeout.Peoplecansee,you
knowthisschoolhere.There'stwopeopleherewhoreachedthegoal,nowtheyare
walkingaroundoutside,nottakingover.Wedidtakeitover.Ithinkwewentbackto
thebeginning,afterwedidallthosestudies.Insteadweshouldbetakingover.
MaybeEducationDepartmentyouknow.I'mthinkingyouknow,I'mthinkingother
wayround,maybeEducationDepartmentyouknow,they'renotlookingatus
becauseweareAboriginal.That'swhy.Becauseofourskin.(speaksinlanguage)I'm
sayingthissameinlanguage...Wetookitoverandthensuddenlysomethingcame
across.(speaksinlanguageagain)...weknowwe'vegotagoodexperience...likeyou
knowworking,working,workingandthengoingbacktounemployment,likethatone
same.Wereachedourgoal…(speaksinlanguage)…We'vegotabigOfficeinAlice
Springsthey'resaying'ohwiyawe'llgetthisone(non-Indigenousteacher)here'
(speaksinlanguage)...(But)We'vegotourcertificate!
Thissenseofbeingexcludedorkept‘outside’ofanyrealpowerwithintheirschoolswas
alsoevidentinthelimitedcareerpaththatwaseverofferedtotheseteacherseitherwithin
theirschoolsorwithintheDepartment,
IwantedtochangetonextlevelwhichIdidn’tgetitbecauseofthebureaucrats.I
reallywantedtobenexttosomeonewho'sbigbosslike(name)orsomeone.Iwanted
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tobewiththemsothateducationinIndigenouscommunitiescanyouknowgohow
wewantittogoandIreallywantedtostepintodothat,buttherewasnosupportso
Ineededto,becauseIdidn’twanttostayinthereandgetburntout.Ithenresigned.
Thereseemedtobeacommonexperienceofexclusionwherebyeventhestandardcareer
trajectoriesforteachersinremoteschoolswereconsistentlydeniedtotheteacher
participants.
Lackofsupport
Thislackofsupportwasagainaformofexclusioninitself.Therewerenumerousexamples
intheteachernarrativesoftheseteachersexpressinginterestindevelopingtheir
leadershippotentialandbeingmetwithlittletonosupportormentoringtohelpmakethis
happen,
IwenttolotsofPrincipalswhowerethereandaskedthem'Iwanttostepontonext
levelwhereIcanbenotintheclassroombutstillchallengeanewjobandyouknow
offeredbyDepartmentsoIcanbemoreinleadershiprole,thatway'andnoone
couldgivemesupportorfindawayhowIcanyouknowtalktootherpeopleandyou
knowfindoutwhereIcangetsupportfromandthat’swhatIgotstuckonandthat
mademereallygodepressed.
...wasquestioningmyself…I’mtheseniorpositionIshouldbeasked,Ishouldbe
challengedondoingnewjobs,newroles…whereIcanyouknowgetoutof
classroomworkandchallengeanewjobasaseniorpersonthereinsteadofyouknow
beingaclassroomteacherIcouldhavedone‘umamentorrolefortheyoung
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assistantteachers.ThatwouldhavebeenmyotherjobifIwerebeingaskedbysenior
staff…shouldhaveofferedtome…Iwasaskingmyself,whywouldn’thavebeen
offeredtome,‘cosIwouldhaveyouknowgonealongwayandyouknow,gonetoa
nextlevelanddidjobs…that’swhatcommunitysortofexpectmetogotoanext
level…whenIsee…teacherswhoaretherealongtimeIseethemgetintonewroles,
steppingoutoftheclassroomandgivenaprofessionaljobslikeESL,co-ordinatoror
mentorforteachingteacherswhoarefirstout-jobslikethatyouknow,I(sh)ould
havebeenoffered(the)challenge(ofthe)nextlevel.
Thislackofsupportwasalsooftenexperiencedbytheteacherparticipantsliterallybeing
excludedfromconversations,professionaldialoguesanddecision-makingprocesses,
LikewhenIwasatthe(school)office…twopeoplewilltalkaboutsomethingwhich
gavemeasignal'ohtheytalkingaboutme,underminingme'…Theywerehiding,
theywerelockingupoffices,that’sthereactionIwasgetting…nooneusedtotalk,no
oneusedtogivemefriendship.Mmm…itchanged‘cosIwasmoreisolated,likeno
oneusedtowanttohavecupoftea,nooneusedtowanttotalk.
Cosleaderssitinonetableandshareideasandsharewhataheadofus…butnoneof
themwouldgivemeanyfeedbackorencouragement…strangethingswere
happening‘cosIrememberusedtogetencouragementforleadershipsusedto
engagewithitandlookatnextyearand'thisiswhatwe'regonnadonextyear'andif
youdon’tlikeitthentalkaboutit,but(afterthat)weneverusedtotalkaboutit…
theyshouldhaveengagedmeinyouknow,tosharewhat'sgoingtohappento
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school….butstrangethingswerehappeningandonlypeoplethatworkedamong
themselveswereyouknowkeepingitforthemselvesinsteadofengagingme.
…Iwasalittlebitfeelingthat,thattheywerecriticizingme,butneverseeninaction,
butfelt…likeIwasn’ttrustedanymore…that'swhenIstartedquestioningmyself'oh
thisisweird,andpeoplearen’tcomingandaskingme...parentsusedtocomeandsee
meandsay'ohsoandsocameandsawme,butyouweren’tthere'andbeforeIwas
theonewhotheywouldapproach…iftherewasaconcernwiththestudenttogoand
seeaparentoracommunitymemberbutIwasn’ttoldoryouknowbeingaskedto
comewiththatperson.That'swhenIfeltthatIwasn’tincluded.
Whileundertakingtheirteachereducationstudiestheseteacherparticipantswereoften
engagedinrhetoricaroundleadershipandrolemodelling.However,theactualexperience
oncetheybecamequalifiedturnedouttobequiteadifferentscenario.Theexperienceof
beingaqualifiedteacherinaschoolwasoftenoneofdisempowermentandexclusion,
oftenasadirectresultofnon-Indigenousteachersandleaderswhocamefromoutsidethe
communitybutenteredtheschoolinpositionsofauthorityandpower.Inmanycasesjust
thefactofbeingIndigenousplacedthesefullyqualifiedteacherparticipantsinaless
powerfulposition–aconceptthatisexploredfurtherinthefinaltheme–‘notlookingatus
level’.
7.7‘Notlookingatuslevel’
Chapter2ofthisthesisexploredthecoloniallegacyofIndigenousteachersworkingin
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schoolsintheNT.Throughtheteachernarrativesthelivedexperienceofthispersistent
colonialideologyispalpable.Manyoftheparticipantsspokeofexperiencingunequal
treatmentor,asoneteacherparticipantnamedit,notbeinglookedat‘level’.
Unequalconditionsofemployment
Thegoodconditionsofemployment,particularlyinrelationtoteacherpaywasseenasone
oftherealincentivestoencourageyoungpeopletofollowingateachingpathway,
…ifyoubecomeateacheryou'llgetlotsofmoney…yeah,soweyouknowreached
thatpointyouknowtobecomeaproperteacher…seeItrytoencourageothernew
TAs
Itwasalsoacknowledgedthatthesefavourableconditionswereoneofthethingsthat
enticednon-localteachersouttoremotecommunitiestoworkinschools,
Ithinkthisisoneofthethingsthatarehighlyexpected,youknowwhenwhite
teachersgoouttocommunities…probablytheythinking'ohremoteschoolsare
bettertogoandteach.Yougeteverything'.Youknow?
Howeveralloftheteacherparticipantswereawarethroughpersonalexperiencethatthe
conditionsofemploymentwerenotequalforlocalandnon-localrecruits,particularlyin
relationtotheprovisionofhousing,furnitureandtheprovisionofelectricityandwater
whilelivinginthecommunityandworkingattheschool,
…westartedaskingforhousing,butbecausewewerelocalrecruitstheycouldonly
giveusoldhousinglikeschoolhouses.Andnowbecausegovernmentchanged
you’renotallowedtokeepschoolhouses,youneedtoworkthereandgotowork
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andnowweusedtostarttalkingaboutlocalrecruits,weneedabetterhouse
becauseweareteachers.
ThecurrentEducationDepartmentpolicyremainsthatnon-localrecruitsareprovidedwith
afullyfurnishedEducationDepartmenthouseforthedurationoftheirtimeworkinginthe
communitywhilelocalrecruitshavetofindtheirownaccommodation.
Unequalintheclassroom
Anumberoftheteacherparticipantsalsoexperiencedtimeswhentheyweretreatedas
lessthanequaltotheirnon-Indigenouscounterpartswhileintheclassroom.Intheteacher
narrativesthesestorieswereoftenconnectedtothehighturnoverofnon-localteaching
staffandtheunfamiliaritynewstaffhadwithteamteaching.Therewasacommon
assumptionamongstnon-Indigenousteacherswhooriginatedfromoutsidethecommunity
thatallIndigenousstaffintheschoolmustbeassistantteachers.Evenoncethis
assumptionwasrectifiedtheattitudeofmanyqualifiednon-localteacherswastotreatthe
fullyqualifiedIndigenousteachersaslessqualifiedthanthem.Thisisevidencedbythe
followingexchange,
onedayIwassittingintheclassroomand'ohhhcanyoulookafter(myclass)?'(the
non-Indigenousteacher)wentaroundtoalltheotherstaffthere'canyoulookafter
mykidsthere?'butIwassittinghere.'Excuseme!I'mhere!oryouwantmetowalk
out?'…Andwhenthekids,youknowtheyasksometimesnon-Indigenousnotlistening
sometimestheyaskmetogoouttothebathroom'yuwapalyayoucango!'but(the
non-Indigenousteacherquestions)'heywhereyougoing?''OhIbinask(name)','Oh
youshouldaskme!''Heyletthemgo,I'vealreadytoldthemtogo!'…'YouthinkI'ma
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studentwiththem?'Itoldthemyouknowtheyshouldrecogniseustoo!
TheseattitudesoftenleadtotheIndigenousteachersintheclassroomonlybeingvaluedas
‘classroompolice’,theretomonitorandmanagethebehaviourofthestudents,butnotto
actuallyteach,
...andonedayIsaid'YuwaI'mgonnaresignandI'mjustgoinghome!'"Wiyawiya
wiyawiyayoucan’tdothat(name),youcan’tdothat,kidsareonlylisteningtoyou!'
Seethat'stheway.'Wereallyneedyou!'(speaksinlanguage)they(thechildren)
listentoAnangustaff.
Thisdelineationbetweenbehaviourmanagementandcurriculumrolesalsoappliesto
attitudestowardswhatotherIndigenouscommunitymembershavetooffer.Oneteacher
participantquestionedtheneedtooutsourcethingslikemusicprogramstonon-local
musicianswhentherewerelocalpeoplewhoweremorethanabletotakeonthatrole,
…wehavemusicmancomingtoteachmusic.AndI'mthinkingwhataboutthelocal
Anangucomingintoteachthemsinging?We'vegotmenthatplayintheband.
Hereweclearlyseetheskillsandknowledgeofthenon-localWesternknowledgeholders
beinggivenpreferenceovertheskillsandknowledgewithinthelocalcommunity.Inthis
waylanguageandknowledgeisbeingtreatedunequallyaswell.
Unequalresponsibilityregardingthecommunity
Conversely,whenitcomestoliaisonbetweentheschoolandtheparentsandwider
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community,thelocalstaff,particularlytheexperiencedqualifiedteachers,areexpectedto
takeonmorethantheirfairshare.Therearecountlessexamplesintheteachernarratives
oftheseteacherparticipantsbeingaskedtospeakonbehalfofothers,toaccountforthe
whereaboutsoractionsofothersorlikewisetospeakonbehalfoftheschooltothewhole
community.Thisseemstobesomethingthatisnotaskedofnon-localteachers.
…likeyouknowwhenclassroomteacher(says)youknow'ohwhere'smyteam
teacher?What'shappening?'Itellthem'thisproblem,she'sgotthisproblem'or
yeah….Ithinkitsometimesgetshard.Ijustsaytothem'howlonghaveyoubeenhere
for?You'repartofthecommunity!'youknow.'Youknowalotofthepeoplehere
now,youknowwheretheylive,youknowthatsortofthing’Itellthem.'Youcould
justgoandvisitthem'...It'sbestforyoutogoandsitdownandtalktothat
person'…sometimesit'sjustme,theyjustaskme‘cosI'mthereeveryday'what's
goingon?'andItellthemyouknow'shedon’tlivewithme!She'sgotanotherhouse
downtheroad.Goandfindout!'
…It’shardyeah,it’shardformewhenI’malwaysputinthemiddle.I'vegottoreally
youknowtrytoexplaintobothsides,yeah.Andit'shardforme,yeahthey'retrying
tosaythatandthisgrouptryingtosaythisandyouknow.It’salwayshardforme,
yeah.
I'malwayscaughtbetween…andsometimesItellthem…IexplaintothePrincipalor
anotherteacher'canyougoandtalktothem?…Ithinkallthisneedstobeexplaining,
weneedtoexplaintowhiteteachersyouknow.Thisiswhat’shappening.Youknow
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alltheselittlethings.
Allof‘theselittlethings’,asarticulatedbythatlastexcerpt,areextraexpectationsand
stressesthatarecarriedbythelocalIndigenousteachersthatarenotpartofwhatthenon-
localteacherseverhavetodealwith.Thatfeelingofbeingcaughtinthemiddle,beingthe
bridgebetweenthecommunityandtheschoolwasacommonexperienceforthese
teacherparticipants.
Unequalexpectationsandresponsibilities
Thisroleofbeingaliaisonpersonorbridgemeantthattheteacherparticipantshadallfelt
theirroleexpandoverthecourseoftheyears,usuallywithoutanyacknowledgment,
additionalremunerationortimereleasetotakeontheextratasksexpectedofthem.Many
oftheteacherparticipantstalkedaboutthe‘biggerrole’theyhadtotakeonaswellasthe
impactthathadonthem.
IthinkI'vegotthatbiggerrole…alotofthetimesit'sme,calledon,andI'vegotto
beseenasthemainperson,thelocalpersonintheschool.YeahsometimesIdon’t
likeit!Itellthem'no,getthatotherperson!'butreallyIdon’t...Iseeit,theyreally
wantme…IguessI'veworkedtherelonger,yeah.Andalotofthethingsaroundthe
school,Iknow,yeah,sortofknow…what'sgoingon.
ThatwasalsochallengingformeandchallengingforthoseotherYapateachers,
ATs,becausetheyneededmeand(name)toteachthemifwetheleaderinthe
school,andoldteachers,youknowelders,stillthere,sothatwewantedtoteach
thoseyoungteachersATs,yuwaiandthat'swhatI'mthinkingaboutdoing.
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…seewehadexperience,becausewewereteachingandweknewsomeworksyou
know…tobeconfidentandumtospeakupinumstaffmeeting,yeahatthe
meetingstoowithotherassociations.
Intheirhomecommunitiestheseteacherparticipantsaresomeoftheveryfewpeople
whohavecompletedhighereducationqualifications.Thismeansthattheyareoftencalled
uponbyotherorganizationsandcommitteestobemembers,decisionmakersand
consultants.
…seelikechildcarereferencecommittee…wetalkaboutthebuildingandhowto
teachnewworkersandweencouragethem,wetalktothemandhowtoworkwith
umKardiyasidebyside,youknow.Wewanttogrowupthosepeoplewhoare
workingrightnow,youknow.
…onetimewaswewouldhavelotsofmeetings,likeremotelearningpartnership
thing,andthatwasthetimethattheypickedmeand(name)togoto,butIwasthe
onlyonegoingtothatmeetingand(name)wouldstayandteachandIwouldyou
knowgetcommunitypeopletocomealongwithme
IntheWarlpiricommunitiestheseadditionalresponsibilitiesalsoextendtooverseeingthe
WarlpiriEducationTrainingTrust(WETT),whichisfundedfromminingroyalties.Allofthe
WarlpiriteacherparticipantstalkedabouttheworktheydidwithWETTandhowproud
theywereofwhatWETThadaccomplished.Theyalsotalkedabouthowtheywere
mentoringotheryoungpeopletogetinvolvedinthatwork.
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WETTwejusttalkaboutmoney,howweuseit,wetalkaboutthisisourcircle,how
themoneyisspent,howmuch,likewegivemoneytochildcareandworldvisionand
MtTheo,wedon’tgivemoneytoclinic,nothing,justonlyschoolarea….yeahandit's
reallyworkingwell...WETTcommittee
SoIwastherepresentativeforWETT…yeahWETTcommittee,likeanadvisory
group…wewashavinglikemeetingslikeamongourselvestalkingaboutwhat’sbeen
happeninginthecommunitiesseeifeverything'sbeenworking,ifwe'vebeen
workingwellwithKardiyasoutinthecommunity.Wehavetotakethatbacktothe
advisorygroup,thebigbossessolikethebigchairmanislikefromCLC,DEETor
DCIS…yuwaiandfromNewmont….Andwehavegotthatlikeeveryyear,threetimesa
yeartheycomein…we'vegotthreefromeachcommunity,threethat’ssittingon,but
webringthereonlyyoungpeoplewhentheywanttocomeforproxy,yeahwebring
themintoo…that’sreallygoodsotheycanlearn.
Onceagainallofthisrepresentativeworkisoftenworkthatisentirelyshoulderedbythe
Indigenousstaffintheschools.Non-localstaffarerarelyinvolvedinsomanyadditional
educationalresponsibilitiesastheseteachersandifandwhentheyareitusuallyinvolvesa
positionofseniorityoradditionalremuneration,whichisnotthecaseforanyofthe
teacherparticipants.
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Unequalopportunities
Despitebeingaskedtotakeonsuchadditionalworkloadsandresponsibilitiesand
concurrentlybuildinguptheirownexperience,theteacherparticipantsalsotalkedabout
howunequalthedistributionofseniorleadershippositionswere.
IlearnedsomuchfromwhatI'veseen,whatIwasgiven,butattheendIwasasking
formoreequalitylike,inlikeseniorpositions,notintheclassroom.CosI’vegotalot
ofskillsintheclassroom,practices.Buttomovemeaslikebeaconsultantor
somethingthatIwantedtoaskforandthey,Iwasn’tsuretoask,becausepeople
weren’ttherightpeopletoask.Andthat'swhyIwaslikeIwassunkdown,Icouldn’t
movefromthat,Iwastotallybogged…stucktowhereIwasn’tyouknow,nobody
wasinterestedtoaskmeortheywerejustaskingmetodothisanddothat,tomake
theirjobsyouknow,tomaketheirjobsveryinterestingortomaketheirjobseasy
becauseIknewbutIwasyouknowgivingtothembutIdidn’tgetsomethingback.
Despitethevastexperienceoftheseteacherparticipantsatthetimeofrecordingthese
narrativesnotoneofthemheldapositionofleadershipinanyoftheirrespectiveschools.
Unequalideasaboutthingsthatmatter
Finally,itwasveryclearthatdespitetheyearsofexperience,knowledgeandskills,despite
havinganequivalentqualificationanddespitetheextraworkthattheseteacher
participantstookon,whensomethingwasimportanttothemtheystillwerenotsupported
ortakenseriously.Thisnextexamplerelatedtobilingualeducationshowshowveryoften
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thereisacompletelyunequalattitudewhenitcomestowhatdifferentstakeholdersvalue
ineducationinremotecommunities.
…theywereYapaeducators,Yapaworkingforgovernment,andtheyweregetting
moreideasfromusandwewouldgivethemourideasaboutWarlpiriwayandwe
wouldask'ifwegiveyouWarlpiriideaswouldyouhelpussupportourbilingual?'...
youknowwewouldaskthemthatway.'Yes,yeswewillsupportbilingual'but…we
weregivingallourideastothembut…youknowtheyweren’tbringingtheright
ideasbacktous,becauselikebilingualteachingwouldbelike'literacylearning'they
wouldbringthatanotherwordinbecausemaybetheydidn’tliketheword‘bilingual’.
Theywouldchangethatbilingualprogramintoa'literacyprogram'whichwasnot
thefullideaofbilingual.
Theseteacherparticipantsareaskedtotrustintheprocessandparticipateingoodfaith,
butwhenitcomestothemaskingforsupportinreturnforawayofteachingandlearning
thathashighvaluetothemtheyarenot‘lookedatlevel’.Thelocallanguage,localculture,
localrelationshipswiththecommunity,theseareallthingsthatareseenaslessimportant,
‘notlevel’withtheall-important‘Englishonly’agendaoftheDepartmentalschools.The
colonial,assimilationistideologyisstillaliveandwellinremoteNorthernTerritoryschools.
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Chapter8-Discussion
8.1Introduction
Thecommonconcernatthecentreofthisdoctoralresearchhasalwaysbeenthelow
numberofyoungIndigenousteacherscurrentlyundertakingandcompletingteacher
educationinremotecommunitiesinCentralAustralia.Thisconcernisfirstandforemost
onesharedbytheteacherparticipantsattheheartofthisresearch.Theyhaveeachspent
between20-35yearsworkingintheirrespectivecommunityschoolsandhaveundertaken
andcompletedtherequisitestudytobecomefullyqualifiedteachers.Buttheyarenow
deeplyconcernedthattheydonotseeanyteachersfromtheircommunitiescomingup
behindthemtotakeoverfromthemwhentheyretire.Thepremiseofthisresearchwas
thatbylisteningtothestoriesofthesefullyqualifiedandexperiencedteacherswemight
betterunderstandthecomplexarrayofbarriersaswellassupportsthatpeoplefrom
remotecommunitiesencounterwhentheyundertaketobecomequalified.Thenarratives
ofhowthesewomencametobefullyqualifiedteachersintheirschoolsthusformedthe
dataofthisresearch.Inadditiontothesenarrativestwoextensiveliteraturereviewswere
completed,onethatfocusedonthehistoricalcontextofremoteIndigenousteacher
educationintheNorthernTerritory,andonethatfocusedonthepoliticalandpolicybased
positioningofremoteIndigenousteachers.
Thepurposeofthischapteristoexaminethethemesthatwereproposedandexemplified
throughtheanalysisprocessinchapters6and7,throughanumberoftheoreticallenses.
Thethemesfallbroadlyintotwoareas–barriersandsupportsandthusthediscussionwill
beconductedintwoparts.Partonewillexploretheexamplesofbarriersexperiencedby
243
theteachersthroughthetheoreticallensofrace,primarilyusingWhitenessTheoryand
CriticalRaceTheory(CRT).Parttwowilllookatthesupportsexperiencedbytheteachers
andwillbeinformedbyAustralianIndigenousScholarship(Martin2008;Arbon2008;Ford
2010),Post-ColonialTheory(Verran2013,Rose2004)andCollectivisttheory(Addelson
1996)withadditionalreferencetoparticulareducationaltheorists(Dewey1938,Palmer
1999).
8.2Discussionpartone–RaceandWhiteness
Inorderforstudentstogrow,theirteachersneedtounderstandandusethe
students’earlyexperiencesintheprocessofeducatingthem.Teachersmustknow
theirstudentsandtheirenvironment–thephysicalandsocialexperiencesthathave
actedasthefoundationforwhatthestudentsknow–assuchinfluencesprovide
studentswithcontinuityintheirownworld(Lipsitz2006,p4).
ThisquotecreatesastrongargumentfortheimportanceoflocalIndigenouspeople
becomingqualifiedteachersandteachingthestudentsfromtheirhomecommunities.They
aretheonesafterallwhoimplicitlyandintrinsicallyknowtheirstudents,understandtheir
earlyexperiences,knowtheenvironment,understandthesocialexperiences,speakthe
languageandcanprovidethecontinuityrequiredforstudentstobesuccessfulatlearning.
However,examinationoftheliteratureandtheteachernarrativesofthisresearchhas
shownthattheseepistemologicalandpedagogicalargumentshavenotalwaysbeenwhat
hasinformedthesystemicattitudestowardsIndigenousteachereducationinAustraliaand
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particularlyintheNorthernTerritory.Apartfromaperiodbetweenthemidtolate1970s
andtheearly1990s,anerawhichhadamoresocialjusticeandculturallyresponsive
emphasis,attitudestowardsIndigenousteachersinremotecommunitiesintheNorthern
Territoryhaveremainedfirmlyentrenchedinthecolonialandassimilationistmindsets.
Soinmanywaysweshouldnotbesurprisedwhenareviewinto‘InitialTeacherEducation
forAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents’revealsthatalthoughtheneedto
increasethenumbersofIndigenousteachershasbeenhighlightedformanyyears,little
haschangednationallysincethe1980swhentherewasacallfor1000Indigenousteachers
nationallyby1990(Pattonetal.2012,p9).Sincethattimenumeroussystemictargets
havebeensetandhavefailedtobereached.Despitecopiousrhetoricaroundthesystemic
desireformoreIndigenousteachers,thesettingoftargets,andtheallocationofsome
funding,theresultsaresimplynotthere(GrayandBeresford2008;Herbert2002;Nutton
2012;Santoro&Reid2006;Vass2015)andtherehasbeenlittleinterrogationofwhythis
failurehasoccurred.Vass(2015,p374)pointstowards‘somethingbigger(and)moredeep
seated’thathaslonghinderededucationpolicy,andthefirstpartofthisdiscussion
chapter,likeVass,arguesandnamesthatsomethingas‘race’.SantoroandReid(2006,p
289)concur,suggestingthat‘theAustralianschoolsystemremainsabastionofwhite
culturalsupremacywithregardtonativeandimmigrantculturesandpeoples.’Itisthe
contentionofthisresearcherthatallofthemajorbarriersexperiencedbytheteacher
participantsinthisstudyhavebeenideologicallygroundedinissuesofrace.Thesebarriers,
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asnarratedbytheteacherparticipants,canthusbebetterunderstoodthroughthelensof
WhitenessTheoryandCriticalRaceTheory.
8.2.1Whitenesstheory
AccordingtoMcGregor(2006,p511)‘Whitenesswasatreasuredqualityofearly
twentieth-centurysettlerAustralians,anemblemoftheirstatusasacivilisedrace…a
badgeofBritishness…(a)‘crimsonthreadofkinship’toaffirmtheethnicsolidarityofwhite
Australians,bothwitheachotherandwiththeirBritishparent’.Moreton-Robinson(2004,
p74)writingfromanIndigenousAustralianstandpoint,suggeststhatWhitenesshastaken
onan‘epistemologicalapriori’statuswhich‘providesforawayofknowingandbeingthat
ispredicatedonsuperiority’.Shearguesthatthis‘racialsuperioritybecomesapartofone’s
ontology,albeitunconsciously,andinformsthewhitesubject’sknowledgeproductions’(p
78).Lipsitz(2006,p4)remindsushoweverthatWhitenessisnotsomethingthatonly
existedbackthen,intheearlydaysofcolonialsettlement.Heassertsthat‘possessive
investmentinwhitenesstodayisnotsimplytheresidueofconquestand
colonialism…Contemporarywhitenessanditsrewardshavebeencreatedandrecreatedby
policies’.Thesystemicpolicies,structuresandproceduresweorganizeourselvesbyin
contemporarysocietyareallbaseduponsocio-historicalinequalityandracistideologyand
thusthesebeliefsandthebehavioursthatreinforcesthemaredeeplyembeddedinall
aspectsofourlives.Whitenesshasbecomeahidden,unmarked,unnamedcategory
againstwhichdifferenceisconstructed(Lipsitz2006,MoretonRobinson2004,Rudolph
2013).Thedangerinthisisthatsomuchthatisraciallybasedisabletocontinueincovert
246
andubiquitousways,andracismbecomesvisibleonlyatthemostextremeendofaracist
continuum.Lipsitz(2006,p20)describesitthus,
abletodiscernasracistonlyindividualmanifestationsofpersonalprejudiceand
hostility.Systemic,collectiveandcoordinatedgroupbehaviourconsequentlydrops
outofsight.Collectiveexercisesofpowerthatrelentlesslychannelrewards,
resources,andopportunitiesfromonegrouptoanotherwillnotappear“racist”
fromthisperspective,becausetheyrarelyannouncetheirintentiontodiscriminate
againstindividuals.
Taylordefines‘Whiteness’asawayoftalkingaboutapoliticalandlegalframework
groundedintheideologiesofWestern‘supremacy’andtheimpactofcolonialistprocesses
(Taylor2009).Vass(2015,p377)remindsusthatitisimportantto‘distinguishbetween
Whitenessasaracialdiscourseand‘Whitepeople’asasociallyconstructedidentityand
groupthatareoftenthebeneficiariesofWhitenessbasedonskincolour’.Intheanalysis
includedinthischaptertheroleof‘Whiteness’willbeexploredatboththesystemicand
theinterpersonallevels.
8.2.2CriticalRacetheory
CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)isextremelyusefulasatooltointerrogateissuesofraceand
whiteness.Itsbasicpremiseistoviewclaimsof‘neutrality,objectivity,colour-blindness,
andmeritocracy’bythedominantknowledgesystemas‘camouflagesfortheself-interest
ofpowerfulentitiesofsociety’(Gillborn2006,Tate1997,Ladson-BillingsandTate2006,
DixsonandRousseau2006b).Gillborn(2006)suggeststhatthesenotions,despitetheir
veneerofconcernforequityandjustice,infactoperateasamechanismbywhich
247
particulargroupsareexcludedfromthemainstream.CRT’smainfocusis‘thebusiness-as-
usualformsofracism’thatare‘normal’andingrainedintotheeverydaysystemsand
practicesratherthantheexamplesofobviousdiscrimination(Delgado&Stefancic,2000).
CRTconsidersraceasthecentralconstructforunderstandinginequality(LadsonBillings
andTate2006).DixsonandRousseau(2006bp48)statethat,
…acentraltenetofCRTistoexaminehowwhitenessaspropertyasanideological
andoppressiveconstructperpetuatesinequalitythroughostensibly“colourblind”
policiesandpractices…CRTgoesbeyondraceandracismasaproductofskincolour
andphenotypetoanalysehowwaysofbeing,knowledgeconstruction,power,and
opportunityareconstructedalongandconflatedwith“race”.
CRTbuildsonWhitenessTheory.WhereasWhitenessTheoryilluminateshowwhitenessis
organizedandunderstoodCRTprovidesadeeplycriticalandradicalquestioningaboutthe
unequaloutcomesthatraceperpetuates.TheoriginsofCRTareinlegalscholarshipinthe
UnitedStates(Monaghan1993).Howeverinthelasttwodecadesconsiderableworkhas
beendoneapplyingCRTtoeducation(DixsonandRousseau2006a).Althoughstillrelatively
new,CRTisbecoming‘amatureandvibrantepistemologicalstancethatscholars
throughouttheworldcanemploytounderstandpersistentinequity,injusticeand
oppression’(DixsonandRousseau2006a,pxii).
AccordingtoMatsudaandothers(1993,p6)CRT‘challengesahistorismandinsistson
contextual/historicalanalysis…(it)adoptsastancethatpresumesracismhascontributedto
allcontemporarygroupadvantageanddisadvantage’.Italso‘insistsonrecognitionof
experientialknowledgeofpeopleofcolourandtheircommunities’(Matsudaetal.1993,p
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6)anddoesthisthroughtheuseofthetoolsofstorytelling,counterstorytellingand
narratives(Delgado1989;DixsonandRousseau2006a&b;Gillborn2006;LadsonBillings
andTate2006).CriticalRaceTheoristsassertthattheuseofstoryallowspeopleofcolour
to‘nameone’sownreality’andtheyprioritisethis‘voicescholarship’despitemainstream
academicchallengesofitbeing‘unscientific’andsubjective(DixsonandRousseau2006a,p
vii).InresponseCriticalRacetheoristsarguethatpoliticalandmoralanalysisissituational,
thattruthonlyexistsforthispersoninthissituationatthistime,andthatsocialrealityis
constructedbytheformulationandtheexchangeofstoriesaboutindividualsituations
(LadsonBillingsandTate2006).CRTsuggeststhattheexchangeofstoriescanhelp
overcomeethnocentrismandprovidethenecessarycognitiveconflicttojardysconscious
racism(LadsonBillingsandTate2006,Delgado1989,King1991).AmaingoalofCRTisto
usestorytellingandnarrativetoexamineraceandracism.ThismakesCRTagoodfitto
theoreticallyanalysetheinductivelyproposedthemesthatcamefromtheteacher
participantnarrativesatthecentreofthisdoctoralresearch,particularlythosethatrelate
totheracism,exclusionandinvisibilityexperiencedbytheteachers.
8.2.3Adiscussioninthreesections
CriticalRaceTheoryandWhitenesstheorywillnowbeusedtoexaminethethematic
findinginthreesections.Thefirstsectionisentitled‘Whitebutnotquite’whichtakesthis
titlefromtheworkofBhabha(1984).ItwilllookatthewaysthatraceandWhitenessnever
allowIndigenousteacherstobefullyequaltotheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.The
secondsectionisentitled‘KnowledgestatusandWhiteness’.Thissectionexploresthe
inequalityofknowledgesystemsthathasbeendeeplyembeddedintoattitudes,policyand
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curricula.Thethirdsectionlooksmorebroadlyattheexamplesof‘SystemicWhiteness’to
befoundintheteachers’experiences.
8.2.4‘Whitebutnotquite’IndigenousTeachersandmimicry
Oneoftheseventhemesproposedbytheanalysisoftheteachernarrativesfocusedon
ideasofinequality.Thisisperhapsbestencapsulatedinthewordsofoneoftheteacher
participantswhocommented‘they’renotlookingatuslevel’.The‘they’inthiscasearethe
non-Indigenousteachers,PrincipalsandNorthernTerritoryEducationDepartmentalstaff,
aswellaspossiblyuniversityfacultyrelatedtoteachereducation.Inessence‘they’is
referringtoallthosewhorepresentprofessionallytheWesterneducationsystem.The
MATSITIreport(Pattonetal.2012,p.37)notesthatmanyteachereducationstudents
fromremoteIndigenouscommunitiesaremotivatedtoundertakestudyasawayof
possiblyovercomingthe‘subservientpositions(lowpay,lackofrespect)theyencounter
whileemployedasAboriginalteachingassistants’.Thereportalsonotesthatwhileitis
‘hopedthatgainingfullqualificationsasteacherswillredressinequities,Aboriginal
teachersalsoencounterattitudestowardsthemthatactasbarriers’(Pattonetal.2012,p
37).Theseattitudesandbarrierswereopenlydiscussedbytheteacherparticipantsintheir
narratives.Theteachersrepeatedlycommentedonthefactthatevenaftertheyreached
thestatusoffullqualificationtheywerestillrepeatedlytreatedaslessthanequalbythe
‘comeandgo’(Hall2012)non-IndigenousPrincipals,teachersandDepartmentalstaff.
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HomiBhabha(1984)connectstheseattitudesandbehaviourstothecolonialexperienceof
thecolonisedinhistheoryof‘mimicry’.Hesuggeststhat‘Colonialmimicryisthedesirefor
areformed,recognizableOther,asasubjectofdifferencethatisalmostthesame,butnot
quite’(Bhabha1984,p.126).FromhisowncolonialexperienceinIndiahereflectsonthe
Britisharticulateddesirefor‘aclassofinterpretersbetweenusandthemillionswhomwe
govern–aclassofpersonsIndianinbloodandcolour,butEnglishintastes,inopinions,in
moralsandinintellect–inotherwordsamimic‘man’raisedthroughourEnglishschool’
(Bhabha1984,p.128).Thishasapowerfulresemblancetotheattitudestowards
Indigenousteacherswhoareencouragedtopursuetheeducationgoaloffullqualification
asteachers,butthenkeptatarm’slengthfrombeingtreatedasequalsbythe
predominantlywhiteorWesternteachersandPrincipalstheyworkwithintheir
communityschools.InBhabha’stermstheybecome‘Anglicized’butnever‘English’
(Bhabha1984,p.128).Theseteachersfelteventhoughtheyhadbecome‘qualified’inthe
eyesoftheWesternqualificationsystem,theywerenevertrulyregarded,bythosefrom
thedominantWesternculture,asequallycompetent.
Intheirnarrativestheteacherparticipantsdiscussedtimeswhentheyweretreatedasless
thanequaltotheirnon-Indigenouscounterpartswhileintheclassroom.Whentheywere
workingasassistantteachers,oftenstudyingatthesametime,theywereoften
encumberedwithafullyqualifiedteacherwhomostoftenwasnon-Indigenousanddidnot
knowhowtoworkinateamteachingenvironmentandwouldendupusingassistant
teachersforlanguagelessonsonly.Atothertimestheassistantteacherwouldnotbe
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involvedinanythingotherthanbeingcalledontotranslateandmonitorchildren’s
behaviour,effectivelyusedas‘classroompolice’.
Likewearequalifiedteachers.Theydon’tuseusasaqualifiedteacher.Theyuseusto
lookafterthebehaviour.'You'vegottotalktothischild!You'vegottostopthem
fighting!'That'swhattheyuseusfor.Notlikeactprofessionallikethem.
'OhI'mjustthereasapolicemanintheclassroom'
Theparticipantspointedouthowthisnon-collegialbehaviourdiscouragedmanyassistant
teachersfromtakingtheirworkandlearningseriously.
Theteacherparticipantsalsohighlightedtheproblematicnaturethatthehighturnoverof
non-Indigenousteachershadontheiridentityasteachers.Therewasadefaultattitude
displayedbymostnewnon-Indigenousstaffarrivingintothecommunitiesthatall
Indigenousstaffintheschoolmustbeassistantteachersandtheattitudeofthequalified
non-localteacherwasoftentotreatthefullyqualifiedIndigenousteachersassuch.
They'renotlookingatuslevel,whereweare.We'resupposedtobesame
professionallevelandtheystillputusdownlikewe'reanAT
Thiscreatedpowerandhierarchicalissuesinmanyclassrooms,withthenon-Indigenous
teachersimposingpassivehierachicalbarriersthroughactionssuchasrefusingtoletthe
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Indigenousassistantteachersparticipateinupskillingandeducationcoursesonthebasis
thattheywereneededintheclassroomornotoffereingIndigenousteachersaccessto
ProfessionalDevelopmentopportunities.
Inourschoolwe'vegottutoraswell,andstillthat'snotenoughwhentheATgoes
forstudyandthetutoristhere.It'sjustreallydifferentnow.Inourschoolwe'vegot
assistantteacherandatutorineachclassandIthinkthatsnotenoughforthe
whiteteacher.They'renotlettingpeoplego.
Seethisladycameintoourclassroomandsheonlytalkedtomyteamteacherand
youknowIwastherealsoasateacher,butinvisiblesittingthere.
Otherbarriersandinequalitiesweremoreovertsuchasintheconditionsofemployment.
ThecurrentEducationDepartmentpolicyremainsthatnon-localrecruitsareprovidedwith
afullyfurnishedEducationDepartmenthouseforthedurationoftheirtimeworkinginthe
communitywhilelocalrecruitshavetofindtheirownaccommodation.
wefoundoutthatthereweren’tanyequalrightsnotrightsforyapateachers,
Indigenousteachers.Thingsweren’tsameforusbecasuetheyusedtobringkardiya
teachersfromsouth,usingallthatmoneytobringthemintoworkinourcommunity
andwestartedfeelingsad.I’mateacherandIneedtohavesameequalrightswith
kardiyateacher.Justgivingushousing,butlaterontheytookthataway.
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Thisoftenseesfullyqualifiedlocalteacherslivinginovercrowdedhousing,oftenwith
sporadicwaterandelectricity,dependentoncommunityresourcesfornecessaryrepairs
andnoneofthecomfortandsecurityprovidedtotheirnon-Indigenouscolleaguesintheir
Departmentallyprovidedaccommodation.
IronicallyoneoftheotherwaysthatIndigenousteachersarenot‘lookedatlevel’is
throughtheexpectationforthemtotakeonadditionalrolesoncetheywerefullyqualified
thatwerenotrequiredoftheirnon-Indigenouscounterparts.Theschoolleadership
selectivelytreatedtheseteachersasfullyqualifiedstaffmembersorevenschoolleaders
whenitsuitedthem,likeleavingsomeonebyherselfinaclasswithtoomanystudents,
I'vebeentakingthepreschoolersforayearandIhaven’thadanyoneplacedwith
measanassitantteacherbecasuetheythink'Ohshe'sIndigenousshecando
everything!'Costherequirementistenkids,can’tbealoneintheclassroomwith
anymorethanthat,andI'vegotabout14or12.Theynevercomeandaskorlook
forsomeonetoworkwithme.Butifawhiteteacherhadfivekidsohshe'llbe
screamingherheadoff'Ohhhthey'regoingtoattackme!'
AnotherexampleofthisispullingIndigenousteachersoutofclasstoconsultwithvisitors
totheschool.
Sometimesit’snegotiatedtoobythePrincipalandwhoeveriscoming,theypullyou
out,nowarning,justcomeanddragyouout.
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Theseteachersarealsofrequentlycalledupontoactasliaisonbetweentheschoolandthe
parentsandwidercommunity.
IthinkI'vegotthatbiggerrole…alotofthetimesit'sme,calledon,andI'vegottobe
seenasthemainperson,thelocalpersonintheschool.YeahsometimesIdon’tlikeit!
Itellthem'no,getthatotherperson!'butreallyIdon’t...Iseeit,theyreallywant
me…IguessI'veworkedtherelonger
Theyareaskedtospeakonbehalfofothers,ortoaccountforthewhereaboutsoractions
ofothers.TheseextraexpectationsandstressesthatwerecarriedbythelocalIndigenous
teachersarenotpartofwhatthenon-localteacherseverhavetodealwith.Theywere
alsoaskedtomentornewnon-Indigenousstaffarrivinginthecommunity,whichwiththe
highturnoverofnon-localstaffhasbecomeanincreasingburden.OftenotherIndigenous
staffmembersalsolookedtothesequalifiedteacherstotakeontheleadershiproleand
provideguidanceforhowtonavigateandbeheardintheschoolenvironment.Theyalso
feltliketheywereoftenpointedtoas‘rolemodels’forbothotherIndigenousstaffand
students,alabelthatsatuncomfortablyforsomeoftheteacherparticipants.Allofthe
teacherparticipantshadfelttheirroleexpandoverthecourseoftheyears,usuallywithout
anyacknowledgment,additionalremunerationortimereleasetotakeontheextratasks
expectedofthem.
However,despitetheyearsofexperience,knowledgeandskills,despitehavingan
equivalentqualificationanddespitetheextraworkthattheseteacherparticipantstookon,
whensomethingwasepistemologicallyorpedagogicallyimportanttothemtheystillwere
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notsupportedortakenseriously.Sotheexperienceoftheseteachersisthattheyare
valuedasrolemodels(solongastheydemonstrateWesternvaluestowardseducation),
andtheirprimaryrole,despitehavingequivalentWesternqualificationsasotherteachers,
istoactasclassroompolice,translatorsandculturalliaisoncontactswiththecommunity,
butnotasknowledgeholdersorpedagogues.
Hereinliesthemimicryideology.Bhabhalabelsitas‘anerratic,eccentricstrategyof
authorityincolonialdiscourse’explainingthat‘mimicryislikecamouflage,nota
harmonizationorrepressionofdifference,butaformofresemblancethatdiffers/defends
presencebydisplayingitinpart’(1984,p131).TheWesternsystemofeducationinremote
communitiesusesarhetoricofwantingqualifiedIndigenousteachers,butthisrhetoricis
embeddedincolonialdiscoursethatharksbacktothedayswhenIndigenouspeoplewere
excludedfromeducationonthegroundsofbeing‘primitivesavages’and‘feebleminded’
(RussoandRodwell,1989),‘uneducable’(Price2012)and‘childish’and‘backward’
(Moreton-Robinson2004).Therewereincrementalshiftsinattitudeofcoursetowhere
educationwasacknowledgedtobesomewhatusefulforAboriginalchildrentobringthem
uptoa‘usefullaborer’sstandard’(A.K.Elkin,quotedinGrayandBeresford,2008,p205),
orasPricepointsoutsolongastherewasrecognitionthattheywere‘onlyfittolearnto
sew,launder,cook,clean,garden,buildfences,tendlivestockandgenerallyparticipatein
moremenialtasks’(Price2012p4).Rudolph(2013,p214)remindsusthatthe‘remnants
ofcolonialpowerrelationships-inwhichwhitepeoplewereseenassuperior-remain
embeddedinAustralianeducationdiscoursesandinstitutions,despiteovertandstated
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concernforequityandinclusion’.Fogarty(2012)callsittheunresolvedhistoricallegacyof
institutionalizedracism.
ThemerepresenceoffullyqualifiedIndigenousteachersinschoolscausesepistemic
disconcertmentorexistentialcrisis(Verran2013)withinthesystemasaresultofthe
colonialdiscourselegacyaroundIndigenouspeopleandeducation.Thefalsityand
inequalityofattitudethattheteacherparticipantshavespokenaboutintheirnarratives
andhavehadtofightagainsttheirwholecareersstemsfromthecolonialwhitenesswhich
isembeddedinandembodiedbythepeopletheyhavetoworkwithaswellasthesystems
withinwhichtheyhavetooperate.
OthertheoristsworkinginWhitenessTheoryandCriticalRaceTheoryalsodiscussthis
whitenessideology,whichstemsfromthelegacyofcolonization.Lipsitz(2006,p2)
suggeststhat‘ItsuitedEuropeanscoloniststoviewotherracesas‘raciallyinferiorpeople
suited“bynature”forthehumiliatingsubordinationofinvoluntaryservitude’whileatthe
sametimesecuringtheirownhegemonybymanipulatingthemto‘seektherewardsand
privilegesofwhitenessforthemselves’(p3).McGregor(2011,p.xiii)commentsonthe
incrementalandcalculatednatureofchangenotingthat‘Aboriginalpeoplewere
increasinglyincludedinthelifeandmeaningoftheAustraliannation—thoughthis
inclusionwasalwaysconditional,nevercompleteandonlyeveratthebehestofthe
dominantwhitesettlermajority’.InIndigenousteachereducationthisbecamemanifestin
teacherswhojumpedthroughallthehoopsto‘become’teachersbutthiswasalwaysa
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conditionalmembershipofaclubwheretherulescould,andfrequentlydid,changeatany
time.
Thischangeablenatureofthe‘rules’isatoolofwhitenessthatensurescontinuing
hegemony.Whilethe‘IndigenousOther’is‘givenanopportunityofevolving,moreorless
intoawhiteman’(McGregor2011,p5)thiswillneverbefullyallowedbecauseitcreatesa
powerfulandirresolvableparadoxintheWhitepsyche.Theproblemattheheartof
mimicryandassimilationisthatWhitepowerdependsontheaspirationto‘becomelike’,
withouteverbeingabletorealizeit.Assimilationisafalseambitiononthepartofthe
colonizerbecausewhitenesswillalwaysinsistonOthering.InthewordsofMoreton-
Robinson(2004,p76)‘Theexistenceofthosewhocanbedefinedastrulyhumanrequires
thepresenceofotherswhoareconsideredlesshuman.Thedevelopmentofthewhite
person’sidentityrequiresthattheybedefinedagainstother‘lessthanhuman’beings
whosepresenceenablesandreinforcestheirsuperiority’.
Inthepost-colonialcontextarequirementof‘sameness’andconformityhaslargely
replacedtheformalexplicitpolicyofassimilation.Thisthenoftenmanifestsas‘mimicry’
andstrandspeopleinastateoflimbo–neverfullyequalneverabletobefullythesame.
Bhabha(1984)talksaboutthisparadoxwherethe‘colonialauthorityrepeatedlyturnsfrom
mimicry–adifferencethatisalmostnothingbutnotquite–tomenace–adifferencethat
isalmosttotalbutnotquite’(p132).Themenaceisparticularlyobviouswhenfullyqualified
Indigenousteachersrefusetoplaytheirpartandbegood‘mimics’butinsteadmove
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beyondtherolesassignedtothem,andthelimitsthathavebeenmethodicallyputinplace,
andattempttoasserttheirownknowledgeandpedagogicalunderstandings,basednoton
WesternepistemologiesandontologiesbutonIndigenousones.ThisthreatensWhite
hegemonytothecoreandtheresponseisusuallypowerfulandswift.Thisisdiscussed
furtherinthenexttwosectionsonKnowledgeStatusandSystemicWhiteness.
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8.2.5KnowledgestatusandWhitenessenshrinedincurricula
Oneofthekeyexperiencesemergingfromtheteachernarrativeswasthattheyfelt
powerfulformsofexclusionworkingagainstthemintheirworkinschoolsaswellasin
theirownexperienceofteachereducation.Oneofthewaysthattheyfeltthisexclusion
wasthroughtheskillsandknowledgeofthenon-localwesternknowledgeholdersbeing
givenpreferenceovertheskillsandknowledgewithinthelocalcommunity.Specificallyall
oftheteachersspokeaboutIndigenouslanguagesandknowledgesbeingtreatedasless
importantandlessvaluablethattheEnglishlanguageandWesternknowledgesandthe
formerbeingcrowdedoutofthecurriculumbythelatter.
ThisprioritisationwasoftenmadeclearthroughtheactionsanddecisionoftheSchool
Principal.Thenarrativestalkedabouttheinfluentialandpowerfulroleplayedbythe
Principalineithersupporting,enhancingandleadingtheirschooltowardsthekindof
knowledgeworktheteacherparticipantsfeltshouldbeprioritised,orbeingthecauseof
significantdifficultiesandbarrierstothiskindofknowledgework.
…weusedtogotoleadershipmeetingsandIusedtoseethem…coupleofPrincipals
…notwhereIwantedtoseethem…Iwasyouknowforthatparticularprogramand
theywereagainstus.AndIthought…shewasgonnabewithme‘cosIwasgoingfor
programs,butshewasagainstme.
Theteacherparticipantsraisedimportantquestionsaboutthelackofrequirementfor
PrincipalstoshowtheyhadthequalitiesrequiredfromanIndigenousepistemological
pointofviewtoleadinthecontextofaremotecommunityschool.
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Maybehedidn’tknowsorrybusinessorthingsthatwerehappening?BecauseIlost
oneofmysonsinthat1990.YeahandIstayedawayforlikeayearmaybe,from
work.Maybethat…becausesomeKardiyaslikehimweren’treallysupportiveand
good….Culture,culturalthingsthathappened.
Oneteacherparticipantinparticularexplicitlyquestionedhowanon-localpersoncould
achieveahighlevelpositioninherschoolwithoutknowledgeaboutIndigenousculture
thatshefeltwasapre-requisitetoworkinaremoteschool.Shemadethecomparisonthat
toattainanequallyhighpositionshewouldhavetodemonstrateahighlevelofknowledge
andcompetenceinthewesterneducationalsystem.
andsomeonethat'snotreally,youknow…neverhaslearnedanythingabout
Indigenouscultureisalwaysgoingtobethrowingthingsatyou,youknow,blocking
it.Hepretendsheknowsbutthewaywhathetalksaboutitdoesn’tmakeanysense
tome….hedoesn’tknowwhattosayaboutit,torespond…IfanIndigenousperson
want(s)tobeinahigherposition(we’ve)gottogothroughall,gottofaceallthat,
butsometimesyouknownon-Indigenousteacherignoresandtryandpushitback….
Theteacherparticipantsalsohighlightedtheirextensiveexperiencesofmisunderstandings
andmisinterpretationscausedbyPrincipalsandteacherstakingonrolesinschoolswhere
theydon’tunderstandtheimportantculturalnuancesinthatcommunitycontext.
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…wehadalotofchangesofourPrincipals,yeahtheycomewithdifferentideas.
Somewouldcomewith'I'mnotgonnabeafriendhere,I'mjustheretocleanupthe
mess'youknow'withmypower'.
Theymadespecificmentionoftheimpactthishadoncommunitybasedteachereducation
programswhenrepeatedlyschoolbasedsupportwaswithdrawnfortheteacherswho
werestudyingwhenthePrincipaldidnotunderstandthingsfromaculturalorcommunity
basedperspective.
He(Principal)wasn’treallysupportive….becausemaybehedidn’thelpmethrougha
lotofthings,likemaybehedidn’twantmetostudyoranythinglikethat
WhenIdidmypracteachingandIwasworkinginthatlittleroom,doingplanning,no
helpfromthePrincipal,lawa,nohelpingwithplanningoranything
Ultimatelyeachoftheteacherparticipantshadfelttheeffectoftoomuchpowerinthe
handsofthenon-Indigenousleadershipandtheblatantdisrespectanddisregardfor
Indigenouswaysofknowingandknowledgesystems.
AustralianIndigenousscholarAileenMoreton-Robinson(2004)helpsustounderstand
someofwhatishappeningunderneaththesurfaceofthesebehavioursthroughan
examinationofWhiteness.Sheexplainsthat‘Whitenessasanepistemologicalapriori
providesforawayofknowingandbeingthatispredicatedonsuperiority’(p75).Inother
wordsingeneralnon-Indigenouspeoplewillcomeintoaneducationalspaceandassume
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thattheirwayofknowingisprimaryandsuperiorandthereforeshouldtakepriorityinthe
children’s’learning.Thisbehaviourissteepedinthepoliticalhistorythatarrivedin
Australiawiththecolonists.SincetheEnlightenment,thedominantepistemological
positionwithintheWesternworldhasbeenthewhiteCartesianmalesubjectwhose
disembodiedwayofknowinghasbeenpositionedinoppositionto…Indigenouspeople’s
productionofknowledge(Moreton-Robinson2000).Oncetheworldmovedintothe
periodofEmpireandcolonialexpansionthesewhiteAnglonations,representing
themselvesastheholdersoftruehumanity,‘positionedthemselvesasthe
liberators…bringingcivilizationtoanuncivilizedpeople’(Moreton-Robinson2004,p78).It
isinterestingthattheteacherparticipantsinthisdoctoralresearchstudyindicatedthat
thisformofknowledgeexclusionmightwellbeareasonthatwoulddiscourageother
Indigenousteachersfromwantingtopursuefurthereducationandtraining.
Theexclusionthattheteacherparticipantshaveexperiencedthroughouttheircareersisat
timesembodiedintheunequalregardinwhichtheirlanguagesareheldbynon-Indigenous
colleaguesandleaders.Oneparticipantpointedtothedecisionsmadeaboutcurriculum,
sayingthatPrincipalsinsistthatsomeelementsofthecurriculumweretaughtwhile
ignoringandnotmakingtimeforotherpartsofthecurriculum.
Howcomethiscurriculum,thisiswhatyou'vegottodointheclassroomandthis
Principal,boss,doesthewrongthings...We’vegotthatlanguageandculture
programintheschoolandthey’vegotnothingtolose,whiteteachers,ifthat
programgoes,‘costhey’vegottheseotherprograms,Englishones...Theycanjust
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change,change,changetheprogram.We’veonlygotthisoneprogramthatwe
wanttoholdontoandit’sverysadtoseeitgo...It’simportant,wewanttohold
ontoit.Itcomeswithouridentity.Theydon’tcare.
ThisisparticularlysointhecaseofAustralianIndigenouslanguagesandculturebeing
taughtaspartofthecurriculumandspecificallyinrelationtothehistoryofbilingual
educationinremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory.
…weweregivingallourideastothembutnottakingtheright,youknowthey
weren’tbringingtherightideasbacktous,becauselikebilingualteachingwouldbe
like'literacylearning'theywouldbringthatanotherwordinbecausemaybethey
didn’tliketheword‘bilingual’.Theywouldchangethatbilingualprogramintoa
'literacyprogram'whichwasnotthefullideaofbilingual,onlyfewthingsthatthey
wouldpickouttomakeitlooklikebilingualbutyoucallit'literacyprogram'torunin
theschool
Theseprogramsareconstantlyunderthreatofhavingtheirfundingreducedorcut
altogetherandareattheconstantmercyofkneejerkpolicyresponsesasevidencedbythe
overnightparliamentarydecisiontointroducea‘FourhoursofEnglish’policyin2008
(NorthernTerritoryGovernment,2008).
Asitis,theseIndigenousculturalknowledge-basedprogramsareseenasdiscreteunitsto
betaughtinisolation,ratherthanasthefoundationforembeddinglocalknowledgeinto
thecurriculumthroughtheuseofthelocalcommunitylanguage.Thestatusofthese
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programsbecomereducedtotrivialexamplesandartefactsofculturesuchasfoods,
singingsongsordancing,readingfolktalesandotherlessthanscholarlypursuitsinsteadof
engagingwithrecognitionofafundamentallydifferentbutequallyimportantconceptionof
knowledge(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006).Alltoooftenthecatchalltermof‘cultural
inclusiveness’(Wilson2014,p85)isinvokedtotalkaboutthewaythat‘culture’can
functiontosupportthebusinessoftheWesternschoolingagenda.Fogarty,Lovelland
Dodson(2015,p12)talkabouthowbyusingthisapproach‘Aboriginalcultureneedonlybe
takenintoconsiderationintworespects…whereculturalnormsorcommonbehaviours
mightactasanimpedimenttoeducationalsuccess…(or)whereAboriginalinvolvementor
culturalactivitiescanbeusedasastrategyforincreasingstudentinvolvementinschool
activities,orinincreasingstudentcompliancewiththeeducationdepartment’sobjectives’.
‘Culture’isonlytheretoservetheagendaofwhiteness.Thisindicatesanimportantpower
differentialinwhodecideswhatisimportantinacurriculasenseandhowthatisdefined.
Ladson-BillingsandTate(2006)useaCriticalRaceTheorylenstoexplainwhatishappening
here.Theyexplainthiswiththefollowingstatement:
Whenstudentsarerewardedonlyforconformitytoperceived“whitenorms”or
sanctionedforculturalpractices(e.g.,dress,speechpatterns,unauthorized
conceptionsofknowledge),whitepropertyisbeingrenderedalienable.(Ladson-
BillingsandTate2006,p22)
Theyfurtherexplainhowtheavailabilityofenrichedintellectualpropertydefinesa
person’s“opportunitytolearn”.Sobyenshriningwhatconstitutesenrichedintellectual
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propertyintoeducational“standards”thatdetailwhatstudentsshouldknowandbeable
todothedominantsystemturnsstandardizededucationintoa‘formofintellectual
property’(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006,p18.).Sointhisway,throughastandardized
curriculum,Whitenessactslikepropertythatcanaddvaluetoyourstandingifyou
conform,ordecreasevaluetoyourstandingifyourebel.Indigenousknowledgeisreduced
tothestatusof‘culturalinclusivity’andisonlyincludedasamechanismtochannel
studentstowardsthewhitecurriculum.
Oneofthefourfunctionsofwhitenessasproperty,accordingtoCRT,is‘reputationand
statusproperty’.Ladson-BillingsandTate(2006)suggestthattoidentifyaschoolprogram
asnon-whiteisanywayistodiminishitsreputationorstatus,andtheyofferthespecific
exampleofbilingualeducationintheUnitedStates.ArecentexampleofthisinAustraliais
thedecisioninNewSouthWalestomakeAboriginallanguagesaHSC(finalyearofhigh
school)subjectfrom2016,butthequalificationthatthesubjectwillbedesignatedasa
‘content-endorsedcourse,whichmeansitwillnotcounttowardsastudent'sATAR’
(Universityentrancerankingscore)(Bagshaw2015).Thismeansthatitwillnotbeasubject
thatwillsupportstudentswithpointstowardstheirUniversityentrancescore.Asasubject
itwillnotholdthestatusofEnglish,orevenofanotherlanguagesuchasFrenchor
Indonesian.
AdditionallyCRTpointsoutthatanotheroneofthefourpropertyfunctionsofwhitenessis
the‘rightstouseandenjoyment’andthatthisrightisalsoreflectedinthestructureofthe
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curriculumwhich‘emphasizescriticalthinking,reasoningandlogic’(Ladson-Billingsand
Tate2006,p23).Themainstreamcurriculuminschoolsisbasedonwhiteculturalvalues
andknowledgecategories.Studentsarerequiredtodemonstratetheabilitiestooperatein
thesewaysinordertobesuccessful,whichinturnadvantagesthoselearnerswhoshare
thisepistemologicalstandpointanddisadvantageslearnerswhodonot.Moreton-Robinson
(2004,p79)agreesthat‘Representationsofwhitenesscontinuetobeenshrinedin
curricula’anddeliberatelycreateinequalitiesbecause‘withinwhiteness’sregimeofpower
allrepresentationsarenotofequalvalue:somearedeemedtruthfulwhileothersare
classifiedasfictitious’(p76).ThuswhitenessandWesternepistemologiesarecreatedas
‘normativerepresentations’(p77).Inthiswaywhitenessbecame‘thesystemofbeliefs,
valuesandknowledgethatcreatedaracialhierarchy(that)placedwhitenessatthetop’(p
87).Itisthishierarchicalbeliefthatisguidingthedecisionsofthenon-Indigenous
Principalsandteacherswithregardtowhatknowledgeisdeemedimportantforinclusion
intheschoolcurriculum,andisguidingteachereducationfacultiesforwhatneedstobe
includedinteachereducation.
Apowerfulexampleofthiskindofcurriculumprioritysettingistherelegationof
Indigenousknowledgeto‘LanguageandCulture’programsandtheabsolutelycentralityof
thewestern(Anglo-derived)‘literacyandnumeracy’agendainIndigenouseducationnow,
asdiscussedinChapters2and3.Itshouldbenotedthatthiswasnotalwaysthecase.
Therewasaperiodduringthe1970sand1980swhenamoreholisticviewofknowledge
andlanguagewastakenwithregardstoIndigenouseducationinremotecommunities.This
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isexemplifiedinthefollowingexcerptfromtheintroductionofthebilingualeducation
policyintheNorthernTerritory,
…theaimisforthesechildrentocommencetheirschoolingintheirownlanguage,
proceedtotheacquisitionofliteracyskillsinthatlanguage,thenacquireliteracyin
EnglishandhavemostoftheirsubsequentschoolinginEnglish(Tandy1973,p21)
ThisgaverisetoagenerationofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunities
undertakingteachereducationandthroughthatprocessfindingavoicetoarticulatetheir
ownideasaboutwhateducationmeantfromanIndigenousstandpoint.Anexampleofthis
isthefollowingquotefromYolnguscholarDrMarika,
Educationmeansmorethanjusthavingprintliteracyintwolanguages–itmeans
havingstrongemphasisonYolnguknowledgeaswell.Indoingthiswearetryingto
getawayfromthe‘ThreeLittlePigsinGumatj’ideaandbringpropercultural
knowledgeintotheschool.(Marika1999,p112)
Marikahowever,soundsawarningbellabouttheproblematicsystembasedchangesshe
alreadysawcomingoverthehorizonatthatpointintime,includingtheintroductionof
standardizedtesting,literacybenchmarksandlanguageprofiling(Marika1999,pp.10-11).
Sadly,aroundthetimethatqualifiedIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesinthe
NorthernTerritorywerefindingwaysofarticulatingtheirideasaboutIndigenous
knowledgeandpedagogyinschools(Bunburyetal1991;Blitneretal,2000)theeconomic
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rationalist,neo-liberal,marketdrivenagendawasinfullswing.Inthisnewpoliticaland
economicparadigmclassroomteacherswere
expectedtoshapestudentsinwaysthatwillallowthemtoproduceandconsumein
theglobalmarketplace.Toaidinthiseconomicassimilation,thisdehumanizing
process,teachersarefrequentlyhandedscripted,standardizedcurricula
(Weilbacher2012,p2).
Akeymechanisminensuringtheproductionoftheseproducingandconsumingeconomic
unitswastheproductionofastandardisedcurriculumthatcentredaroundmeasurable
literacyandnumeracylevels.Thestandardizedtestingbecameanincreasinglycentralway
ofassessingtheselevelsandbecamethecorefocusofwhatteacherswereexpectedteach
towards.Smee(2013)notesthatastheyearswentbytheNationalAssessmentProgram,
LiteracyandNumeracy(knownasNAPLAN)resultscontinuedtopaintableakpictureabout
theprogressbeingmadein‘literacyandnumeracy’forIndigenousstudents,particularly
thosefromremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory.Thisledtoevenmoreintensive
emphasisontheneedforteachertofocusonthisattheexpenseofallotheraspectsofthe
curriculum.
Thisnarrowcurriculafocusandheavyemphasisonstandardizedtestingcreatesanumber
ofentrenchedinequalities.Young(1990,p209)pointsoutthat‘Standardisedtesting,while
oftenpresentedasvalue-freeandneutral,hasbeenfoundtogiveadvantagetothoseof
thedominantcultureasthetestsoftenreflectparticularvaluechoicesandcultural
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meanings’.Rudolph(2013)givessomeexamplesofhowthishappensfromtheAustralian
context,
thesetestsshowpeopleusingEnglishandMathematicalknowledge.Whenthe
peopleportrayedinthesescenariosarepredominantlyofAnglooriginand
experience,itcanhavetheeffectofsuggestingitispeoplelikethisthataresuccessful
andconfidentusersofthisknowledge….studentswho…canseethemselvesoraspects
oftheirexperiencesrepresentedandthesituationsportrayedaremorelikelytobe
thosetheyhaveexperienced,thusenablingthemtoconnectwhatisbeingaskedof
themintheteststotheirownexperiences….whilethosewhohavetoimaginethese
scenariosandstruggletoconnecttheirownexperience(p212).
Vass(2015)highlightsthatthisneo-liberal,marketdrivenapproachreductivelyequates
improvededucational‘achievements’withpotentialeconomicsecurity,invitingthose
involvedineducationtofocusonnumerical(test-based)improvements,ratherthana
moreholisticstudent-centredapproachtoschooling.Inthisneo-liberalparadigm
educationisrepositionedas‘technicalandbureaucratic’ratherthan‘socio-politicaland
pedagogic’(Fogarty,LovellandDodson2015,p3).
Morerecentlythisstrongemphasison‘literacyandnumeracy’hasfinallyinfiltratedthe
TeacherEducationsystemwiththe2014‘ActionNow:ClassroomReadyTeachers’report
recommendingthat‘entrantstoinitialteachereducationprograms…havepersonalliteracy
andnumeracylevelsbroadlyequivalenttothetop30percentofthepopulation(Action
Now:ClassroomReadyTeachers2014,p.12).By2015ameasurementmechanismhadalso
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beendevelopedintheformof‘TheTest–anationalLiteracyandNumeracytestforpre-
serviceteachers’(AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducationandTraining,viewed
24/9/2015).Bymakingthisabenchmarkrequirement,therequirementforWhitenessin
teachershasbecomeentrenched.Theculturalandlinguisticbackground,knowledge,
languageandskillsofTeacherEducationcandidateshasallbeenrelegatedtobeingmuch
lessimportantthattheirlevelofEnglishliteracyandwesternnumeracy.Wilson(2014p.
196)notesthatthecombinationofthe‘lowliteracylevelofcandidates’andtheAustralian
InstituteofSchoolLeaderships(AITSL)‘requirementsthatteachereducationstudentsare
inthetop30%ofthecommunityinliteracy’haspresentedbarriersforIndigenousteacher
educationstudents,andsuggeststhatthishasimpactedonrecruitment.
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8.2.6Systemicwhitenessandinstitutionalracism
Bothoftheprevioustwosectionsonmimicryandknowledgestatusareexamplesofhow
whitenesspermeatestheentireeducationalsysteminremoteIndigenouscommunitiesin
CentralAustralia.Herewediscussadditionalwaysthatwhitenessisembeddedinto
educationalinstitutionsattheDepartmentallevel,theleadershiplevelandthe
interpersonallevel.
8.2.6.1SystemicwhitenessattheDepartmentlevel
Despitethedecadesthathavepassedthecolonial,assimilationistideologyisstillaliveand
wellinremoteNorthernTerritorySchools.Itisnotasobviousasitusedtobebecausethe
timeshavechangedandwiththemthevocabularyanddiscoursesused.Buttheideologyof
whitenessremainsthereasfirmlyasiteverwas.InCriticalRaceTheorywhitenessistalked
aboutintermsoffourpropertyfunctions.Oneofthesefunctionsisthe‘absoluterightto
exclude’whichineducationwasmanifestedmostobviouslyinthepastbyinitiallydenying
anyonewhowasnon-whiteaccesstoschoolingaltogether,andlaterbythecreationof
separateschools(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006p.22).Theoccurrenceofthisinthe
NorthernTerritorycontextwasdescribedindetailatthebeginningofChapter2.Itis
importanttounderstandingthissocio-historicalcontextofracismandwhitenessas
backgroundtomanyofthebehavioursweseestilloccurringinschools,eventhoughat
timestheyarehardertosee.CarmichaelandHamilton(1967)notedthat‘institutional
racism...islessovert,farmoresubtle,lessidentifiableintermsofspecificindividuals
committingtheacts.Butitisnolessdestructiveofhumanlife.[It]originatesinthe
operationofestablishedandrespectedforcesinthesociety,andthusreceivesfarless
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publiccondemnation’(Carmichael&Hamilton,1967,inCashmore&Jennings,2001,p.
112).Someofthese‘establishedandrespectedforces’presentthemselvesintheformof
governmentandeducationpoliciesandpractices.Gillborn(2006,p.11)reinforcesthis
criticalinsightandthatwenowfindourselvesinaneraof‘thedevelopmentofincreasingly
racistandexclusionaryeducationpoliciesthatoperatebeneaththeveneerofprofessed
toleranceanddiversity…de-politicizedandmanagerialistlanguageofschooleffectiveness
andimprovement’.
Theteacherparticipantsinthisresearchwereallacutelyawareofthegreatshiftsinpower
andcontrolthattheyexperiencedatthehandsofwhattheycalled‘TheDepartment’or
‘TheOffice’.Heretheyarereferringtothebureaucratic,policyandfinancialpowerover
thedailyoperationofremoteschoolswieldedbytheEducationDepartmentofthe
NorthernTerritory.Inparticulartheypointedoutthevastpower‘TheDepartment’hadin
relationtotheresourcingandfundingofprogramsandstaffingintheirschools.Theywere
alsopainfullyconsciousoftheall-importantre-introductionofthe‘Englishonly’agendaof
theDepartmentalschools.
Someparticipantscouldremembertheexactmomentwhentheyfeltthepowerof‘The
Department’sweepinandtakecontrol,
DepartmentofEducation…Youknowtheygotabit'youneedtostartteachingthe
goodthingsnow,goodway.Becausefrom(under)thattreetothatclassroomnow,
youcanteachlikebetterEnglishyouknow.
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Othersspokeofexperiencingthispowerintheformofdecisionsmadeaboutresourcesat
theirschool,
…weusedtohaveasecondaryclasstoobutgovernmentnowIdon’tknow,
governmentcuttingfundingandteachers,cutting...
AtothertimesthisWhitenesswasexperiencedasanabsenceofsupport.Someteacher
spokeaboutthelackofsupportandorientationtotheworkofbeingateacherprovidedby
‘TheDepartment’whentheyfirstbecamefullyqualified,
SowhenIfirstbecameateacherinmyclassroomtheysaid'yeahgoaheadthisisall
yourstuffand...teach!'Buttherewerealsorulesthere,andlawsfromeducation,I
wasexpectedtolearnthembutIdidn’thaveanyonetellingme,Ihadtogoaloneand
justtryingtodomybest.
Othersspokeofthefactthatdespitebeingaskedtotakeonconsiderableadditional
workloadsandresponsibilitiesandconcurrentlybuildinguptheirownexperiencethey
experiencedanabsenceofopportunity,mentoringorsupporttohelpthemadvancetheir
careersastheygainedmoreexperience.Manyoftheotherstoriessharedinthistheme
relatedtothelackofsupporttheseteachersfelttheyreceivedandhowthiswasaformof
inequalityandexclusion.Teachersspokeofseeingothernon-Indigenouscolleague
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advancearoundthemandtryingtoseekguidanceandsupporttofollowinasimilarcareer
path,butbeingblockedorstymiedthroughoutthecourseoftheircareers
…attheendIwasaskingformoreequalitylike,inlikeseniorpositions,notinthe
classroom.CosI’vegotalotofskillsintheclassroom,practices.Buttomovemeas
likebeaconsultantorsomethingthatIwantedtoaskfor…(but)nobodywas
interestedtoaskme…theywerejustaskingmetodothisanddothat,tomaketheir
….jobsveryinterestingortomaketheirjobseasy…Iwasyouknowgivingtothem
butIdidn’tgetsomethingback.
IwantedtochangetonextlevelwhichIdidn’tgetitbecauseofthebureaucrats.I
reallywantedtobenexttosomeonewho'sbigbosslike(name)orsomeone.Iwanted
tobewiththemsothateducationinIndigenouscommunitiescanyouknowgohow
wewantittogoandIreallywantedtostepintodothat,buttherewasnosupport
IseeyouknowteacherswhoaretherealongtimeIseethemgetintonewroles,
steppingoutoftheclassroomandgivenaprofessionaljobslikeESL,co-ordinatoror
mentorforteachingteacherswhoarefirstout-jobslikethatyouknow,I(sh)ould
havebeenoffered(the)challenge(ofthe)nextlevel
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Evenmorethanreceivingnosupporttoadvance,theseteachersspokeofmanytimes
when‘TheDepartment’intervenedattheschoolleveltoremoveIndigenousteachersfrom
positionsofauthorityandputnon-Indigenouspeopleintheirplace,
…mustbesomeoneintheOfficeischanging,awa…changingandputtingwhitefellas
andpushingAnanguoutside.
Wedidalotofstudy,alotofhardwork….somethingcameacrossandtookitover.I
didalittlebit,maybeforcoupleofyearsItookover.Thensomethingcameoverand
pushedmeout…MaybeEducationDepartmentyouknow.I'mthinkingyouknow,I'm
thinkingotherwayround,maybeEducationDepartmentyouknow,they'renot
lookingatusbecauseweareAboriginal.That'swhy.Becauseofourskin.
Soconsistentandfamiliarwasthistypeofexperiencefortheteacherparticipantsthatthe
onlyexplanationthatmadesensewasovertinstitutionalracism.
8.2.6.2SystemicwhitenessandpowerintheformoftheschoolPrincipal
InmanyinstancestheschoolPrincipalbecamethelocalinstrumentof‘TheDepartment’to
enactpoliciesdecreedfromonhigh.Manyoftheteacherparticipantscommentedonthe
highturnoverofPrincipals,thepowertheyyieldandthedamagetheycandointheshort
timeoftheirtenureattheschool.Inparticulartheteacherparticipantscommentedon
Principalsbeingopenlyhostiletotheirteachingstaffandcausingagreatdealofanxiety
andconflictattheschool.Thisinmanycaseswouldbedirectlyrelatedtothehighturnover
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ofnon-Indigenousteachersatthatschool,addingtotheinstability.Theyalsotalkedabout
thelackofpowerexperiencedbylocalcommunityteachersinmattersoverteacher
recruitmentaswellasdecidingwhichonesneededtoleave,
…wehadalotofchangesofourPrincipals,yeahtheycomewithdifferentideas.
…someteachersleftbecauseofher,yeahtheysaid'Ican’tworkwhenshe'shere,I
willcomebackwhenthere'sanotherPrincipal'.
…Badonesstaylongtime,butwewanttotrytogetridofthem,wepushthemaway
butgoodonestheygoquickly.
OneofthewaysthatPrincipalswieldedtheirpowerwastocreateaveneerofconsultation
withtheIndigenousteachersandthecommunitymembersbuttoultimatelynotlistento
anyadviceorguidanceoffered,andthenusetheirpowertoactindependently,usually
accordingthewishesof‘TheDepartment’.
Idon’tknowwhyshecomesandasksme?...ifshe'snotgoingtolisten,justtomake
mehappy,showmethepieceofpaper,soIcan’tthink'OhI'mpartofthisaswell'...
Shedidn’treallywanttolistentome.
Hehadthatpowerforhimselftoruleoverusandhewasn’tlistening,hewashurting
us,hewasdoingthingshisway.Hedidn’twanttolistentoanybody.
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…thingswerehappeningaroundlikePrincipalwouldspeaktoastaffmemberor
otherTjulkurrainsteadoftellingoraskingme…Principalwouldtakeitoverandstart
doingitonhisown.
TherewasalsoanumberofcommentsaboutthePrincipalsusingtheirpowertoreinforce
theirownpositionandsecuritywithinthesystem.SomeexamplesinvolvedthePrincipal
circumnavigatingthelocalstaffbyrecruitingtheirownpeopletoworkintheschool.This
sortof‘stackingthedeck’wasexperiencedasawayofkeepingallthepowerina
concentratedway.Oneparticipantremarked‘Theycomewithbadpowers’.
Shewantstodoitherownway...shewasusingherownpowertorunherdown,run
overher...shedidthatwithherownpowerbutshedidn’tsharethatwithothers
…healreadyhadahighpositionwhenhe'saPrincipal,butgivingthatET2
(leadership)positiontohisfamilywhichnoteacherstheredidn’tgetit.Evenusasa
Yapateacher,lawa.
Anothermoreinsidiousmanifestationofexclusionarypowercamedisguisedofteninthe
formoffriendshiporkindness.Manyoftheteacherparticipantsdiscussedtimeswhenthey
wereexperiencingdifficultiesintheirlives.Therewereanumberofexamplesgivenof
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schoolleadersandPrincipalsinparticularusingtheseissuesasanopportunitytorelegate
thesequalifiedteacherstoparaprofessionalandassistantlevelpositionsinwaysthatare
unimaginableiftheteacherswerewhite,
…theysaid'ohyoujustneedtosignthisformhereandthenyou'llbecomean
assistantteacher',straightawayinsteadofgivingusahand,'we'lljustgiveyou
maybesixmonthsleaveorayearoff'
(Principalsaid)'youwillstillbeateacher'…butnotonthesalaryside,palya?It'sonly
assistantteacherpay….hewastryingtohelpmelike'you'rehavingproblemsathome
andgettingstressed,andIwanttohelpyou'.
Thiskindofbackhanded‘help’isidentifiedbyDixsonandRousseau(2006b,p.41)as‘false
empathy’.Theyidentifyitasapaternalisticformofempathywhichisacommon
characteristicofwhiteliberals.Delgado(1996)alsorefertothisideaoffalseempathy
whena‘whitebelievesheorsheisidentifyingwithapersonofcolour,butinfactisdoing
soonlyinaslight,superficialway’(p.12)orindeedhelpingsomeonelessfortunatethan
themnavigateasituationina‘fundamentallyjustsociety’(p.91).Thistypeofbehaviouris
alsolinkedtoFriere’snotionof‘falsegenerosity’(Friere1972,p.21),whichpointsoutthat
anychangeinthestatus,particularlytheadvancementofthosebeinghelped,threatens
thepositionofthehelper.BasedonFriere’sargument,inaremoteschoolifanIndigenous
teacherbecomesfullyqualifiedthenthatreducestheneedforandthreatensthestatusof
non-Indigenousfullyqualifiedteachers.Sotheraciallyprivilegedarepossessivelyinvested
inthestatusquoandwillbehaveinwaysthatprotectthatprivilege(Lipsitz2006).
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8.2.6.3Interpersonalwhiteness
Manyoftheexamplesofbeingexcluded,madetofeelinferiororeveninvisiblehappened
intheeverydayworkingoftheschool.Itmanifestedusuallyintheselectiverefusalbytheir
whitecounterpartstoacknowledgethesefullyqualifiedteachersasequaltothemselves.
sometimesthatteamteachercanbelikeabossinthatclassroom,andshe'sputting
medown
Wewerehavingastaffmeeting.Onlynon-Indigenousstafftheytalktoeachother
insteadoftalkingtoAnangustaff,andonedayIbangedthetableandsaidtothem
'heyweareAnangustaffhere,we'renotinvisible.Wewanttoshareourideastoo!'
Theyallstoppedtalkingandputtheirheadsdown.Isaid'youonlycomeandgo,but
wearehere,westayhereforalongtime'.
Sheleftmeout,shedidn’tincludeme,Iwasjustaninvisiblepersonsittingthere.
…'YouthinkI'mastudentwiththem?'Itoldthemyouknowtheyshouldrecogniseus
too!
Intheirhomecommunitiestheseteacherparticipantsaresomeoftheveryfewpeople
whohavecompletedhighereducationqualifications.Thismeansthattheywereoften
calleduponbyotherorganizationsandcommitteestoberepresentativecommunity
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members,decision-makersandadvisoryconsultants.Thishigher-levelrepresentativework
isoftenworkthatisentirelyshoulderedbytheIndigenousstaffintheschools.However,
insteadoftheseextrarolesbeingrewardedandacknowledgedintheschools,theteacher
participantsspokeinsteadoftheexperienceofliterallybeingexcludedfromwithin-school
conversations,professionaldialoguesanddecision-makingprocesses.
…strangethingswerehappeningandonlypeoplethatworkedamongthemselves
wereyouknowkeepingitforthemselvesinsteadofengagingme.
…Iwasalittlebitfeelingthat,thattheywerecriticizingme,butneverseenin
action,butfelt.
Gillborn(2006)arguesthatacharacteristicwhiteassumptionisthatracismissimpleand
crudeandobvious.However,institutionalracismisfrequentlyunintendedandhidden.At
thesystemlevelitsagendaissocialcontrolthroughtheinsistenceon‘sameness’.Atthe
interpersonallevelsuchbehaviourisoftenaproductof‘dysconsciousracism’onthepart
ofthosebelongingtothedominantrace.Thesedifferenceswillbediscussedbelow.
8.2.6.4Standardisationandthequalityagenda
Theracebasedconversationsofthe1960sand1970sduringthecivilrightsmovement
advancedlegalequalityforpeopleofdifferentracesinplacessuchastheUnitedStatesof
AmericaandAustralia.HoweverasGillborn(2006,p.26)remindsus‘racismiscomplex,
contradictory,andfast-changing’.Sonowwearefacedwithacontemporaryrealitywhere
thelanguagehaschangedbutnottherealityofraceinequality(Gillborn2006).Racismhas
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certainlybecomewellcamouflaged(Tate1997,p.235)tothepointwheremostcommonly
weare‘abletodiscernasracistonlyindividualmanifestationsofpersonalprejudiceand
hostility.Systemic,collectiveandcoordinatedgroupbehavioursconsequentlydropoutof
sight.Collectiveexercisesofpowerthatchannelrewards,resources,andopportunities
fromonegrouptoanotherwillnotappear‘racist’fromthisperspective,becausethose
exercisingthepowerrarelyannouncetheirintentiontodiscriminateagainstindividuals
designatedasraciallydifferent.Yetthey‘nonethelessgiveracialidentitiestheirsinister
socialmeaningbygivingpeoplefromdifferentracesvastlydifferentlifechances’(Lipsitz
2006,p20).DelgadoandStefanic(2000,pxvi)callracism‘aningrainedfeatureofour
landscape’andMacpherson(1999,p.321)defines‘InstitutionalRacism’as:
…thecollectivefailureofanorganisationtoprovideanappropriateandprofessional
servicetopeoplebecauseoftheircolour,culture,orethnicorigin.Itcanbeseenor
detectedinprocesses,attitudesandbehaviourwhichamounttodiscrimination
throughunwittingprejudice,ignorance,thoughtlessnessandraciststereotyping
whichdisadvantageminorityethnicpeople.
Sohowdoesthissystemicorinstitutionalracismmanifestineducationandspecificallyin
teachereducation?Ithappensinmanyways,butonepowerfulexamplecanbefoundin
therecentcreationof‘ProfessionalStandardsforTeachers’andinthediscoursearound
‘qualityteaching’.Gillborn(2006)remindsusthattheuseofdiscourseisoneoftheprime
meansbywhichacriticalperspectiveisdeniedlegitimacyandthestatusquoisdefended.
The‘quality’discourseisusedbecauseitishardtoargueagainst.Noonewantstoargue
thattheteachersinourschoolsshouldnotbeofhighquality.Theproblemwiththeuseof
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thistermisthatitisdefinedthroughaculturallens.Boththeumbrellaterm‘quality
teachers’andthesetofProfessionalStandardsforTeachers(AustralianInstitutefor
TeachingandSchoolLeadership2011),thatnowexisttofleshoutwhatwemeanby
quality,originatefromawhite,Englishspeaking,Westernizedepistemologicalperspective.
Butinsidiouslytheyarepresentedasrepresentativesof‘transcendent,acontextual,
universal…truthsorprocedures’(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006,p.20).Weilbacher(2012,
p.2)putsitsuccinctlyassertingthat‘standardizationisWhiteness’andlabelling
educationalstandardsa‘currentpowerfulexampleofthedeliberatenatureofdominance’.
The‘quality’discourseisportrayedas‘educationalcommonsense’(Gillborn2006,p.12)
butitisdangerousinthatitsetsupaninvisiblebinary.Ifsomethingcanbemeasuredas
highqualitythenotherthingscanberelegatedasloworlowerquality.Itisincreasingly
ubiquitousinreportsandresearchwrittenaboutteachersinAustralia,andhasdeveloped
intothedefaultpositionofhowthesystemwishestodefinetheprofessionalroleof
teachers.
Inordertobeassessedas‘quality’teachercandidatesneedtomeetasetofquality
‘standards’thataredefinedbyaWesternepistemology,assessedbyandlargebypeople
fromaWesternworldviewtoreinforceasystemthatprivilegestheWesternknowledge
andpowerstructure.Otherconsiderationsaboutwhatconstitutes‘quality’inaparticular
contexthavebeensystematicallysidelined,devalued,givenalowerprioritythereby
creatinganational‘norm’.Weilbacher(2012,p.4)pointsoutthatwithinthecurrent
standardsenvironment‘eachcommunityisforcedtode-centeritsculturalknowledgeand
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attempttoreachstandardsthatarewrittenandimposedbyentitiesthathavelittleorno
knowledgeofthecommunity’sphysicallocation,history,andeconomyandtheunique
socialrelationshipstothosefactors’.Oneofthemanyproblemswiththisapproachisthat
itisaformofwhatLeonardo(2009)calls‘Whitenessaspolicy’thatrelieson‘race-neutral’
assumptionsthatwilfullyignorethepoliticalandsocio-historicaleventsthatoriginally
createdandnowsustaininequality.Gillborn(2005)buildsonthisideasuggestingthat
policytendstobebuiltonwhathascomebeforeit,withcontemporarypolicyneedingto
beseentoimproveandadapttoevolvingcircumstancesanddemands.Heconnectsthisto
asanitizedorwhitewashedversionofhistorythatseespolicyasarationalprocessof
changewhileconvenientlyignoringthefactthattheprocessremainsembeddedwithina
particularontologicalandepistemologicalframework.
ThisepistemologicalstandpointisvisibleinthelanguagearoundIndigenousteachers
wherethewordqualityisoftenqualifiedbyreferencetolowliteracyandnumeracyskills–
asiftohighlightthatautomaticallytheseliteracyandnumeracylevelsarethemost
importantaspectofwhethersomeoneishighqualityornot.Orperhapsitjustindicatesa
peckingorderintherangeofqualitiesthatarevalued?Nowhereinthestandardsisthere
mentionofthevalueoftheclassroomteacherbeingabletospeakthesamelanguageas
thechildrentheyareteaching.StandardAustralianEnglishisassumedasboththetarget
andthelanguageofinstruction.Thisisashiftfurtherawayfromacknowledgingand
valuingthelocallanguageandknowledgethatIndigenousstudentsandteachersalready
have.ThisiswhatGillbornistalkingaboutwhenhedescribesthe‘moresubtleandhidden
operationsofpowerthathavetheeffectofdisadvantagingoneormoreminorityethnic
groups’(Gillborn2006,p.21).The‘quality’discourse,formalstandardsandinsistenceupon
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‘high’literacyandnumeracyskillsoperatehereasideological,systemic,Trojanhorsesof
assimilation.TheyarebasedontheunquestionedassumptionthatproficiencyinStandard
AustralianEnglishliteracyandWesternnumeracyandthepossessionofaWestern
epistemologicalknowledgestandpointarepre-conditionstobeinga‘quality’teacher.
Picower(2009)callsthesetypesofmechanismsenshrinedinpolicyandproceduralaspects
ofsystemsthe‘toolsofWhiteness’.
Sowhiletherhetoricalintentionsof‘TheDepartment’andschoolleadershipmightinclude
adiscussionofmorequalifiedIndigenousteachersandtheupskillingofIndigenousstaff,
thisisconditionaluponithappeningwithinawhite,unflinchinglyWesternepistemological
system.
Frequentlythosetaskedwithprotectinganddefendingthe‘system’,bethey
representativesof‘TheDepartment’ortheschoolPrincipalastheinstrumentof‘The
Department’onthegroundinremoteschools,willfeelasenseof‘epistemological
disconcertment’(Verran2013)becausethestandardwayofoperatingisbeingquestioned
orchallengedbythepresenceofqualifiedIndigenousteacherswhobringwiththem
differentepistemologicalandontologicalstandpoints.Todealwiththisuneasethese
representativesofwhitenessreadilyemploymechanismssuchasthe‘quality’discourse,
supportedbytheNationalStandardsandliteracyandnumeracylevels,aswaysof
diminishingand/orexcludingthis‘alien’presencethroughsilencingtheseteachers,
denyingthemcareeradvancement,excludingthemfromparticipation,demotingthemand
treatingthemaslessthanequaldespitehavingequivalentWesternqualifications.Inthese
waystheremnantsofcolonialpowerrelationships-inwhichwhitepeoplewere
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unashamedlyseenassuperior-remainembeddedinAustralianeducationdiscoursesand
institutions,despiteovertandstatedconcernforequityandinclusion(Rudolph2013,p.
214).
8.2.6.5Interpersonaldysconsciousracism
WhileIhavearguedabovetoexposethesystemicandinstitutionalracismthatexistsand
positionsIndigenousteachersinremotecommunitiesaslessthanequal,itisimportantto
notethattheliteratureandtheoreticalworkonwhitenessandCriticalRaceTheory
acknowledgethatattheinterpersonallevelmuchofthisbehaviourisnotnecessarily
consciousorintentional.Infactanumberoftheoristsinthisfieldlabelthebehaviour
experiencedbytheteacherparticipantsinthisstudyasaformof‘dysconscious’racism
(Delgado1989;King1991;Wellman1977).King(1991,p.135)definesthetermthus,
Dysconsciousnessisanuncriticalhabitofmind(includingperceptions,attitudes,
assumptions,andbeliefs)thatjustifiesinequityandexploitationbyacceptingthe
existingorderofthingsasgiven.
Wellman(1977)positsthatdysconsciousracismisaformofracismthattacitlyaccepts
dominantwhitenormsandprivileges.Itisnottheabsenceofconsciousnessbutan
impairedconsciousness,adistortedoruncriticalwayofthinkingaboutrace.Uncritical
waysofthinkingaboutracialinequitymeanthatindividualsacceptcertainculturally
sanctionedassumptions,myths,andbeliefsthatjustifythesocialandeconomicadvantages
Whitepeoplehaveasaresultofsubordinatingdiverseothers.Thisacceptancehappens
foranumberofreasons.TheprimaryreasonisexplainedbyLipsitz(2006)asapossessive
investmentinwhiteness.AsKing(1991)pointsoutanyseriouschallengetothestatusquo
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thatcallsracialprivilegeintoquestioninevitablychallengestheself-identityofwhite
peoplewhohaveinternalizedtheseideologicaljustifications.Therealsotendstobea
defensivenesstothisinvestmentwherethosewhobelongtothedominantculturebelieve
that:
…racistthingshappenedinthedistantpastandthatitisunfairtoholdcontemporary
whitesaccountableforthem…(theexpress)irritationatwhattheyperceiveasefforts
tomakethemfeelguiltyorundulyprivilegedbecauseofthingsthattheydidnot
personallydo.Theyfeelinnocentindividuallyandcannotconceiveofacollective
responsibilityforcollectivewrongs(Lipsitz,2006,p.21).
AnotherreasoniswhatCrenshaw(1988)callsa‘restrictiveandexpansiveviewsof
equality’.Crenshaw(1988,p.38)explainsthatwhileanexpansiveviewofequalityin
educationfocusesontheoutcomesforallstudents,
…ineducationaltermsarestrictiveviewofequalityisonewhereequalityisviewedin
termsoftreatmentratherthanoutcomes.Teachersdon’tconnectequalitytothe
outcomesofthestudentsintheirclassonlytotheirownbeliefsabouthowtheytreat
thestudents.
Thatis,ifteachersbelievethattheyarebehavingina‘colourblind’(Crenshaw1988,p.39)
wayandtreatingeveryoneequallythentheyarenotbeingracist.‘Colourblindness’plus
theviewofequalityasprocesspreventsteachersfromreflectingontheirownpractices
andtheirroleintheproductionoftheunderachievementofstudentsofcolour(Crenshaw
1988,p40).
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Manynon-IndigenousteachersgotoworkinremoteIndigenousschoolswith‘good
intentions’butApplebaum(2010)pointsoutthatthe‘goodintentions’ofteacherscango
awrybecausethesesameteachershavebenefitedfromtheeducationsystemand
consequentlyoftenoperatefromadefaultpositionofprotectingandreproducingthe
statusquo.DelgadoandStefancic(2000,pxvii)pointoutthatoften‘whiteeliteswill
tolerateorencourageracialadvancesforblacksonlywhensuchadvancesalsopromote
whiteself-interest’.Vass(2015)agreeswiththispoint,highlightingthatoneofthe
mechanismsofprotectingthelong-terminterestsofwhitenessisbyenablingonly
incrementalgainsforIndigenouspeopleineducation.Soeventhoughtheymaynotbe
fullyconsciousoftheimpactoftheirbehaviours,non-Indigenouseducatorsdysconsciously
actinwaysthatprotectwhitenessandassertthedominanceoftheWestern
epistemologicalstandpoint.Theexamplesintheteachernarrativeshighlightactual
experiencesofinterpersonaldysconsciousracismandthebarriersitcreatesforIndigenous
teachers.
8.2.7Conclusiontodiscussionpartone
Theteacherparticipantsinthisresearchhaveexperiencedmanybarriersduringtheiryears
ofbeinginvolvedinthewesterneducationsystem.Manyofthesebarrierscanbebetter
understoodbyseeingthemthroughthelensesofWhitenesstheoryandCriticalRace
theory,aswellasbydevelopingourunderstandingsofideassuchasdysconsciousracism
andmimicry.Whatwecanseeifwesettheseteachersagainstthesocio-historical
backdropofcolonizationisthatthesystemhasalwayspositionedthemaccordingtorace.
Thishappenedinveryovertandobviouswayspriortoandduringthe1950s.Thelanguage
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usedtodescribeIndigenouspeopleduringthaterashowsusthat‘whiteness’wasvisible
andconsideredsomethingforall‘others’toaspireto.Thisisevidentintheovertpoliciesof
theremovalofIndigenous‘mixedrace’children,the‘WhiteAustraliaPolicy’andthe
deliberateexclusionofIndigenouschildrenfromaccesstoschooling,allreferencedin
Chapter2.
However,thedominantwhitesettlermajoritywereincreasinglydeniedtheirusual
linguisticandpolicybasedweaponsofassimilationthroughaparadigmshiftinthe1960s
commonlyreferredtoasthecivilrightsmovement.Thismeantthatthewhitesystemsand
structuresofcontrolhadtobecomemuchmoresubtleinitsweaponsofexclusion.Thisis
particularlyevidentineducationalsystemssuchasteachereducation.Hereweseethe
Trojanhorsesofassimilationemerge,suchasusingtheterm‘quality’andasetof
nationalisedstandardstoexcludethosewhodon’t‘measureup’,andfurther,compulsory
‘literacyandnumeracy’teststodeterminewhomeetsthebenchmarkrequirementsto
becomeateacher.Attheschoollevelweseedecontextualizednationalcurriculumthat
assumesthepossibilityofa‘universal’approachtowhatshouldbetaughtinschools.
Howeverthese‘universal’truthsandlearningsarenotculturallyneutral.Theyarebasedon
white/Westernculturalnorms,asaretheNationalProfessionalStandardsforTeachers.
Thisensuresthatthosedoingtheteachinghavetobejudgedascapableofensuringthe
ongoinghegemonyofthese‘universal’educationalnormsthroughtheirdemonstratedand
approvedknowledgeofEnglishliteracyandWesternnumeracyandthroughdemonstrating
adherencetoandreplicationofawhiteepistemologicalstandpoint.Thismeanshowever
thatwhatisbeingtaughtneverfeelsfamiliarorrelevanttothosewhodonotfit,interms
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oftheirontologyorepistemology,withinthemainstreamdominantsettlersociety–those
whodonotsharethe‘crimsonthread’(McGregor2006,p.493)ofwhiteness.
Fromtimetotimetherehavebeenmomentsofdiversitythathavesnuckin,when
localised,contextualisedprogramshaveemergedthathavesoughttogivevoiceandspace
toIndigenousepistemologiesandIndigenouslanguages(suchasthebilingualprogramin
theNorthernTerritory)andIndigenousknowledge(suchasthecommunitybasedRemote
AboriginalTeacherEducationprogramintheNorthernTerritory).However,whenthe
dominantsocietyhasbeguntofeelunsettledbythedifferenceoftheseprogramsithas
actedtoendthemusingthe‘toolsofwhiteness’(Picower2009)atitsdisposal.Thesetools
mostcommonlycomeintheformoffundingdecisions,policychanges,systemwide
reviewsandthealltoocommonstrategyofshiftingthegoalpostswhenIndigenous
teachershavesomehowmanagedtoreachthegoalsthathavepreviouslybeenset.Some
rareindividualshavemanagedtopersevereandcompletealltherequirementsof
samenessthroughcredentialism,oftenhavingtocompromise,negotiate,betrayandalter
themselvesandtheirbeliefsandknowledges–impossibleepistemologicalandontological
choices.Howeverthestoriesshowthatoncetheseindividualshavejumpedthroughallthe
hoopstheystillhavetofaceworkenvironmentsthatrefusetoaccepttheirprofessional
equality.
Attheinterpersonalleveltheyareoftenfacedwithattitudesandbehavioursofschool
Principalsandnon-localstaffforwhomtheculturalsuperioritycomplexissodeeply
embeddedthattheyarenotevenconsciousofit.Thisdysconsciousracismshowsitselfat
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momentsofdisconcertment,whentheassumedandtakenforgrantedwhitewaysof
knowingaredisruptedorchallengedbyIndigenouseducatorswhohaveadifferent
epistemologicalstandpointbecausetheyhavetheirownontology.Inthesemomentsthe
interpersonaltoolsofwhitenessemergeoftenintheformofmimicry,falseempathyand
falsegenerosity,exclusionthroughlanguageorprocedures,ortreatingtheseIndigenous
teachersasinvisible.Alloftheseinteractionsattheinterpersonallevelserveastoolsto
reinforceandprotectwhitehegemony.Thus,thestoriesoftheseteacherparticipants
cannotbefullyunderstoodwithoutbeingseenthroughthepowerfullensofracial
inequalityandthesubtleandnot-so-subtleforcesatworkinstitutionallyinAustraliathat
acttoperpetuatethisformofinequality.
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8.3Discussionparttwo–Interculturalknowledgework
8.3.1Introduction
Violenceisnotthewholestory.Whatliesbetweenus,orbetweensomeofussomeofthe
time,islove,respect,sympathy,andthedeterminationtoacttogether.Thepossibilityof
dialogue,anditsaccomplishmentinmanycontexts,restsinthefactthatoursituatednessis
neitherwhollyviolentnorwhollynon-violent.Entanglementsgiveusgroundsforaction.
(Rose2004,p.22)
Whileitisvitaltoreveal,acknowledgeandbetterunderstandtherolethatraceandracial
positioninghasplayedincreatingbarriersfortheteacherparticipantsinthisresearch
study,itisjustasimportanttorealizeandunderstandthatthisisnotthefullstory.These
storiesarebeingtoldpreciselybecausethisgroupofteacherspersevered,inspiteofthe
significantbarrierstheyexperienced,andcontinuedtheiracademiclearningthroughtoa
fullteacherqualification.Theyhavebeenabletodothisinpartbecauseofwhotheyareas
people,butalsowiththesupportofparticularwaysofbeinganddoing.Includedinthe
teachernarrativesaremanyexamplesofontologicalandepistemologicalmomentsthat
pointtowardshowgoodinterculturalandcollaborativeknowledgeworkcansupport
learninginwaysthatgrowstheexperienceforeveryoneinvolved.Thesearemoments
Rose(2004,p6)call‘alternativestothewild’,alternativesthat‘ariseunexpectedlyin
relationshipsamongpeoplesandbetweenpeopleandplace’.Asisrevealedbytheteacher
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narrativesthispositiveandbeneficialinterculturalknowledgeworkwasembeddedinto
policy,programsandpracticesinthepast.BatandShore(2013),intheirstudyofthe‘grey
literature’aroundteachereducationinremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritory,
foundthatthiskindofinterculturalknowledgework‘isexemplifiedbycollaborativeefforts
betweencommunity,schoolandprovidertoproduceanegotiatedcurriculumthroughco-
construction.Inthisway,theteachereducationprogramispartofthewholelearningof
theschoolandcontributestocommunitydevelopment’(Bat&Shore2013,p12).Allofthe
teacherparticipantswere(andare)co-constructorsandbeneficiariesofjustsuch
interculturalknowledgework,particularlythroughtheirearlierstagesofteacher
education.Theformativeprofessionalyearsfortheteachersattheheartofthisstudy
occurredataperiodoftimewhenthevibrancyofthelocalschoolwasdeeplyintegrated
withcommunitylife.Itwasaperiodwhenteachers,schoolPrincipalsanddepartmental
representativesworkedtogetherwithparents,communityleadersandEldersingoodfaith
andthroughcollaborativeandcontextuallyembeddedpractices.ThelocalIndigenous
teacherswereattheverycentreofthesecollaborativepractices.
Tobetterunderstandthesemomentsofsuccessfulinterculturalknowledgeworkattheir
pointofintersectionwiththeformaleducationsystem,thispartofthediscussionwillbe
dividedintotwosections.Thefirstsectionwilllookattheinterculturalknowledgework
madepossiblethroughthedevelopmentofcommunitybasedteachereducationprograms
intheNorthernTerritoryinthe1970s,1980sandearly1990s.Itwillexploretheelements
ofculturalandcontextualembeddedness,culturalsafetyandtwo-waylearningthat
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contributedtothesuccessofthisdeliverymodeforremoteteachereducation.Thesecond
sectionwillexplorethepartsoftheteachernarrativesthatactassignpoststoexploring
epistemologicaldifferencesinhowIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeopleviewand
experienceeducation.Thisdiscussionofdifferencehighlightstheneedtopayattentionto
epistemologicaldisconcertmentasatoolofgoodinterculturalknowledgework.
8.3.2Interculturalknowledgeworkofcommunitybasedteachereducation
Theteachersatthecentreofthisdoctoralresearchallbecameinvolvedineducationin
theirrespectivecommunitiesataparticularmomentintime,afactthatplaysalargerole
inthetrajectoriestheircareershavetaken.In1993Watson-VerranandWhite(p.67)
pointedoutthatsince1972thedirectionofpolicyconcerningdevelopmentofAboriginal
Australiancommunitieshadbeentowardsadoptionofthenotionofself-
determination.Numerousauthorslinkthispolicyof‘self-determination’totheprogressive
butshort-lived,federalWhitlam-ledgovernmentinAustralia(CampbellandProctor2014;
Willis1985).InparticularWatson-VerranandWhite(1993)highlightthechangein
discourseatthistime.Thereisasenseoflamentforthepastandapromisetowards
difference.
PastpoliciesofearliergovernmenttendedtobreakdownAboriginalityand
Aboriginalheritage.Wehavereversedtheprocess.Nolongerwillinsensitivepolicies
causeAboriginalstobecomerootlesssecondclassAustraliansthroughdenialoftheir
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ownlanguage,culture,beliefsandideals(Cavenagh1974,p.35,inWatson-Verran
andWhite1993,p.68)
IntheNorthernTerritory,thepolicytointroducebilingualeducationisoneofthefirst
tangibleactsofdifferenceasthisexcerptfromtheintroductionofthebilingualeducation
policyintheNorthernTerritorydemonstrates:
OneofthemostsignificantAustralianGovernmentinnovationsinAboriginal
educationhasbeentheintroductionthisyearofbilingualeducationincertain
NorthernTerritoryschools…TheseareschoolsindistinctiveAboriginalcommunities
whereanAboriginallanguageisthemothertongueofthechildren…theaimisfor
thesechildrentocommencetheirschoolingintheirownlanguage,proceedtothe
acquisitionofliteracyskillsinthatlanguage,thenacquireliteracyinEnglishandhave
mostoftheirsubsequentschoolinginEnglishTheeducationalaimofsuchan
approachisthedevelopmentofchildrenwhoarethoroughlycompetentintheirown
languageandabletoreadandwriteit,whoaremoreproficientinEnglishthanthey
wouldhavebeenundertheprevioussystem…Onewouldalsoexpectpsychological
benefitsfromthisrecognitionofthechildren’slanguageandculture,andmore
enthusiasticsupportfromtheparentsfortheschoolingtheirchildrenareoffered.
(Tandy1973,p21)
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ThefollowingyearareportbyO’GradyandHale(1974)intobilingualeducationinthe
NorthernTerritoryalsoaddedweighttothisdirectionthroughhighlightingtheneedfor
highereducationforAboriginalstaff.ThisgaverisetothedevelopmentofnewTeacher
Educationprogramsthatwerespecificallydesignedtobringcontextuallyrelevantand
culturallyresponsivelearningopportunitiesforAboriginalteachersinremoteschoolsinthe
NorthernTerritory.Thepolicyandpoliticallanguageofthetimerevolvedaroundideas
suchas‘self-determination’aspreviouslymentioned,aswellasthenotionof
‘Aboriginalisation’ofeducation(Rogers1991,Reaburn1989).Theemphasisfroman
EducationalDepartmentalperspectivewasoncommunitycontrollededucation(Urvetet
al.1980).Itwaswiththiscontextasaback-dropthattheseimportantcommunitybased,
cohortmodelsofteachereducationweredeveloped.
8.3.2.1Communitybasedteachereducationthatcreatesdeepengagementandsupportbyfamilyandthecommunity
Alloftheteacherparticipantsidentifiedtheirinitialworkintheirrespectiveschools,as
assistantteachers,teacheraidesorliteracyworkers,asbeingakeyfactorinthemdeciding
togoonanddotheirteachereducation.Thiswasnotsomethingthattheyexperienced
individuallybutasanembeddedpartofacommunityexperience.Fromthehistoricalroots
ofIndigenouspeoplebeingexcludedfromeducation,toatimewherenewpossibilitiesof
differentwaysofworkingarebeingtalkedabout,theseteachers,theirfamiliesandwider
communitieswereacutelyawareofthesignificanceofwhatwaspossibleiftheyundertook
teachereducation,
296
‘CosIreally,fromworkingasanassistantteacher,Ireally,Isawwhatourkidsreally
needed,youknow…Likesomeoneintheschool...andIthinkitwasforthe
communityaswell,toseeanIndigenouspersonattheschool…Asaclassroom
teacher,yeah.
Infactthisgroupofteachershadthebenefitofanoldergenerationwhohadembarkedon
teachereducationinthe1970s.Inspiredbyothersfromtheircommunitywhowere
startingtoundertakefurthereducation,theyexperiencedthisinspirationasakindof
supportandencouragement,
…justinspiringseeingothersonvideoorgoingtoceremonywheretheyactually
graduated,andfromthatthatIsaid'ohnextoneI'mgoingtobelikeher!'youknow
lookingatstudentswhograduatedbefore.
Theyalsoexperiencedsupportintheformofencouragementfromfamilymembersand
communitymemberstokeepgoingwiththeirowneducationandtoexplorefurther
educationalpossibilitiesthroughwork.
IusedtosaytomysisterabouthowIwantedtogotoschoolandthenMumsaid
'ohyoucan,ifyougetajob,youcanstillgeteducated'
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LikeIhadmycousinthere,sheencouragedme'cometowork,theyarelookingfor
peoplelikeyou,comeandworkwithus...Shewasastronglady...andwealsolearn
fromher
TherewasalevelofcommitmenttoandbeliefineducationonthepartofIndigenous
peopleatthismomentintimethatisstronglylinkedtotheseideasof‘communitycontrol’,
‘self-determination’andthe‘Aboriginalisation’ofeducation.Theteacherparticipants
notedthatacrucialpartoftheirearlystudiesinteachereducationwasthefactthatitwas
basedintheirhomecommunities.Thisenabledtheirfamiliestoengagemeaningfullyin
whattheyweredoing,andthereforeprovidebothsupportandvalidationaswellasinput,
Ithinktherewasmoresupportatthattimeandliketheactivitiesweredoneinthe
communitysopeoplecouldseewhatweweredoingandthatmadeit,youknow
strong.
ThesignificanceofthisprogramphilosophyisstronglyreinforcedbyotherIndigenous
teacherswhoundertookteachereducationduringthissameperiod.MarikaandWhite
(1999,p4originalemphasis)offerthisreflectionfromYolnguteacherswhoparticipatedin
communitybasedteachereducationaroundthesametimeastheteacherparticipantsin
thisresearch,
Oneofthemainreasonswecansaythatourcommunitysupportsusisbecausewearevery
clearabouttheaspirationsandexpectationsofthecommunities....Wecanonlyhelpour
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communitydothisifweareinourcommunityandpartofitandbyusmakingsurethat
communitymembersexploreeducationissuesalongsideus...studentsandotherteachers.
Ourexperience...hasshownusthatthisisagoodwayforadultstogetagoodeducation.
Wecanseethatthishasallowedourcommunitiestoshareinourdevelopmentand
training.
and,
…ourcommunityhasbeenabletoseeusaslearnersandworkersinourcommunity.Thisis
animportantideaaboutwhyourcommunitywantustotraininourowncommunity-so
thattheycanseeusthemselvesthatwearereallydoingtheworkfortheirplanforour
communityschoolandwhattheywantustodo.
Ultimately,whenthecommunity-basedprogramschangedtocampusbasedworkshops
models,asdiscussedinChapter2,thefactthatatleastinitiallytheprogramshadbeen
communitybasedprovidedanongoingfoundationforfamilyandcommunitysupport.For
examplewhenoneteacherhadtomoveherselfandherfamilyuptoBatchelorcampusfor
ayeartofocusonherstudiessheidentifiedthesupportofherpartnerthatmadeit
possible,
…westayedatBatchelorforayearbecauseItoldJakamarra'Ineedtodostudyto
becomeateachersoIcanhelpmoreouthere,Icancomebacktobeateacher'.I
reallywantedtodothatyouknowcommitmyself.SoJakamarrasaid'yeswe'llgo
I'llhelpyououtwiththekids'.
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Manyoftheteacherparticipantsnotethattheshiftawayfromcommunitybaseddelivery
andtowardsacampusbasedworkshopdeliverywasthemostsignificantbarrierfor
teachersatthistimesuggestingthatthoseteachereducationstudentswhodidnotreceive
thisleveloffamilysupportwerenotinfactabletocontinuewiththeirstudies.
Thisdeepleveloffamilyandcommunitysupportandembeddedunderstandingsofthe
teachereducationprocess,ledtofamiliesnavigatingdeepontologicalandepistemological
understandingssuchasculturalobligations.Theteacherparticipantstalkedabouttheir
familiesgivingthempermissiontoprioritisethestudyoverotherimportantculturaland
familycommitments.
….myfamily,mysisters,mymothersupportedme,andIwasmissingfromfunerals
frommymother’sfamilywhileIwasstudying,thatwashelpful,shewashelpingme
alotbysendingmeaway'youcangoforyourstudy,don’tworryaboutthefuneral'.
Iwasdoingfulltimestudy.
Tohelpunderstandhowthisdeeplyembeddedfamilyandcommunitysupportcametobe,
itisimportanttounderstandthephilosophyoftheseprograms.Attheheartofthemwas
theideaof‘Aboriginalisation’.Thisword,outofvogueincontemporarytimes,inthatera
stoodforapowerfulsetofideasabout‘lessinvasivepractices’andeducationthatnotonly
maintainedbut‘strengthenAboriginality’(Reaburn1989,p.3).Theprogramswere
designedtomeettheoutcomesnotsolelyoftheeducationalinstitutions,theschoolsand
universities,buttomeettheoutcomesarticulatedbyAboriginalpeople(Reaburn1989,p
300
4).Rogers(1991)reflectshowthisphilosophywastranslatedintopracticeatthetimeinhis
homecommunityofNgukurr.Hepointsoutthatsince1960hiscommunityhadpressed
stronglyforAboriginalcontrolandhadbeen‘politicallyactiveinthestruggleforCitizen
RightsandAboriginalself-determination’(Rogers1991,p.144).Thisimportantlylocates
‘self-determination’notjustasapolicyimperativebutassomethinglocalpeoplewere
activelyworkingtowardsthemselves.Intherealmofeducationhegivestheexampleofa
newsystemthattheydecidedtotrialinthelocalschool,
…theCouncilhaddiscussionswiththeheadoftheNorthernTerritoryEducation
DepartmenttotryanewsystemwherealltheAboriginalassistantteacherswouldbe
doingfacetofaceteachingintheclassroom.Theyalsoreachedanagreementthat
therewouldbeanAboriginalPrincipalwithanon-AboriginalteacherastheLocal
EducationAdviser(Rogers1991p144).
Thisillustratesthatakeyaspectofthe‘Aboriginalisation’ofeducationinremoteschools
involvedaninversionofthepowerrelationshipbetweenlocalandnon-localstaffwithlocal
Indigenousteacherstakingprimaryresponsibilityforteaching.Rogersfurtherexplainsthe
deeplycentralrolethatparentsandEldersplayedindecisionsaroundwhatshouldbe
taughtinschool,bywhoandhow:
ThesubjectsthatweretaughtwerethethreeR'swhichwereWriting,Mathsand
Reading.Theparentssaidthatthiswastobetaughtandtherestofthedaywouldbe
spentonBlekbalaKaltja….TheBlekbalaKaltjaprojectwasdiscussedwiththeelders.
BlekbalaKaltjawastobepartoftheSchool'sCurriculumandtheyagreedthatitwas
veryimportantforthechildrentolearntheirownKaltja.Itwasdecidedthatthe
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teachersandtheeldersshouldteachintheseareas.Theelderstaughteachclan
groupthattheywereresponsibleforandthesewere,Mambali,Murrungun,Budal
andGuyal.Weknewwehadtochangethestructureoftheschooltomakeita
Blekbalaschool.(Rogers1991,p.144-145).
‘Changingthestructure’asRogersdescribesisadirectwayofdealingwithwhatReaburn
callsthe‘embeddedpatternsandstructureofdominationanddisempowerment’(Reaburn
1989,p.4).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatepistemologicalandpedagogicaldecisions
abouttheschoolwerebeingmadelocallybasedonlocalexperientialknowledge.Thisis
muchmoreinharmonywithtraditional,pre-invasion,epistemologicalunderstandingsas
discussedbyPrice(2012).ButitisalsoconsistentwithcertainWesternpedagogiessuchas
thoseespousedmanydecadesagobyDeweywhostatedthatlearningprinciplesshould
alwaysbegroundedinthe‘conditionsofthelocalcommunity’(Dewey1938,p40).In
particularheremindsusthat,
Experiencedoesnotoccurinavacuum.Therearesourcesoutsideanindividualwhich
giverisetoexperience.Itisconstantlyfedfromthesesprings.
Healsostressesthatwemustfind,
…way(s)inwhichaneducatorcandirecttheexperienceofeducationwithout
engaginginimposition.Aprimaryresponsibilityofeducatorsisthattheynotonlybe
awareofthegeneralprincipleoftheshapingofactualexperiencebyenvironing
conditions,butthattheyalsorecognizeintheconcretewhatsurroundingsare
conducivetohavingexperiencesthatleadtogrowth.Aboveall,theyshouldknow
howtoutilizethesurroundings,physicalandsocial,thatexistsoastoextractfrom
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themallthattheyhavetocontributetobuildingupexperiencesthatareworthwhile
(Dewey1938,p.40).
WhobettertodothisforIndigenouschildrenthanpeoplefromtheirowncommunity?This
pedagogicalunderstandingofexperiencebased,contextualizedlearningisastrong
argumentbothforthelocatedmodelsofcommunitybasedteachereducationdeliverythat
existedduringthe1970s,1980sandearly1990s,aswellasfortheneedtohavelocal
teachersfromthelocalcommunityastheonesresponsiblefortheschooleducationof
theirowncommunity’schildren.Theexampleofcommunitybasedteachereducationand
‘Aborginalised’schoolingfromNgukurr,aswellasotherexamplesincommunitiesacross
remoteNorthernTerritoryduringthiseraprovidevaluableinsightintohowlocalElders
andfamilieswentonthejourneywiththeteachersanddevelopeddeeplyembedded
understandingsofwhateducationcouldbecomeintheirrespectivecommunities.
8.3.2.2Communitybasedlearningthatprovidesforthesocio-culturalneedsoflearners–‘marlpa’andculturalsafety
InadditiontotheimportantsupportofElders,familyandthewidercommunity,the
teacherparticipantsalsospokeofthesignificanceoflearningintheirowncommunitywith
agroupofothers.
Westartedoffinabiggroupanditwasjustcommunitybasedandwewerejust
travellinginbetweencommunitiesforworkshops.
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…Studyingwasnew,somethingnewtous,cositwasn’treallythoughtof…when
there'sotherpeoplewecanfeelconfident.
…butthatwasreallyeasywecouldseethatwewereallcomingtogether,sharing
ideas,talkingup.
Thiscohortapproachwasadeliberatepartofthecommunitybaseddeliverymodeldesign
anditisspecificallyidentifiedbytheteacherparticipantsasbeingakeydeterminantin
theirsuccess.
Thatshowwegettoknoweachotherbecasuewewerealldoingthesamestudy.
SeelikeRATEprogramwewerealldoingthesamemoduleatthesametime.We
didn’tknowanythingaboutitbutwewerealwaysingroupworkingtogether,
sharingideasandpresentingtoeachother,that'showwewerelearning
Peoplewerenotleftbythemselvestolearnindividually;theyhadwhattheteacher
participantsreferredtoas‘marlpa’,aconceptwhichisdiscussedinChapter5ingreater
detail.Theseteachereducationstudentsdidnotfeelleftalone,butthroughthecohort
modelfeltapartofagroupworkingtowardsthesamegoal.
…soIwasfeelinghappytostartdoingtheteachertrainingbecausetherewasalso
coupleofotherYapateacherstherewhowantedtodoteachertrainingalso,sowe
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startedtodoteachertrainingthroughRATEprogram.
Thissenseof‘marlpa’,ofnotbeingleftbyyourselftodothestudyalone,providedagreat
senseofcomfortandsupporttotheseteachersastheyprogressedintheirteacher
educationandfacilitatedtheirmutualprogress,
…wesortoftalkedtooneanotherandsupportedoneanother,youknow'feel
strong,don’tgiveup,tryandgetitoveranddone,thisisgood'…andthatmademe
evenbecomemorestronger,instudying
Whenthedeliverymodelchangedandtheyshiftedtoacampusbasedworkshopmodel
theroleof‘marlpa’continuedtoplayarole.Theteacherparticipantsformedstrong
supportbondswiththeotherstudentsbothfromtheirowncommunities,fromthe
communitiesnearby,andfromthoseinmoredistantplacesintheNorthernTerritory
IreallylikedcomingtogetherandmeetingtheAnanguteachersfromdifferent
communitiesliketalkingtothemandgroupworkandstudyingbackandyouknow
feelingproudandsayingyouknowwe'retherefordoingourbestforour
communityandstrivingmoreandmore
…ithelpedmeliketobeconfidentinmyteachingandlearningfromotherstudents
andbecausewecamefromthesamecommunityandjoiningwithothersfromthe
Barklyregionyouknowandlearningthroughthat.Itwasreallygoodyouknow
305
learningbecauseIlearnedalotofgoodthings,whatIlearnedfromthem.Because
it’salwaysdifferentfromwhereIcomefrom.
Thesignificanceofthisfindingcanbebetterunderstoodthroughtheexplorationofthe
importanceofculturalsafetyforIndigenouslearnersaswellasthroughabetter
understandingofrelationalityandconnectednessinIndigenousontology.Ford(2010,p.
153)statesthat:
Tyikim(Aboriginal)peopleactivelyseekkindrednessandconnectednessamongst
membersofgroupstheyfindthemselvesin.Onceestablished,therelationships
revealedformanetworkthatcanbindthegroupmembersintocooperative
arrangementsbasedonasharedcollectivememoryofourrelatedpast’
ThisiswhatFordcalls‘RelationalityasPedagogy’whichisoneoffivepedagogicalprinciples
sheidentified.Sheexplainsthat:
WithrelationalityaspedagogytheTyikimstudentsareabletoidentifywithinthe
highereducationstudygroupaTyikimculturaldimensionthatresonateswiththe
kindrednessandconnectednesstheyexperienceintheirownimmediatefamilies,
extendedfamiliesandcommunities(Ford2010,p.153).
Sointhiswaytheirstudycohortbecameasupportivesocio-culturallyreflectivemicrocosm
fortheteacherparticipants.Thesignificanceofthisinalearningspaceisthatthecohort
providedasafespacebothculturallyandintellectuallyfortheteacherparticipantsto
explorethisnewendeavourofhighereducation.
Ithinkwehadeachother,yeahtohelpusout,yeah…likesomemightn’tunderstand
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whatwe'regoingtodo,whatwe'redoing,awa,andtalkinArrarnta,explaining'oh
thisiswhatwemightneedtodo',andbeingprepared‘ourworkshop'scoming’
and…remindingeachotheryeah.
In2003BinSalikraisedpeople’sconsciousnessoftheimportantroleofculturalsafetyfor
Indigenouslearnersinthehighereducationspace.Sheofferedthefollowingdefinition,
(C)ulturalsafetyextendsbeyondculturalawarenessandculturalsensitivity.It
empowersindividualsandenablesthemtocontributetotheachievementofpositive
outcomes.Itencompassesareflectiononindividualculturalidentityandrecognition
oftheimpactofpersonalcultureonprofessionalpractice(BinSalik,2003,p.21).
SincethenotherIndigenousscholarshavealsotakenupthisissuewithVeronicaArbon
(2008)exploringthepowerrelationshipsandimbalancesbetweenknowledgesystems
operatinginthetertiaryeducationdomainandPayiLindaFord(2010,p.16)lookingatthe
‘potentialformakinglandscapesestablishedunderWesterneducationculturalregimes
culturallysafeplacesforTyikimteachingandlearning’.MartinNakata(1998,2002,2007a,
2007b)disagreeswiththeuseoftheterm‘culturalsafety’andadvocatesstronglyforthe
needforIndigenousstudentsandscholarstoengageat‘theculturalinterface’,whichhe
namesas‘thecontestedspacebetweenthetwoknowledgesystems’(1998).Nakatasees
this‘interface’asawayofsupportingIndigenouslearnersto‘exploretheirexperiential
knowledgebeyondtheclassroomandtobringitintoinformhowparticularIndigenous
positionsarecontested’(2007b,p.11).Hearguesthatlearnersmusthaveopportunities
fordevelopingwaysofreading,andcriticallyengagingwithinacceptedIndigenous
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discourseaswellasthewidermainstreamdiscourse.Increasinglyculturalsafetyisbeing
redefinedsoastoincludeunderstandingsofintellectualsafety.Theimportanceofthisis
explainedbyFord(2010,p.154)whoremindsusthat,
SpeakingoutinconventionalWesternclassrooms…isarisktakingventureformany
Tyikimacademics,studentsandcommunitymembers.Therisksaredeeplyfeltand
areassociatedwithone’santicipationofthepossibilityofembarrassmentand
humiliation…..(that)mayresultfromtheresponsesofPadakoot(Non-Indigenous)
lecturersandstudentswhohavenocommonexperiences…whomayquestionthe
speaker’sauthority…orwhomaycomparetheofferedTyikimnarrativewith….the
‘same’experiencesinthePadakootworld’.
Fordexplainsthat‘theseresponsesmayactivelyundermineanddiminishthesignificance
oftheTyikimspeaker’sontologyandtheopportunityforexpandedlearning’(Ford2010,p.
154).ThesetypesofexperiencesforIndigenouslearnersinHigherEducationsettingswas
reinforcedintherecentMATSITIreportintoInitialTeacherEducationforAboriginaland
TorresStraitIslanderstudents.Thereportincludedinitsfindingsanumberofimportant
elementsaboutculturalandintellectualsafetyincludingthefactthatAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderstudentsfinditdauntingtoparticipateintheunaccommodatingsystemof
UniversitieswhichrepresentWesternknowledgethatisgovernedbydominantWestern
knowledgeparadigms(Pattonetal2012,p.10).Thereportalsofoundthat:
WhilestudentswantedtobevaluedandrecognizedasATSI,theysometimes
experiencedstigma,racism,ignoranceorhugeexpectationsaboutrepresenting
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theircultureandpeople…(andnoted)regularreportsofignoranceandracismfrom
bothschool/facultystaffandotherstudents/peers(Pattonetal.2012,p.34).
ThereportnotedthatonewayofuniversitiestryingtobemoreinclusiveofIndigenous
knowledgeswastointroducediscretecoreorelectiveunitsinmainstreamprograms.
Howeverthefindingswerethatthisoftenonlyservestocreateconversationswhere
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentsaretalked‘about’bynon-Indigenous
studentsandunderqualifiedstafforwhereAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents
areexpectedtobetheexpertsontheentiretyofIndigenousknowledgeandculture
(Pattonetal2012,p.36).ThereportconcludedthatsupportforAboriginalandTorres
StraitIslanderHigherEducationstudentsthereforeneededtoinclude‘havingasafeplace
awayfromthesesituations’.
Fordsuggeststhatacohortapproachoffersaculturallysafeplacebecausethereisan
‘evennessinthepowerrelationships’andpeoplefeeltheyareinaspacewheretheyshare
commonexperiences,haveestablishedrelationshipsandamodeofdiscoursethatismore
familiartothem(Ford20120,p.154).Thisenablespeopleto‘communicatefreelyand
openly’(Ford20120,p.154)anddiscusstheissuesthatdirectlyaffectthemwithout
intervention,interruptionorbeingfilteredthroughWesternepistemologies.Ifwewant
futuregenerationsofteachersfromremotecommunitiestocompletetheirteacher
educationqualificationthentheculturalsafetyand‘marlpa’providedbythecohortmodel
needstobetakenseriously.Whenthiscohortmodelisalsocommunitybasedthe
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participantsnotonlyexperiencetheculturalsafetyprovidedthrough‘marlpa’butthe
intellectualsafetyprovidedthroughtheactiveengagementofandcollaborationwiththeir
Eldersandlocalknowledgeauthoritiesastheyexploreandexpandtheeducational
practicesintheirownlocalcontext.
8.3.2.3Communitybaseddeliverythatcreatessupportandtwowaylearningwithinthe
educationalsystem
Acommonexperienceamongsttheteacherparticipantswastheimportantandsupporting
workingrelationshipstheyhadwithnon-Indigenousstaffthroughouttheirworkandstudy.
Thiscouldbetracedbacktotheirveryearliestexperiencesworkingintheschoolwhere
theirworkwasinitiatedbylinguists,Principalsorteacherswhohadadoptedastandpoint
of‘self-determination’and‘Aboriginalisation’andunderstoodthenecessityformore
Aboriginalpeopletoworkintheschools,
…thenoneladycamealongofferedmeajob.…AndIsaidyesI'llcometowork.So
oneyearIworkedatLiteracyCentre,cameeverydayandtheteacherssawme
comingthereandtheteachersthought,'ohshe’sagoodworkerandshecomes
everyday,we'llgethertobeourTA'.Sotheteacherswereracing'ohwe'llget
her...'
ThePrincipalsandotherstaffwhowereidentifiedasbeinghelpfulandsupportivebythe
teacherparticipantswereoftendescribedashavinghadexperienceinotherplaces
workingcross-culturallyandhadlearnedhowtodothingsatthe‘righttime’orinthe‘right
way’andthatthisleftpeoplewitha‘goodfeeling’aboutthedirectiontheschoolwas
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taking.Itwasthesekindsofoperatorswhowerealsotheoneswhomostoftenprovided
theongoingsupportaroundthecommunitybasedteachereducationprograms.
Therewasapowerfulsymbiosisofknowledge,reflectionandpracticebuiltintothe
communitybasedteachereducationmodels.Eachparthelpedtheother.Marikaand
White(1999,p.5)talkaboutthissuggestingthatinamainstreamteachereducation
programthetheoryandpracticearesplitintoseparatedomains‘thetheoryyougetat"The
Institution"and/versusthepracticeyougetinaschoolduringpracticum’.Bycontrast
MarikaandWhitesuggestthat:
Communitybasedprogramscanforcethere-examinationofthiserroneous
dichotomy.Thetwocannotbedivorcedinthatway-thedemandsoftheworkplace
requireaconversationaboutourrationale/sforwhywedothingsthewaythatwe
do.Thisisthestuffofmakingandusingworkingtheories.Thesetheoriesareabout
ourpractice.Ourpracticeisinformedbyourtheories(MarikaandWhite1999,p.
5).
Theteacherparticipantsalsoidentifiedthebenefitsoftheimmediacyofthisreflective
practiceaspartoftheCommunityBasedmodel,
…thereusedtobealecturer,RATElecturerhere…wedidlessonwithherandwe
(talkedabout)whatwentwrong,youknowwewouldtalkaboutourlesson,we
lookedbackeverythingandwrotethingswehaddone,youknow
Thepresenceofteachereducationlecturersworkingwiththeseteachersintheirschools
andclassroomswasacrucialsupportduringtheirstudy.Thisreflectivepracticemodel
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wherethestudentwasabletoimmediatelyreflectontheirpracticeseemedtobe
particularlyeffectiveanditmeantthatpowerfuldiscussionswereabletobehadbetween
Indigenousandnon-Indigenousstafftodevelopeveryone’sunderstandingsofwhat
learninglookedlikeinthatsituatedcontext.Thesetypesofdiscussionswerealso
happeningasapartofteamteachingwhichwasanothercentraltenetofthecommunity
basedmodel.
…wewoulddolittlebitof....practiceteachingandwhatsortofcurriculumwould
weusetowriteImeantoplanalesson,whatsortoflessonwouldIteach…butI
wasn’talsoconfidentaboutreadingcurriculum….Myteamteacher,shewouldsit
downandhelpme…weweredoingtrainingbutwewerealsobasedin(community
name)usingresources,butalsoourteamteacherswouldhelpuswiththetraining
andwiththeteaching.
Thestrongfeelingexpressedintheteachernarrativeswasthatthingsworkedbestwhen
everyonehadgoodrelationships,workedwelltogetherandwereworkingtowardsthe
samegoalsandsupportingeachother:
workingtogetherandsupportingeachotherandsittingdownandplanningwith
teamteaching,butmakesureweneedtobetheretolookafterkidsasweare
workingtogetherandbeateamteacherbutwegottalearnfromeachother,
Ofkeyimportancehere,accordingtotheteacherparticipantswaspayingattentionto
powerrelationshipsintheteamenvironment,
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It’snotaboutyouknowonebeinggreat.It’sbeingyouknow,it’sgoodtobeworking
witheachotherandlearningtogethertoo.
ThisisreinforcedbyReaburn(1989,p.3)whoexplainsthatcentraltothecommunity
basedmodelistheideathattheroleofnon-localpeopleisto‘support,asrequired,
AboriginalpeopleintheirendeavourstoappropriateaspectsofWesterncultureand
societyintotheirlives’.Reaburnnotesthechallengeofthisforthosefromthedominant
culturewhoareusedtobeinginchargestatingclearlythat‘Asuccessfulprogramfor
AboriginalpeoplemustcharacterizeNonAboriginaleducatorsfirstandforemostas
learners(p.3)’.Thiswholeschoolphilosophyofongoingtwo-waylearningbasedaround
theteamteachingmodelwasextremelysuccessfulatthetime.Duringthisperiodthere
wasstrongcommitmenttowardstheideathataschoolthatrunsaboth-wayslearning
programrequiresteacherswhocanteachboth-wayswhichmeanttheco-constructionof
notonlytheprogrambuttheconceptionsofknowledgeaswell(BatchelorCollege,1994).
Basedonplanningtogether,activeengagementintheteachingandlearningprocess,and
strongandbalancedrelationshipsthisco-operativeteachingmodeldrewstrengthfromthe
integrationbetweenthelifeoftheschoolandthelifeofthecommunity.Whileelementsof
thistypeofmodelstillexists,itisnowmoreofanexceptionthanarule.However,it
providesapowerfulroadmapforcurrentremoteschoolswantingtore-engageineffective
teachingandlearningforbothIndigenousandnon-Indigenousstaff.
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8.3.2.4Significantchangestothecommunitybasedmodel
Theteacherparticipantsalsonoticedwithsadnessthechangesthathadoccurredto
teachereducationsincetheyhadbeguntheirstudy.Inparticulartheynoticedabigshift
fromthestrongcommunitybased,reflectivepractice,teamteachingmodelofteacher
educationthatwasinplacewhentheywerestudying,comparedtowhattheysaw
happeningintheirschoolsnow.
Ithinkalotofchangesgoonattheschool,youknowchanges.Notatschoolbutthe
courseitself,thetrainingatBatchelor…Ithinklecturers…that'sIthinkthemain
importantone,lecturersnotgoingoutvisitingstudentsinthecommunity.
Thesechangesinthe1990s,discussedinChapter3,sawthegradualdisappearanceof
community-basedprogramssuchasRATEprograms.AsobservedbyBrabham,Henry,
BamblettandBates(2002)thenationalpolicyclimateshiftedfromIndigenousspecific
programstothatof‘practicalreconciliation’,whichresultedinthelossoffundingfor
communityprogramsandthe‘mainstreaming’ofteachereducation.Ingram(2004)points
outthatthiseffectivelysignalledtheendofBatchelor’scommunity-basedteacher
educationprograms.
TherecentreviewintoInitialTeacherEducationforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslander
students(Pattonetal.2012)providessomevaluableinsightsintothisshift.Firstand
foremosttheyoutlinethesignificanceandimportanceandsuccessofcohortmodelsfor
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AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderteachereducationstudents.Partoftheexplanation
forthisisthat:
…auniquecomponentofcohortprogramsistheirabilitytobothIndigenizeand
‘politicize’thecurriculumandtoensurethatAboriginalvoicesareheardand
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpoliticsopenlydiscussed(Pattonetal2012,p.
17).
Theygofurthertoassertthatacohortapproachis‘notsimplyanother‘band-aid’usedto
covertheinfestationsthatculminatefromIndigenousneglectbutisanauthenticremedy
thatattacksthecoreoftheproblem’(Pattonetal2012,p.18).Thereportalsonotesthat
evenwhenthecommunitybasedmodelshiftedtoamorecampus/workshopbasedmodel
usinga‘blockrelease’modetheystillprovedmoresuccessfulthanmainstream
alternativesforAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents,
blockreleaseprogramshadbetween16%and20%highercoursecompletionrates
thanthosewhowerestudyinginfulltime‘mainstream’programson
campus….programssuchastheseovercomesomesignificantbarriersforstudents
whowouldotherwisehavelittleornochanceofbecomingqualifiedteachers
(Pattonetal.2012,p.18).
Despitetheirsuccessatbothapedagogicalandstatisticallevelhoweverstudentsand
associatedstaffandfacultyassociatedwithblockreleaseandcohort-modeprogramsare
oftenforcedtodefendthelegitimacyoftheircoursesinrelationtomainstreamcourses.
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Theyareoftenperceivedbytheuniversityasthe‘lesscredibleoffshoot’andstrugglefor
recognitionandthereforeexistwithinastateofinstitutionalandfinancialinsecurity.The
reportnotesthatthereis‘considerablepressureonproviderstodemonstratetheir
standardsandprovethattheyarecosteffective’(Pattonetal.2012,p.17)andthat
‘questionsaroundqualityandcertificationconsistentlycomeupwithregardtograduates
bothinAustraliaandinCanada’(Pattonetal.2012,pp.17-18).
Thisonceagaindemonstratesasystemicintoleranceofdifferenceandinsistenceon
sameness.Thestatisticsthatshowsuccesscanbeexplainedawaybyquestioningthe
‘credibility’and‘legitimacy’ofthecourseandthe‘qualityandcertification’ofthe
graduates.Theargumentthattheseprogramsprovideopportunitiesforstudentswho
wouldotherwisenotbeabletobecometeachersisturnedintoacritiquetoimplythatthey
wouldnotmakeitinamainstreamcontext.ThisusesasomewhatDarwinianstandpoint
thatassumesalevelplayingfieldtobeginwithbasedonanassumptionofcultural
neutralityandahistorism.Thedominanteducationsystemstrugglestoacceptthat
differentmodelsofteachereducationmightberequiredfordifferentgroups.The
discussionofcosteffectivenessfailstotakeintoconsiderationanylong-termsocio-cultural
costbenefitanalysis.Onceagainwebumpintotheassimilationistintentofmainstreamor
‘whitestream’teachereducation.CohortprogramsareanattempttolocateIndigenous
knowledgeandunderstandingsascentralandtoplacethecommunityatthecentreofthe
process.Thedominantcultureisdeeplydisconcertedbythis.
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Asameansofallowing‘incremental’change(Vass2015)inremoteschoolsintheNorthern
TerritoryIndigenousassistantteachersarestillinvolvedwithapaleshadowoftheprevious
communitybasedprograms.ParaprofessionalqualificationsattheVocationalEducation
andTraining(VET)levelareavailablethroughaminimalcommunitybaseddeliverynow.
ButifAboriginalpeoplefromremotecommunitieswishtobecomefullyqualifiedteachers
theyhavenochoicebuttostudyoncampusorbydistanceeducationnow.Thiseffectively
enforcesadefactoglassceilingonremoteteachers’careerprogression.
Anothersignificantpointofchangefromtheoriginalcommunitybaseddeliverymodelthat
wasidentifiedbytheteachersparticipantsassignificantforthemontheirteacher
educationjourneywasintheareaofteamteachingandtherolethisplayedinsupporting
assistantteacherstodofurtherstudy.Theteacherparticipantstalkedagreatdealabout
thefactthatmanyfullyqualifiedclassroomteachersdidnotunderstandtherolethey
neededtoplayinsupportingIndigenousteachereducationanymore.
…atthemomentIfeelthatthey(assistantteachers)doinglikewhattheteamteacher
issaying,youknow'youdothis,youdothat,youdothisinthemorning,thisiswhat
wegonnadonextweek'weekbyweek,notactuallyyouknowsittingdownwithher
orhimandgoingthrough…allthat.
...sometimestheydon’tseetheir…programandtheydon’tplanwitheachother…
someofthepeoplewhotheywereteamteachingwithweresometimescritical…yeah
‘costhatperson,youknowtheonewho'sfullytrainedmightthinkoh'she'snogood',
or'he'snogood',butactuallytalkingandprogrammingandsharingmakesagood
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teamteacher.
….andthat’showIthoughtumsomeofthetrainingisn’tgiventopeople…Howabout
youknowgivethattrainingtoimproveinthatarea,andthat’swherethestrengthis.
Andtheyseetheweakness...theycandoit,buttheyneedsupport,youknowandnot
tobecriticalbutactuallyhavesupportandlookatthestrengths,lookatthe
weaknessandbuildonthat,ratherthanbeingcriticalandsaying,what'stheword...
patronising?
…nowadays…therearenon-Indigenousteachersintheclassroomallthetime
teachingthosekids
MarikaandWhite(1999)notedthatduringthetimewhencommunitybasedteacher
educationwasstrongestschoolswererequiredtoviewthemselvesasbothworkplacesand
‘training’placesforIndigenouseducators.Inthismodelteachereducationwaspositioned
asawholeofschoolapproachtolearning(Bat&Shore2013).MarikaandWhite(1999,p.
7)alsonoticedashiftinthispracticewhen‘BatchelorCollege’startedemployingAEP-
fundedtutorswhichremovedasignificantrequirementforinitiatingandsustainingthe
programsfromwithinthestaffingoftheschools.MarikaandWhite(1999)commented
thatwithinashorttimethiscausedaculturalchangeintheschools.Theynotedspecifically
that‘Partnershipsdisappearedveryquicklywhenworkplaces(schools)couldgetby
withouthavingtoallocateresourcesoracceptsomeresponsibilityfortheeducationand
trainingoftheiremployeesorpotentialemployees’(MarikaandWhite1999,p.7).Insome
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waystheinstabilityofthemodelisforeshadowedinReaburn’swordsaswellwhenshe
writes,
ThedevelopmentofAboriginalandNonAboriginalRATEparticipantunderstanding
towardsacommonwayofseeingandactingisdocumentedhereinthehopethat
theexperiencesofsomecanbeusefulforthoseothersyettocome,thatNon
AboriginaleducatorsparticularlycanrecognizethattogetherwithAboriginal
peoplewecanworktowardsdevelopingamoreappropriateeducationforall.
(Reaburn1989,p.4)
Thementionof‘thoseothersyettocome’isanacknowledgmentoftheinstabilityofany
changesmadewithinasystemthatisstillsoheavilyreliantonthosealreadyqualifiedwho
comeandgofromoutsidetheseremotecommunities.Suchhighturnoverasseeninthe
staffingofschoolsinremotecommunitiesbringswithittheconstantthreatofwhiteness
anddysconsciousracismthatthreatensanyprogressthathaspreviouslybeenmade
towards‘self-determination’forAboriginalpeople.Thisplacesanyprogram‘atthemercy
ofeveryintellectualbreezethathappenstoblow’(Dewey1938,p.51),nottomentionthe
ideologicalandpoliticalcyclonesthatperiodicallywreakhavoc.
Theseshiftsawayfromthestrongcommunitybasedmodelofteachereducationshine
somelightonwhywearehardlyseeinganyqualifiedIndigenousteachersemergingfrom
theremoteschoolteachereducationpathwayanymore.Whiletherecontinuestoexist
someisolatedexamplesofpeopleworkingtogetherin‘goodfaith’insmalloutoftheway
places,thisisnowhereclosetohappeningatasystemwidelevelanymoreinremote
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schoolsintheNorthernTerritory.Nolongeristeachereducationaprocessofco-
constructingknowledgeinthelocalcontext.Nowitis‘mainstreamed’tomeetthenational
requirementsforsameness.Theabsenceofconsistentandprioritisedsupportfromthe
schoolleadershipandtheclassroomteachersandthesporadicsupportprovidedby
universitylecturingstaffhascausedthenextgenerationofIndigenousteacherstofeelleft
bythemselveswithno‘marlpa’fromthesystemtheyareworkingwithin.
8.3.3Differenceanddisconcertment
Whilethemodelsandprogramsofcollaborationandco-constructiondiscussedinthe
previoussectionwereexamplesofsuccessfulinterculturalwork,thereisamoreimportant
aspectthatprecedesthosemodels,thatofontologicalandepistemologicaldifference.
Ontologicaldifferencesbetweenpeople,asexpressedinwhatweknowandhowweknow
it,needtobecentraltoanyinterculturalknowledgework.Thisneedfordifferencetobe
understood,embracedandembeddedwasakeymessagecomingfromtheteacher
narratives.
8.3.3.1Culturallyembeddeddifference
Thefirstthemediscussedintheteachernarrativeisonecalled‘ourfeelingforfamily’.This
phraseusesthewordsofoneoftheparticipants,
'Ithinktechnologyandallthisstuffhaschangedbutourfeelingforthefamilyand
thecommunityhasn’t,it'snotgonnachange,thatneedtobeclosetothefamilies...I
thinkthiscultureisreallystrongyouknow,familyandfamilyconnectionandsorry
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business...you'reexpectingthemtogetagoodeducationbutthesethingsare
gonnacomeallthetime’
Thiscommentthengeneratedagreatdealofsubsequentdiscussionabouttheplaceof
educationinthemoreholisticviewoflifeforchildrenandadultsintherespective
communitiesoftheteacherparticipants.Strongemphasisonconnectiontofamily,culture
andcountrycamethroughasacentral,powerfulandnot-negotiableimperativeinthelives
oftheparticipants.Engagingwithwesternsystemsofeducationwasseentobeinconflict
attimeswiththisimperativeandcauseddeepdisconcertmentonthepartoftheteacher
participants.This‘feeling’wasoftenexpressedbodilyasafeelingofhomesicknesswhen
peoplewereawayfromtheirfamilyandcommunity,andinaneducationalspace,
‘thechangeofthatfrom(going)intothecollege,itwastoodifferent’
Oftentheteacherparticipantstalkedabouthowfinding‘marlpa’withotherstudentsfrom
neighbouringcommunitieshelpedwhentheywereinformaleducationalsettings.This
companyhelpeddealwithlonelinessbutitneverfullyovercametheunderlying‘feelingfor
family’thatpulledthemhome.Whenfacedwithachoicebetweenschoolingandfamily,
theparticipantsalwayschosefamily.
Theemphasisplacedonthisthememadeitclearthattheteacherparticipantswantedto
highlightitasapointofontologicalandepistemologicaldifference.Deepandcomplex
understandingsofeducationexistwithintheirknowledgesystems,butthose
understandingsemanatefromanontologicallydifferentplacetoWesternunderstandings
ofeducation.Itisnottheintentionhere,orindeedmyplace,toinanywaytrytoexplainor
definetheseIndigenousontologicalunderstandings.ManyIndigenousscholarshavedone
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soverythoroughlyandgenerouslyfromtheirownperspectives.Iwoulddirectyoutowards
Arbon(2008),Martin(2008)andFord(2010)inparticularforfurtherunderstandingabout
thecentralityof‘relatedness’inAustralianIndigenousontologiesandMeyer(2001),
Kahakalau(2004),Kawagley(1995),Wilson(2009),andBattiste(2002)whospeakabout
thistopicfromNativeHawaiian,AlsakaNativeandFirstnationsCanadianperspectives.The
waytheteachersspokeof‘feelingforfamilyasapointofontologicaldifference,itisclearly
anotnegotiablehumanconditionforthem.Itisexpressedinchoicesthataremade,
prioritiesthataredecideduponandparticipationinthelifeoftheirfamiliesand
community.Itisapowerfulobligatoryforcethatwillalwaysremainmoreimportantthan
anyotherresponsibility–includingeducationandwork.Theteacherparticipantsspokeof
ittounderlinethatthis‘feelingforfamily’,andthedifferencethatitrepresents,mustbe
accommodatedandrespectedaspartoftheeducationaljourney.
However,theteachernarrativesdemonstratedthatwhensuchpointsofontologicaland
epistemologicaldifferencewereengagedwithpatiently,thoughtfully,relationallyand
deeply,thenthegenerativeknowledgeandunderstandingsthatemergedcouldactuallybe
powerfullyenlistedtosupporteducationalsuccess.Asdiscussedintheprevioussection
oneofthekeydeterminantsoftheseteachersbeingabletocontinueonwiththeirteacher
educationwasthefactthat,atleastinthebeginning,thecoursesinwhichtheseteachers
participatedwerecommunitybased.Thisthenenabledtheirfamiliestoengage
meaningfullyinwhattheyweredoingandenabledthelocalleadersandElderstomake
valuableknowledgecontributionstotheprograms.Additionallythecohortmodelallowed
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participantstofeelsupportedbythecollectivenatureoftheprogram.Attimeswhen
obligationtofamilyandculturewasrequired,thedeepunderstandingofwhatwastrying
tobeachievedbytheseteachereducationprogramsallowedforanegotiationofthese
obligations.Oneparticipantsimplysaid
‘familysupportedmetogoaway’
Atothertimesfamilysupportedpeopleinpracticalwaysliketakingontheworkloadleft
behind,caringforchildrenorsickfamilymembers.Theseareallexamplesthatindicate
that,whenunderstoodandappliedcreatively,thispointofontologicaldifferencecan
actuallybeatremendoussupportstructuretohelpAboriginalteacherssucceed.Those
pursuingteachereducationqualificationswillalwaysbeforcedtojugglemultiple
responsibilitiesandwillalwaysfeelpulledindifferent,andattimes,oppositional
directions.Butgenerativesolutionscanbefoundwhengoodinterculturalknowledgework
isdone.Inorderforthistohappenweneedtocreatespacefordifference.Teacher
educationcannotbeaonesizefitsallmodelwhereanyonewhositsoutsidethatmodelis
excluded.Differenceshouldnotbeabarriertoaccessandsuccess.
Astheteacherparticipantspointedoutintheirnarratives,thesedeepontological
differencesdon’tjustexistintheirnavigationoftheeducationalsystem,butalsoexistfor
thechildrenintheirhomecommunities.Thesharedontologicalidentitybetweenthese
teachersandtheirstudentsandthesharedlanguage,cultureandpracticesthatembody
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thatidentityprovidestheseteacherswithuniqueinsightsabouthowbesttoteach
studentsfromtheirhomecommunities.
forIndigenouskidstheylookatusandthey...we'retheirfamilyandtheyknowus,
wehavegoodrelationshipslikewe'refamilyandkidslookatusandwearetherole
modelsforthem…IfIndigenouskidshaveIndigenousteachersandlanguageand
cultureprograms,they'lllistentousandtheelderscominginteachingthem
Infacttheaspectsthatmightbejudgedbyaonesizefitsallstandardizedsystemofteacher
educationasreasonstoexcludeIndigenousteachersshouldbecarefullyandrespectfully
enlistedasstrengthsthatmaketheseteachersthekindofteachersIndigenousstudents
need.Weilbacher(2012,p.4)remindsusthat‘Inorderforstudentstogrow,theirteachers
needtounderstandandusethestudents’earlyexperiencesintheprocessofeducating
them’.Heassertsthat‘Teachersmustknowtheirstudentsandtheirenvironment–the
physicalandsocialexperiencesthathaveactedasthefoundationforwhatthestudents
know–assuchinfluencesprovidestudentswithcontinuityintheirownworld’.Indigenous
teachersfromwithinlocalcommunitiesareuniquelyplacedtounderstandchildren’searly
experiencesandprovidethiscontinuity.Theyareuniquelyplacedbecausetheyshare
ontologicalandepistemologicalknowledgeandunderstandingswiththechildrenfrom
theircommunitiesandcanthereforeundertaketheworkofateacher‘withoutengagingin
imposition’(Dewey1938).
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8.3.3.2Navigatingdifference
Yearsofworkingintheinterculturalspaceofeducationintheirhomecommunitieshave
madetheseteacherparticipantsexpertsatunderstandingandrespondingtodifference.
Theyareoftenrequiredtohelpothersnavigatethisspaceofdifferenceaswell.Thisis
particularlyvisiblewhenteachersfromoutsidethecommunityexperiencetheculture
shockandadjustmentoflivinginaremoteIndigenouscommunitysodifferenttotheir
own.Itisthelocalteachers,parentsandElderswhogivethesenon-localsthesupportand
strategiestonavigatethedisconcertmenttheyareexperiencing,
sometimes(they)didn’tfititwellandthat’swhenwesaidyouknowit’snotthesame
asyourculture,ifyouhaveyourculturedifferenttoourculturesoweshouldbe
sittingdownandyouknowlookingatthis,whatbarriersarethere,sowecanwork
andmakeitbetter
Theteacherparticipantspointedouthowchallengingthisspaceofdifferencewasfor
schoolPrincipalswhowereoftencomingtocontextsinremotecommunityschoolsthatare
outsidetheircomfortzoneandmarkedlydifferenttotheirpreviousprofessional
experiences,butexpectedbytheDepartmenttotakechargeandproduceoutcomes.
…youknowwhenthePrincipals,newPrincipalscameanditwasalsochallengingfor
thembecausetheyneverworkedinabilingualschoolbefore,whichwaslike
differentforthem.LikePrincipalwouldbeahighschoolPrincipalorteachercoming
intoourcommunitytoteachinaschoolandsomePrincipalsfounditdifficultand
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challenging,butasateamweworkedtogethertotryandrunWarlpiribilingual
way.
Rose(2004,p.16)associatesthiswiththefactthatmodernityhasprivilegedaparadigmof
progressthatseeshumanagencyasthedrivingforce.TheWesternepistemological
system,whichisfoundedon,detached,objectivehierarchicalcontroldoesnotreallyhave
manyanswerswhenfacedwithdifference.Itiscommittedtothe‘grandorderingnarrative’
thatseeseducationaspartofa‘singlespacesubstantiallydefinedbyacompetitiveneo-
globaleconomyandananalogouslycompetitiveglobalintellectualsystem’(LawandLin
2010,p.142).Non-localscomeintothecommunitiesandexpectthatthesamewaysof
workingfromtheirpastexperiencewillworkinthisnewcontext.Thesubjectivityofthe
differentexperiencechallengesthem.The‘bodilydisconcertment’(Verran2013)thatthey
experienceisatoddswiththescientificrationalitythatrestsupontheCartesianseparation
betweenmindandbody,subjectsandobjects(Watson&Huntington2008).
Inthebestcases,whenthenon-localteachersareabletobecomeopentodifference,
listentotheknowledgeofthelocalstaffandbecomeopentochangethisproducedgood
results,
IwasAssistantTeacherandIsaidtothis(teacher),younggirl,andshedidn’tlikeit.
Shesaid'ohbutthisishowwedoit'.(Isaid)'Butyourwaysisn’tworking,let'sdoit
thiswayandwe'llseenextweekitmightwork'andshehuggedmeandsaid'thisis
working,howdidyoudothat?'(Isaid)'Isawallthisinaworkshopwherethislady
wassayinginthisschoolitworkslikethat,likethis,soItakeit,Ibringwhatthey're
doingtheretopracticehere'anditwasworking.
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Howeververyoftentheresponsetotheepistemicdisconcertmentborneoutofthe
experienceofdifferenceisaverybasicfightorflight,
…sometimesresponsesaresometimesquestionable,sometimeswewouldyouknow
disagreeoneachother…somenon-Indigenousdidn’ttakeitsotheyendedupgetting
burntout‘costheyweren’tfittingintoourculture,whichsometimescanbehard.
Blair(2015)suggeststhattheproblemhereisthatdifferenceisn’tvaluedwhendifferent
understandingsemergebetweenknowledgesystems.Shesuggeststhatwhendifferenceis
notvaluedaspacein-betweenemerges,muddiedbyignoranceandalackofwantingto
know.Thisislargelybecausethecoloniserconstruesdifferenceasnon-existentor
irrelevant.Dewey(1938,p.30)explainsthisbehaviourbysuggestingthatpeoplewill
‘followthelineofleastresistanceprovidedbytheoldintellectualhabits’.
Incontrast,theteacherparticipantsoftentalkedabouthowusefultheyfounddifference
tobeinthedevelopmentoftheirownknowledgeandprofessionalidentity
…Ithinkithelpedmelikealotofteacherscomeandgoandallthedifferent
experiencesandthatreallyhelpedmegetstrongatmyprofessionalteaching,
workingwithdifferentpeople,yeah…awaandlearningaboutdifferences'ohshe's
gotagoodidea'yeahandallthesedifferentwaysofteachinganddifferentteachers
thatcomesthrough,yeah….Ipersonallyreallythinkthatit'sreallyhelpedme….awa
makesmefeelstrong,yeahfromalotoftheways…I’velearned…otherteachers
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comingandgoingandbringsdifferentexperience,styleofteaching,ornotonly
teachingbutthewholethingintheschool…IthinkI'velearnedenoughtosay'ohthis
iswhatyouneedtosay/do'tobothsides.I'vegotthatknowledge.
Theteacherparticipantssawdifferenceasaninvitationtolearnandtogrowandtheysaw
itasanopportunitytotrynewideasandimplementchanges.Itwasthedeepaversionto
differenceembodiedinsomeoftheirnon-localcolleaguesthatoftenpreventedthisfrom
happening.Perhapsthisisbecause,accordingtoVerran(1998,p.242)‘Aboriginal
communitiesknowhowtonegotiateoveronticcategories’inwaysthatallowfordisparate
waysofknowing.Inthiswayperhapstheteacherparticipantsunderstoodintrinsicallythat
partoflearningwasbeingabletoexploreone’sowndiscomfort(Holt2001).
8.3.3.3Thevulnerabilityofdifference
Theexperiencesoftheseteacherssuggestthataninevitable,andinfactnecessary,partof
doinginterculturalworkisexperiencingdifference.Oneoftheproblemswiththisisthat
duetohistoricalcolonialismandtheongoingneo-colonialideologythatpersistsin
Australia,thisdifferenceismostcommonlyignored,pressedtoassimilateordismissedby
hegemonicpracticesofthedominantWesternknowledgesystem.Continuingdownthis
pathonlyleadstowhatRose(2004,p.22)calls‘doubledviolence:thepracticesthathurt
others,andthesustainedindifferencetothehurtofothers’.Oneofthekeysisthat
differenceisexperiencedpersonally,emotionallyandbodily.Verran(2013,p.145)
suggeststhatwhenpeopleexperiencedifferenceatanepistemologicalormetaphysical
level,thisisexperiencedasbodilydisconcertment.Theyexperiencea‘momentary
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existentialpanic’whensomethingtheyhavealwaysknownorfelttobetrueis
contradictedorinterruptedbyanothertruth.Our‘comfortablecategories’havebeen
thrownintodisarray.Thesearethingsthatwe‘feel’asepistemicallyright,thingsthatwe
areordinarilyunawareofuntilitis‘rentasunder’(Verran2013,p.146).Itisexperienced
bodilyandishencepersonallybutVerransuggestsourdiscomfortis‘anexpressionofour
solidifiedcollectiveinstitutionalhabits’(Verran2013,p.145).Thiskindofpersonaland
bodilypanicleavespeoplefeelingvulnerableinthefaceofdifferenceandacommon
response,particularlyfromthosebelongingtothedominantknowledgesystem,isthe
instinctofself-protectionbyfiercelyadheringto‘their’known.Thisiscommonlydone
throughthe‘toolsofwhiteness’,rejectingthe‘other’knowledgeasinferior,lessscientific,
lessvalid.Sometimespeoplewillremainvulnerableinthisspaceofdisconcertmentlong
enoughtotrytoexplainawaythedifferenceusingallegory,ormetaphor,butagaindraw
thesefromthereferencingrepertoireavailabletothemaccordingtotheirown
epistemologicalunderstandings(Verran2013,p.147).
Warlpirischolar,StevenJampajimpaPatrick(Wanta)alsotalksaboutdifferenceinthe
discussionofhistheoryofNgurra-Kurlu.Ngurra-Kurlucanbeunderstoodinmanyways
accordingtoPatrick,butoneofthosewaysisaspurami,‘thepath’or‘theway’.For
WarlpiripeopleNgurra-KurluhighlightstheessentialfeaturesofbeingWarlpiriagainstthe
deafeningbackgroundnoiseofmainstreamAustralianculture.InthisstoryPatrick
comparespuramitotheroleoftrafficlightsinacity:
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SamethingwhenIlookedatthecity,whenIwentthereforthefirsttime.Ithought,
whydoeseveryonehavetostopfortheredlight?Whycan’twejustkeepondriving?
Butyoucansee–everyonethinksabouttherightwayofdrivingacar,otherwise–
poof!Everyoneneedstounderstandthecolourandwhatthatistellingthem.You
knowthat’soneofthethingsthatcapturedmewhenIfirstwenttothecity:thislight
istellingyouwhentogoandwhennottogo.Yousee,ngurra-kurlu[islikethelights]
–itbringspeopletogethersothattheycanunderstandeachother,andlikethe
motorcarsandstreetseverywheretheydon’tpileup.Sometimestheydo,youknow,
kardiya[non-Aboriginalpeople]respondtothat[pileup]reallyquickandyapa
[Warlpiripeople]havewaystodothattoo.(Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu,HolmesandBox
2008,p.8)
PatrickidentifiesNgurra–Kurluastheepistemologicalunderstandingsthroughwhich
peopleofdifferencecanseektounderstandeachother.Healsowarnsofthepossibility
the‘pileup’whentheepistemologicalunderstandingscrashagainsteachother.How
peoplerespondinthesemomentswillbeverydifferentbutPatrickalsocallsontheneed
fortimeandspacethatallowustofindwaysto‘turnthevolumedowntohearourselves.’
(Pawu-Kurlpurlurnu,HolmesandBox2008,p.10).
Verran(2013,p.145)agreesthatweneedtofindways‘torecognizeandexplicitlymanage
thepositionsthatarethrownupinthetensionsthatepistemicdisconcertmentexpresses’.
Thisneedstohappeninwaysthatrecognizewewillallbedrawingonourown
incommensurableepistemicresources.Iwillneverbeabletounderstandingknowledge
330
fromaWarlpiriorLuritjaorPitjantjatjaraorWesternArrarntaepistemologicalor
ontologicalstandpoint,andneitherwilltheteachersIworkedwitheverbeableto
understandmyownWesternknowledgeepistemologicalandontologicalstandpoint.But
thatdoesn’tmeanthatwecannotintentionallyoccupyaspaceofdifferenceandseektodo
work‘generativelyandingoodfaith’(Verran2013,p.144).Verranexplainswhatismeant
bydifferenceinthiscontext,
Differenceinthisusageisnotdifferenceallowedbyacommonsameness,butrather
differencebeforecomingtoconcepts.Learningtorecognizeandvaluesuch
difference,learningtorefusethestepwhichrequiresacolonizingreductiontoa
sharedcategory,andacceptancethatwemaynotbemetaphysicallycommittedtoa
commonworld,iswhatisinvolvedincultivatingapostcolonialimpulse(Verran2013,
p.144).
Thisideaofcultivatingapost-colonialimpulseiswhatthefinalsectionofthisdoctoral
thesiswillelaborateoninthecontextofIndigenousteachereducation.
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Chapter9–Post-ColonialKnowledgeWorkandIndigenousTeacherEducation
Thecommonconcernattheheartofthethesiswasthequestionofhowtosupportmore
peoplefromremotecommunitiestobecomequalifiedteachers.Totrytofindsome
insightsintothisquestiontheteachernarrativesofsevenfullyqualifiedIndigenous
teachersfromtheremoteCentralAustraliancontextwerelistenedto,recorded,written
downandanalysed.Theco-explorationofthesenarrativeshavegivenmyselfandthe
teacherparticipantsinsightsintothefollowinginitialresearchquestions:
• WhathavebeentheexperiencesofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunities
inCentralAustraliawhohavecompletedteachereducation?
• Whataresomeoftheelementsthatsupportedthemandwhataresomeofthe
barrierstheseteachersencountered?
• WhatarethebenefitsofhavingqualifiedIndigenousteachersinremoteschools?
Wecomenowtothefinalresearchquestion,
• Howcanmeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysbecreatedtosupportteacher
educationforfuturegenerationsofIndigenousteachersfromremote
communities?
Toanswerthisquestionwehavehadtotakeanhistoricallookatthejourneysintoteacher
educationofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesintheNorthernTerritoryand
wehaveseenthatsomestrong,effectiveandsuccessfuldeliverymodelsandunique
programsweredevelopedinthepast.Theseventeacherparticipantsatthecentreofthis
doctoralresearcharebyandlargeproductsofthatera.Therecontinuetobesmall,
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sporadicexamplesof‘goodfaith’,collaborative,interculturalwaysofworkingwithin
remotecommunitiesbutsadlythesetendtobetheexceptionratherthantherulenow.
Tounderstandwhythingshavemovedawayfrompreviouswaysofworkingwehavealso
hadtouncoverandunpacktheinitiativesandpoliciesthathavemovedteachereducation
intoaspaceofstandardizationandnationalizationwithanemphasison‘quality’and
‘literacyandnumeracy’.Thebureaucraticdiscoursesurroundingthisshifthasbeenoneof
commonsense,benefits,necessityandculturalneutrality.Oncloserinspectionthese
elementshaveinfactproventobemechanismsofaneo-colonialshift,whichhasatits
coreanagendaofassimilation.Itishardertorecognizenowbecauseitisnotpopulated
withtheassimilationistlanguageandovertonesofapreviousage.Howevertheunderlying
intentandoutcomesarethesame,andoneofthemajoroutcomeshasbeenaninsistence
on‘sameness’inthebodyofpeopledeemedeligibletobecomeateacher.Thishashadthe
effectofexcludingIndigenousteachers,particularlythosewhospeaktheirownlanguages
throughtheuseofthe‘toolsofwhiteness’suchaslanguagetesting,professional
standards,standardizedcurriculumandthemainstreamdeliveryofteachereducation
programs.BarriershavealsobeencreatedthroughtheTrojanhorsesofassimilationsuch
assystemicanddysconsciousracismintheworkplace,the‘quality’teacherdiscourseand
therelegationofthestatusofIndigenousknowledgesystemsasinferiorandsecondaryto
thedominantWesternknowledgesystem.Againstthisbackgrounditwouldbe
irresponsibletoencourageyoungIndigenouspeoplefromremotecommunitiestopursuea
pathwayintoteachereducation,fortodosowouldbeanactof‘doubledviolence’(Rose
333
2004,p23).Itwouldforcethemintoaknowledgespacethatrequiresassimilationthrough
‘standardizedbehaviours’;aspacethatpermitsthementryuptobutnotbeyondthepoint
ofmimicry,neverreallybeingabletoachievetrueequality;aspacethatrejectsand
disrespectstheknowledgetheseyoungpeoplebringwiththem:aspaceinwhichtheir
struggletobecome‘white’isnotperceivedashurtfulbutnecessary.
Ifwetrulywishtocreatemeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysintoteachereducationfor
Indigenouspeoplefromremotecommunities,thenweneedtofindwaystomovebeyond
thisspaceof‘doubledviolence’;beyondthebenignandineffectualrhetoricofteacher
diversity,andbeyondtheroleofIndigenousteachersas‘mimics’ofwhiteteachersand
‘rolemodels’forIndigenouschildren.BatandShore(2013,p.17)suggestthat‘whatis
requiredisthescopetoworkwithlocalcommunitiestodeveloprelevantandeffective
teachereducationprogramsthatcanstillmeetthenationalaccreditationguidelines’.I
agreethatthenationalstandards,guidelinesandcurriculumarenotgoinganywheresowe
needtofindmeaningfulandeffectivewaystoworkintothem.However,weneedtobe
intentionalaboutthekindof‘work’thatisbeingreferredtohere.Theworkneedstobe
thekindofworkthatisgroundedinaconsciousnessofourhistoricalcolonialpast,and
withthatknowledgeseekstoco-createadecolonizedfuture.ItiswiththisinmindthatI
suggestthatteachereducationneedstomoveintoaspaceofPost-ColonialKnowledge
Work.ButperhapsmoreimportantlywecannoteventhinkaboutreformingtheIndigenous
teachereducationspaceuntilwealsocommitandbeginworkingtoreintegrateeducation
withthelocal.Thevibrancyandstrengthoflocalremoteschoolslieintheirreintegration
withthelifeofthecommunity,andtheframeworkforPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkcan
beusedasamechanismforthisreintegration.
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9.1Post-ColonialKnowledgeWork
Astory:
Oneoftheteacherparticipantstoldmethisstoryrecently.Itisusedherewithher
permission,
Thestudentsattheschoolwherethisteacherworkswerelininguptocollecttheirlunchone
day.Theteacher’syounggranddaughterwasinline.Hercousinswereaheadofherinthe
line.Whentheysawherstandingtherebyherself,withoutherfamilynearhertheycalled
outtoher‘comeandstandherewithus’.Respondingtothisurgingtheyounggirlmoved
forwardtostandwithhercousins.Anon-Indigenousteacherwhohadbeengiventhetask
ofsupervisingthelinesawhermoveandimmediatelyscaldedherfor‘cuttingin’and
punishedherbysendinghertothebackoftheline.Theyounggirlburstintotearsunsure
whatshehaddonewrong.
ThisisabriefandsimplestorybutonethatIbelievehighlightstheimportanceand
generativepossibilityofdoingPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorkineducationalspaces.
Thechildreninthisstoryareoperatingfromaplaceofknowledge.Their‘feelingforfamily’
andsenseof‘marlpa’,ofnotleavinganyonebythemselves,wasguidingtheirthoughtsand
actions.Thenon-Indigenousteacherwasoperatingfromadifferentplaceofknowledge–a
Westernsenseofrightandwrong,ofpropriety,ofsocialorderamongst‘strangers/non-
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relatives’,ofappropriatewaysofperformingcertaintasks.Whenthetwowaysofknowing
aboutthissituationclashed,thenon-Indigenousteacherimposedherassumptionsand
usedherpowertorestorethingstothewayshebelievedtheyshouldbe,tothe
bewildermentanddistressoftheyounggirland,Idaresay,ofhercousins.
Imagineforamomentifthenon-Indigenousteacherhadrealizedthatsomethingfelt
‘wrong’,hadnoticedherbodilydisconcertmentinthatmoment.Howmightthingshave
beendifferentif,insteadofimmediatelyreacting,insteadofimmediatelytryingtoset
thingsto‘right’,shehadsatwiththediscomfort?Imagineifshehaddecidedtodelveabit
deeperintothedifferentunderstandingsaboutwhatwashappeninginthatmoment.
Imagineifshehadtakenthetimetoenterintoadialoguewiththegirl’sgrandmother,a
senioreducatorandleaderinthecommunity,andaskedhertoexplainwhathadhappened
sothatshecouldbetterunderstandbeforetakingactionthatwouldonlyservetoconfuse
andalienate.Imaginewhatdeepeningherunderstandinginthatmomentmighthaveled
to?Hopefully,attheveryleastalessreactiveandcensuringresponse;perhapsevena
dialoguethatledtheschooltofindingnewwaysforthechildrenreceivetheirlunchesthat
respectedthefactthatchildrenlikedtobegroupedwiththeirfamilies.Imaginenowhow
manyofthesetypesofinstancescouldleadtogenerativesolutionsifeveryoneinthat
schoollearnedhowtoworkwithinaPost-ColonialKnowledgeframe.
TheresearchconductedinthisdoctoralresearchgiveusinsightsintodoingPost-Colonial
KnowledgeWorkattwolevels.Firstly,throughthestoriesoftheteachersandthe
subsequentanalysisofthesenarrativeswecangainsignificantinsightintointercultural
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knowledgeworkthathasbeendoneinteachereducationinthepastwhenpeoplehave
cometogetherandworkedin‘goodfaith’.Secondly,theprocessofthisresearchitselfis
imbuedwiththeideasofPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorkandsoexaminingthisco-
constructedprocesscanofferinsightsaswell.
9.2ASpaceofPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork
Ifwetrulywantmoreyoungpeoplefromremotecommunitiestofolloweffectiveand
meaningfulpathwaysinteachereducationthenteachereducationitselfneedstomove
intoaPost-ColonialKnowledgespaceandthosewithinitneedtobeequippedtodoPost-
ColonialKnowledgeworktogether.Othershavetalkedaboutthiskindofspace.For
example,
theconceptofknowledgespacestorefertothespacewithinwhichdifferent
knowledgesareconceivable.Thesearethespacesfromwhichknowledgesarisebut
alsospacesthatare,inturn,shapedbytheseknowledges.Thisprovidesamechanism
forunderstandingallknowledgesassituatedinaparticulargeo-historicalcontext
(whilstgoingbeyondunderstandingthiscontextas‘local’)andalsoforextendingthe
notionofcontextualizationtooneofco-creation(Wright2005,p.908).
Additionally,inthedevelopmentofhertheoryof‘Lilyology’AustralianIndigenousscholar
NeridaBlairtalksofaspacewhereIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeoplecanplaywith
differentconceptsandideaslearningtovalueandpayrespecttoeachotherknowingthat
differentontologiesareatwork(Blair2015).
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Inmanywaysthisdoctoralresearchhasbeenanattempttocreateandembodysucha
space.APost-ColonialKnowledgespaceisnotsomethingthatalreadyexists,itneedstobe
createdbyitsparticipants.AsRose(2004,p.24)remindsus‘wehavenomodelsfromthe
pasttoguideus…Wehavetoworkitoutstep-by-stepdialogicallywithandamongeach
other’.ThisechoesAddelson(1994,p.1)whoremindsusthat‘Answerstohowweshould
livearecreatedintheprocessofliving’.CanadianFirstNationsscholarMarieBattiste
remindsusthat‘Indigenousthinkersusetheterm‘postcolonial’todescribeasymbolic
strategyforshapingadesirablefuture,notanexistingreality.Theterm(referstoan)
aspirationalpractice,goaloridea….toimagineanewformofsocietythattheydesiredto
create’(Battiste2002,p.xix).
9.3Waysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’
ThefollowingfourWaysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’andthesubsequentthree
ToolsforPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkareofferedaslearningsfromthisjourneythatI
havetakenwiththeteacherparticipants,fromtheirnarrativesandfromtheactofcoming
togethertodotheworkaroundourcommonconcern.Whiletheydrawonmanyideas
fromdiversetheorists,theyariseinthisformandframeworkdirectlyfromthelearnings
gainedbylisteningtothenarrativesoftheteacherparticipantsandfromtheexperienceof
doingPost-Colonialresearchworktogetherinthisdoctoralstudy.These‘Ways’and‘Tools’
aremyinterpretation,asprincipalresearcher,ofthespecificelementsthatopenedupthe
possibilitiesoftheemergenceofnewunderstandingsandwaysofgoingontogether.They
willbeastartingpointforongoingandfuturenegotiationandrenegotiationasmywork
goesonwiththeteacherparticipantsinthefuture.Theyareincludedhereaspirationallyas
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offeringnewpossibilitiesforfutureeducationandteachereducationworkinthePost-
ColonialKnowledgespace.
9.3.1GoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkisrelational…
Thisresearchbeganfromaplaceofrelationship.Iwasknowntotheteacherparticipants
andtheywereknowntome.Wehadestablishedrelationaltrustthroughourprevious
worktogetherandthroughthefriendshipsthatgrewfromthatwork.Itwasthisrelational
trustthatresultedintheteacherstellingmetheirstoriesinthefirstplaceandthatleftme
withafeelingofneedingto‘do’somethingtogetherwiththem.Itwasalsothisrelational
trustthatenabledustonavigateourwaythroughthisnewresearchbasedrelationship
togetherandtohavethisnewworkbesomethingthatstrengthenedratherthan
diminishedourrelationshipwitheachother.Oneoftheinsightsthatwelearnedaspartof
ourprocesswastheimportanceof‘marlpa’,asdiscussedinChapter5.Thissamepresence
of‘marlpa’camethroughintheteachernarrativesasakeyelementthatsupportedthem
tobesuccessfulintheirteachereducationstudiesandintheirworkinschools.
Martin(2008,p.128)talksaboutthelevelsofrelationshipthatpeoplecanenterinto–
beingunknown,beingknownaboutandbeingknown.Shestatesthat‘Toremain
‘unknown’isapersonaldecisionandregardedasatemporarystateofrelatedness’.Itis
possibletoseemanyexampleswherepeopleworkingininterculturalspaceshavechosen
toremain‘unknown’toeachother.HowevergoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkrequires
ustoengageinaprocessof‘comingalongside’whichMartin(2008,p.128)suggests
‘occursasrelatednessisexpanded,strengthenedanddeepenedfromthatofbeingknown
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abouttobeingknown’.Manyothershavetalkedaboutthecentralityofrelationshipsand
relatedness(Arbon2008;Bishop1998;Buker2014;Carnes2011;Fredericks2008;Ford
2010;Meyer2001;Smith1999;Wilson2009).
Rose(2004)assertsthatrelationshipsarecrucialbecauseitisthroughtheserelationships
amongpeopleandbetweenpeopleandplacethatalternativestothewayswehavedone
thingsinthepastcanarise.Weneedtheserelationshipstoderivefromanewsenseof
ethics,an‘ethicofconnection’,whereweseeourselvesas‘mutuallyimplicatedhumans
whoseprimarydutyistorespondtothecallsofothers’(Rose2004,p.14).Rosecallsthisan
ethicsofresponsibilitynotguilt,anethicthat‘demarcatesapathtowards
decolonization…towardsahumanconditionoflivingwithandforothers’(Rose2004,p.
12).Post-ColonialKnowledgeWorkrequiresustoberelationalinwaysthataremutually
vulnerableandresponsive.
9.3.2GoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorkallowstime…
Oneoftheimportantaspectsinthedesignofthisresearchwastopayattentiontoour
understandingsoftime.Thismeantfindingcreativewaysofworkingaroundthesystemic
constraintsofthePhDframe,andallowingenoughtimeforeveryonetofeel‘ready’to
participateinthework.Welearnedthatthisconceptofallowingtimeinvolvedwaiting,
givingspace,waitingfortherighttime,notfillingupallthespace,beingpatientand
waitinguntiltheotherpersonfeelsready.Itwassomethingwecametotalkaboutas
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‘Anma’andthisisfurtherexplainedinChapter5.Ratherthanbeingapassivespacewhere
nothingishappening,itisanactivespaceofreflection,preparationandforeshadowing.
Thiswaitingisaspacethatallowstimeformanythingstooccur.Itallowstimeforgood
communicationtohappenandallowsforeveryonetofeelreadyandprepared,itallowsfor
arespectfulwayofenteringintoworkwithpeopleandprovidesenoughtimeforeveryone
whoneedstobeinvolvedintheprocesstobeincluded.Italsoallowedustobeflexible
whenplanschanged.Itwasawayofthinkingabouttimenotassequentialandlinear,but
aspatterned,seasonalandemergent.Itwasnotsomethingthatyouplanfor,butrather
somethingthatyoupayattentiontoandallowtounfold.Itissomethingthatyoumeet
withreadinessonlywhenthetimeisright.Toanextenttheflexibledeliverymodelsthat
weredevelopedforremoteteachereducationdiscussedinChapter8alsopaidattentionto
differingnotionsoftimeandallowedenoughtimeatthelocallevelforboththeteacher
participantsintheseprograms,aswellastheirfamilies,Eldersandwidercommunityto
comeonboardanddevelopdeepunderstandingsaboutwhatkindofeducationwasbestin
thatplace.
ParkerPalmer(2009)suggeststhatallowingtimeaspartoftheprocessis‘theworkbefore
thework’.Heconnectsthisideastronglytotheideaofworkingrelationally.InPalmer’s
understandingtheworkbeforetheworkisabouttakingtimetocometotermswithand
understandourinnerlandscape,honestly,sothatweenterintotheprocessofdoingthe
workinfrontofusrelativelyunencumbered.Wearethenabletoenterintoa‘live
encounter’witheachotherthatpermitstheworkthatemergestobetrustworthyand
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‘true’fromtheperspectiveoftheparticipants.Bypayingattentiontothis‘workbeforethe
work’weensurethatwhenweactuallysitdowntodothe‘work’theexperienceisgoodfor
allwhoareinvolved,andthefeelingweareallleftwithattheconclusionis‘right’,
embodyingadeepmutualrespectforourdifferences.InPost-ColonialKnowledgework
thisisimportantbecauseofradicallydifferentontologicalandepistemological
understandingsoftime.Carnes(2011)explainsthatnon-IndigenousAustraliansaretuned
toalinearnotionoftimethatbelongstothepositivistideologyofthedominantWestern
paradigm.Rose(2004)seesdealingwithnotionsoftimeascrucialintheworkof
decolonisation.SheassertsthatinWesternconceptsoftime‘lifeisatwarwithdeath’
(Rose2004,p.25).Thisstemsfromtheontologicaldisjunctionbroughtaboutby
Christianity,explainedthus,
Stretchingtimebetweentwokeymomentsofontologicalsignificance–birthofChrist
andreturnofChrist–hadtheeffectofshrinkingthepresenttoamomentof
transition…pastandfuturewereofgreatersignificanceandvaluethanthepresent
whichwasfleeting(Rose2004,p.15)
Thishastheeffectofcreatinga‘telelogicalframe’forhowtimeisviewed.Thisputsa
positivevalueonchange,andbelievesthathistory,orsociety,ismovingtowardsthe
resolutionofconflictandcontradiction.Thiscreatesanobsessionwithfutureorientation:
everythinginourlivesisdirectedtowardsthecreationofamoreperfectfutureandonthis
basisdisrespectforhumanorothersufferingisjustifiedorignored(Rose2004).Rose
(2004)alsopointsouttheinherentflawinthisdismissalofthepresentonthewaytothe
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futurebecauseourfailuretopayattentiontowhathappensinthepresentdestroys
whateverfuturewehopetoinhabit.‘Ourlivesarethussuspendedinaweboftime
conceptsthatholdusalwaysabouttobethatwhichwewouldbelievewetrulyare’(Rose
2004,p.18).
ThiscontrastsstronglywithnotionsoftimereflectedinIndigenousontologiesand
epistemologieswhichCarnes(2011)suggestsaremorecircularwaysofbeingintheworld
andrequiretimeforthinking,musing,reflectingasawayofdoingbusiness.MiriamRose
Ungenmerrhighlightstheimportanceof‘Dadirri’whichsheexplainsis‘innerdeeplistening
andquietstillawareness-somethinglikewhatyoucallcontemplation’(Atkinson2002,
p.16).MiriamRoseUngenmerralsoexplainsinrelationtotimethat,‘OurAboriginalculture
hastaughtustobestillandtowait.Wedonottrytohurrythingsup.Weletthemfollow
theirnaturalcourse-liketheseasons…Wewaitfortherighttimeforourceremoniesand
meetings.Therightpeoplemustbepresent.Carefulpreparationsmustbemade.Wedon’t
mindwaitingbecausewewantthingstobedonewithcare’(Ungenmerrn.d.p.2).Allowing
timeforpeopletocatchup,learningaboutwhatishappeningandputtingpeopleinto
contextbefore‘thework’givesthisworkabetterchanceofrunningsmoothly,effectively
andmeaningfullyforallinvolved(Carnes2011).Buker(2014)talksoftheimportanceof
allowingtimefortherepetitiveandoftenseasonalsharingofknowledgethroughstories.
Allowingtime,combinedwithbuildingrelationships,helpstobothmitigatethechancesof
conflictarisingbutalsoprovideasolidfoundationuponwhichtoresolveconflict.
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ThismaybeachallengingwayofworkingespeciallytothosefromaWesternparadigm
withitsfocusonoutcomes,destination,actionandquantification(Carnes2011).Theidea
ofallowingroomforcontemplation,thinkingandconferringwithothers,takinglongerand
givinguptakenforgrantedWesternprivilegeandauthority(Dudgeon2008)willbe
uncomfortable,butitisanimportantandnecessarypartofdoingPost-ColonialKnowledge
work.Rose(2004,p.25)invitesustoconsider‘alternativestolineartime…thetimeofthe
generationsoflivingthings,includingecologicaltime,synchronicities,intervals,patterns,
andrhythms,allofwhicharequitelegitimatelyunderstoodasformsoftime’.Most
importantlysheinvitesustoconsiderthe‘possibilitiesofourpresentmoment’(Rose2004,
p.213),allowingtimeinthepresentmomentwhichwillteachusallnewandgenerative
waysofworkingtogether.
9.3.3GoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkisdeeplyengagedinthelocalcontextandembeddedinexperience…
Theoriginalpremiseforthisresearchwasbasedonthebeliefthattheexperiencesofthe
teacherparticipantsthroughouttheirstudyandworkwouldprovidevaluableinsightsinto
whymoreyoungIndigenouspeoplefromremotecommunitieswerenotpursuingthis
pathway.Eachnarrativeisalocal,personal,experience-basedaccountofwhatitislikefor
peoplefromremotecommunitiesinCentralAustraliatobecomefullyqualifiedteachers
andteachintheirowncommunityschools.Theteacherparticipantsinthisdoctoral
research,numberingsevenintotal,representamajorityofthequalifiedIndigenous
teachersintheCentralAustralianregion.Thescarcityoftheirpresenceinthesystem
makestheirexperiencesevenmoreimportant.Inadditiontothistheseteacherswere
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largelysuccessfulincompletingtheirinitialyearsteachereducationbecausethedelivery
modelwascontextuallyembeddedandresponsive.Therewasspaceforlocalknowledge
andtheparticipationandengagementofthewidercommunity.Meyer(2001,p140)
remindsusthatthisisimportantbecause‘contextisculturallysituated’.Theresearchin
thisstudyremindedusthatinpartthesuccessofthesecommunity-basedprograms
refutedtheideathatteachereducationwasa‘grandnarrative’thatcouldbeappliedtoall
contexts.Theseculturallyembeddedandcontextualisedprogramsinsteadoperatedina
generativewayallowingforthepossibilitythatnewknowledgewouldemergethatwould
bebeneficialtoall.
Ladson-Billings(2014)arguesthatexaminingsuccessamonggroupswhohavebeenleast
successfulislikelytorevealimportantpedagogicalprinciplesaswellasthesocialand
culturalaspectsthatmakesuccesspossible.Indeedmanytheoristswhocomefroma
CriticalRaceperspectivearguethataninsistenceoncontextandlivedexperienceprovides
adefenceagainstthe‘colourblindandsanitizedanalysesgeneratedviauniversalistic
discourses’(Gillborn2006,p.23).Thisviewissharedbypost-colonialandcollectivist
theorists.LawandLin(2010,p.137)suggestthatthebenefitofcontextualizingand
groundingthingsinexperiencesisthat‘largeissuescanbedetectedinspecific
practices…thewholecanbefoundwithin…ifweexaminetheseintherightwaythenlarge
post-colonialknowledgepredicamentscanbefoundatworkwithinspecificinteractions’.If
weseeIndigenousteachereducationasanexampleofalargepost-colonialpredicament,
andthenthestoriesoftheteacherscanbeseenasspecific,experience-basedinteractions
withinthatpredicament.Byexploringandmovingdeeperintothemomentsofboth
‘disconcertment’and‘concertment’containedwithinthestorieswemightbetter
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understandwhatishappeninginthesystemasawhole.Wemustdothis,however,
consciousofnotcreating,intheprocess,a‘grandnarrative’(Rose2004;Verran2013).
Thenarrativesthemselveshighlightedverystronglythebenefitsofteachereducation
programsthatwerestronglyembeddedinthelocalcontextandbasedaroundexperience.
Locatingthelearninginacontextthathadmeaningforparticipantsallowedthemtodraw
onthesignificantknowledgeresourcesoftheirfamilies,cultureandland.Thisapproach
offeredaninvitationforthelearningtohappencollectivelyandmeantthatadeeplevelof
familyandcommunitysupportcouldbebuiltupaswellasembeddedinunderstandingsof
whatteachereducationmeantforpeopleineachcontext.PerhapsthisiswhatDewey
(1938,p49)meantwhenhesaidthat‘Attentivecaremustbedevotedtotheconditions
whichgiveeachpresentexperienceaworthwhilemeaning’.
Thesepastpracticesoflocatingtheteachereducationprogramsinthelocalcontextalso
enabledaninversionofthepowerrelationshiphabituallyatplayintertiaryeducation
programsbecauseepistemologicalandpedagogicaldecisionsaboutthesubstantive
‘content’oftheseteachereducationprogramswerebeingmadelocallybasedonlocal
experientialknowledge.Theseprogramswerebothpre-plannedandemergentin
character,contrarytothetertiaryeducationnormoftightlydesignedcoursestobe
imposedunalteredthroughstandardiseddeliveryirrespectiveofthecontextforlearning.
Allowingspaceforemergentknowledgeandunderstandingsoffersthepossibilityof
producingacounternarrativetoassimilation,whichmustbecentraltoPost-Colonial
KnowledgeWork.QuiochoandRios(2000,p.159)remindusthatwemust‘createspace
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fordiscoursearoundtheimpactofraceonschoolingsothatracistassumptionscanbe
problematized’.TheexperienceofIndigenouspeopleonthegroundworkinginschoolsand
undertakingteachereducationplacesthemaskeyfiguresinexposingracistbehavioursand
hegemonicpractices.Rose(2004,p.13)suggeststhatwhatisneededisthecreationof‘a
senseofmoralengagementwiththepastinthepresent–rejectingtheparadigmoffuture
socialperfection,revaluingthepresentastherealsiteofactionintheworld’.Thus,justas
timeandrelationshipsarecrucial,engagementinthelocalandexperientialisanimportant
partofPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork.
9.3.4GoodPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorkwelcomesdifference…
Inmanywaystheoriginalimpetusforthisresearchwasdifference.WhenIheardthe
storiesoftheteacherparticipantsthefirsttimearoundIrecognisedthemasdifferentto
myownstoryofbecomingateacher.Isawinherentpossibilityinbetterunderstandingthis
difference,butastheresearchwentonIalsocametorealizethedestructiveimpactthe
requirementfor‘sameness’washavingwithintheeducationalsystems.Theteacher
participantswereclearintheanalysisprocessthatoneoftheunderstandingsthatneeded
tobehighlightedfromtheirnarrativeswasthatwehavedifferentcultures,different
ontologicalandepistemologicalunderstandingsandthatthisneedsdifferenceneedstobe
centralandembracedintheworkwedotogether.
Westernwaysofthinkingandknowing,whichare‘dominatedbyamatrixofhierarchical
oppositions’(Rose2004,p.19),havenottraditionallycopedwellwiththemultiplicityof
possibilitiesthatdifferenceallows.Theyaredeeplydisconcertedwiththenotionof
‘pluralismanddiversityinlanguage,cultureandlocation’(Fogarty,LovellandDodson
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2015,p.16)andmuchmorecomfortablewiththeformationofdualities‘man/woman,
culture/nature,mind/body,active/passive,civilsation/savagery’(Rose2004,p.19)which
inevitablyleadstothedualityofdominantandother.Verran(2013,p.147)talksofhowin
‘explainingtheotherintermsofitself,eachactuallyexplainstheotheraway’.Asaresultof
thesekindsofWesternknowledgepracticeswenowhaveastatewhere‘notallpositioned
perspectivesareequallyvalued,equallyheard,orequallyincluded....somepositionshave
historicallybeenoppressed,distorted,ignored,silenced,destroyed,appropriated,
commodified,andmarginalised’(Bell2009,p.42).Thisapproachallowsusto‘forgetthe
differenceand…tostayfocusedonourownsituationwithoutgrapplingwiththeother
person’sreality’(GrilloandWildman2000,p.649).
Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkrequiresusnotonlytoacknowledgedifferencebutto
welcomeitandthegenerativepossibilitiesitoffers(Verran2013).Tograspthese
generativepossibilitiesVerrancounselsusthatweneedtobewillingtogo‘deeperinside’
theexperienceofdifferencebeforethepointofcomingtogeneralconcepts(2013,pp.
146-147).Ifwemovetooquicklytoimposeourownepistemiccategoriesoneachother
thenwearecontinuingtheneo-colonialproject.Wemustlearnwaystoresistand
counteractthisinstinct.Verran(2013,p.147)suggeststhatpeopleneedfindwaysto
‘…simultaneouslymaintainanddissolvedifference,inwaysthatareauthenticand
generativeintermsoftheirowndisparateknowledgepractices…(and)enablethe
negotiationofusefullinksthatcangoalongwithmaintainingsignificantdivisions’.Aspace
thatwelcomesdifferenceisnotaspaceofbinariesorhierarchies,butinsteadisaspaceof
hybridities(Watson&Huntington2008)andofheteroglossicnarrativeswherethereis
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discursivespaceforconflictingarguments(Rose2004).Blair(2015)remindsusthat
engagingwiththe‘in-betweenspace’isbothchallengingandexciting.Weneedtofind
waysfordifferentknowledgesystemstoco-existandinsodoingcreatepowerfuland
dynamicdialogueanddiscourseleadingtogenerativelearningsandnewknowledge.This
kindoftransformationalworkmustbetheagendaofPost-ColonialKnowledgework.
Togetherthesefourinsights,generatedbytheresearchdonehere,offerwaysofpeople
comingtogetherin‘goodfaith’toembarkontheprocessofPost-ColonialKnowledgework.
Theyarewaysofbeingthatshouldinformtheworkwedo.Inadditiontothesewaysof
beingwerequiresome‘waysofdoing’thework.Thesuggestedtoolsforthese‘waysof
doing’,whichhavebecomeclearthroughthisresearchprocess,arediscussedbelow.
9.4ToolsforPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork
9.4.1Story
Storieswereattheveryoriginofthisresearch.Theoriginalideawasbornoutofastory
sharingprocess.Thecollectionofstorieswasthemethodchosen.Theanalysishappened
throughthesharedreadingofstories.Storyprovideduswithawaytoblurthereceived
ontologicalandepistemologicalcategories,suchastimeandspace,aswellasinvertingthe
powerstructureoftheresearchrelationship,placingthecontrolinthehandsoftheteller.
Thismeantthatpowerfulgenerativeworkcouldbeachieveduntrammelledbyanysenseof
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allegiancetothepositiviststructuresthatstillholdswayovermuchofWesternsociological
research.
StoriesmustthereforebethemaintoolofdoingPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkas
evidencedbythisdoctoralstudy.Thisisbecausetheybringtogetherthefourwaysof
workingtogetherin‘goodfaith’.Firstly,storiesareawayofus‘becomingknown’toeach
other(Martin2008).Whenwelistentothestoryofanotherweadrawnintoaworldof
ethicalencounter;wearewitnesses,webecomeentangled(Rose2004).Tobearwitnessto
someone’sstorywediscoveramodeofrespondingtothatpersonthat‘exceedsan
epistemologicaldeterminationandbecomesethicalinvolvement’(Rose2004,p.31).It
upsetsourpreviousnotionsofwhothatpersonwasandhelpsustocomeintoadeeper
knowledgeandunderstandingofthatperson.Storiesarerelational.
Secondly,storiesallowtimefordeeplisteningtoeachother.Thetimeallowedforthe
tellingisdeterminedbythetellerandtheycanchoosethestructure.Inacontextinvolving
Indigenoustellersthismeansthatthereistimetotellthestoryfromaplaceofcultural
safetyandrespect(Martin2008),andinacircularwayusingthematicrepetition,as
opposedtothestep-by-step,linearprogressionofaWesternstructure(Youngblood
Henderson2000).Usingstorymeansthetellerremainsincontrolofallowingasmuchtime
asisnecessaryforthefulltellingandtheroleofothersisto‘listenwithattentiveness’
(Rose2004,p.30).Storiesallowtimeforcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’.
Thirdly,storiesarepersonal,basedinthelocalcontextofthetellerandbasedon
experience.Storiesorfirstpersonaccountsareawayofnamingone’sownrealityinyour
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own‘voice’(Ladson-BillingsandTate2006).Thistakestheepistemologicalstancethat
‘truthonlyexistsforthispersoninthispredicamentatthistimeinhistory’(Ladson-Billings
andTate2006,p.21),thusgroundingitinthelocalandthepresent.Thestorymightbe
aboutpastexperiencebutitunfoldsinthepresentmomentintheactoftelling.Itis
importantinPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkbecauseitisawayofintegratinglived
experiencewithracialrealism(DixsonandRousseau2006a).Lasdon-BillingsandTate
(2006)suggestthatnamingone’sownrealitythroughstoriescanbeawayofaffectingthe
oppressor.Inthiswaystoryactsasatoolof‘disconcertment’(Verran2013).Storyand
experienceallowsidentityandepistemologicalunderstandingstobecentrallypresentin
learningbecauseourstoriesareshapedbyhowweknowandwhoweare.Rose(2004,p.
24)talksabouttheimportanceofthe‘webofstoriesweareabletoweaveoutofour
historicallygroundedexperiences’,whichhelpustoexplorethe‘localpossibilitiesthat
illuminatealternatives’.Inthiswaystoriesarewaysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’that
generatenewknowledgebetweenus.
Finally,storiesmakespacefordifference.Itisintheverynatureofstoriestoallowfor
difference.Thereisnotonlyonemeaningtoanystory.Theteller’sintentionisfiltered
throughtheirownexperientialknowledge,butsotooisthelistener’sunderstanding.A
multiplicityofmeaningsarepossibleinanystory.Weareremindedthat,
Storieshavelayers;layersthatafewpeoplemayKnowandmorelayersthat
everyoneKnows.Thestorytellerisoftenthelisteneratthesametimetheyarethe
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storyteller.Thestorytellerisoftentheonebeingspokento(Armstrong,J.inKing
2003,p.2)
Hokari(2000,pp.8-9)suggeststhatitisnotaboutfindinga‘right’storybutwideningthe
possibilitiesofstories.Variationcanprovideuswithabundleofpossibilitieswithout
judgmentanddifferentstorieswilloftencontradicteachbutcancoexist.Storiesofferusa
wayofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’thatinvitedifferenceandinviteusaslistenersand
tellerstobecomecomfortablewiththatdifference.
9.4.2CultivationofDisconcertment
ThesecondtoolthathasemergedasimportanttoPostColonialKnowledgeWorkisthe
cultivationofdisconcertment.Whatthistooloffersisawayofinterruptingwhitenessand
dysconsciousracism.Somanyofthebarriersexperiencedbytheteacherparticipantsin
thisresearchweredirectlyrelatedtotheongoingandneo-colonialexperienceofmodern
Australia.Weneedtofindmechanismsforinterruptingthesedeeplyembeddedideological
andculturallyexclusivewaysthatdominatetheeducationalexperience.Teachingpeople
topayattentiontoanddwellintheirowndisconcertmentisonesuchmechanism.
Inordertoensurethatwecometogetherin‘goodfaith’todoPost-ColonialKnowledge
workitisnotenoughtosimplylistentoeachother’sstories.Wemustlearntocultivateour
owndisconcertmentintheprocessoflistening.Verran(2013,p.146)explainsthis
disconcertmentas‘atypeofexperiencethatalertsustothetensionsoftherelationsthat
existwithinwhatwe‘feel’asepistemicrightness,somethingwhichwearegenerally
unawareof,untilthatis,itisrentasunder’.Lipsitz(2006,p.2)invokesthewordsofWalter
Benjaminsuggestingtheneedfor‘presenceofmind…apreciseawarenessofthepresent
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moment’.This‘presenceofmind’isbasedonanunderstandingofhowdifficultitcanbeto
seethepresentinallofitsrichcomplexity.Cultivatingone’s‘presenceofmind’and
learningtopayattentiontomomentsof‘disconcertment’astheyarisearewaysofstaying
groundedinthepresentandlearningtolivewiththediscomfortofdifference.LawandLin
(2010,p.138)explainthat‘bodilydisconcertmentmaybeunderstoodasanexpressionof
metaphysicaldisjuncture’andthat‘discomfitedand‘personal’bodilystatesarecrucial
potentialdetectorsofdifference’.
Verran(2013,p.146)suggeststhatthebodilytensionwefeelwhenweexperience
epistemicdifferencepointstothe‘vastinertiaofthemeshofinstitutions,categories,
arrangedmaterials,andcommunicativeprotocolsandprocesses,whichisknowledge’.
Whenourtakenforgrantedwaysofknowingaredisruptedorchallengedbyanalternate
wayofknowingourinstinctisself-protectionthroughtheinvocationofandinsistence
uponourownsingleadmissiblemeaning(Verran2013).Rose(2004,p.21)callsthisa
‘narcissisticsingularity’andmaintainsthatweneedtofindwaysofunmakingthisifwe
wanttoworktowardsdecolonization.Presenceofmindandpayingattentionto
disconcertmentcanhelpustoindividuallybecomeconsciousandawareofwhatAddelson
(1994,p.11)calls‘thesocietythatweactandenacteveryday,thatwegenerateand
regeneratethroughouracceptanceandreinforcementoftheauthoritative‘norms’and
‘standards’.Verran(2013)seesepistemicdisconcertmentascrucialforPost-Colonial
Knowledgework.Perhapsthisisbecausetheexperienceofdisconcertmentissodeeply
embeddedandexperienceddailyasapartoftheneo-colonialrealityofthesettlersociety.
Rose(2004)explainsthat‘theconquestwasalwaysmeanttobecomplete…theconquestof
Indigenouspeoples…wasundertakeninamodeofreplacement…itwasimaginedasa
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projectthatwouldbefinishedwhenthereplacementwasfullyaccomplished’.In
contemporaryAustraliathecontinuingexistenceofAboriginalpeoplerendsasunderthe
ideologicalpremiseofcolonizationandcausesacollectivedisconcertmentthathasbeen
historically‘collectivelydenied’(Verran2013,p.146)andhasledtothedoublingof
violencethatRose(2004)discusses.Thedefaultpositionofmanyistoignoreorbrushoff
differencesasculturalquirksthatareunimportant.
InordertomoveintoaPost-ColonialspaceVerran(2013)suggeststhatindividualsneedto
becomesensitizedtothesemomentsofdisconcertmentandthatitneedstobecollectively
cultivatedasananalyticalandmethodologicaltool.To‘sensitize’and‘cultivate’our
disconcertmentVerran(2013)suggeststheneedfor‘interruptingtools’.Theinterrupting
toolsbeingproposedherearethoseofstoryandof‘dialoguewithotherpeopleandwith
theworlditself’(Rose2004,p.21).Thedialoguerequiredinvokespluralityandhelpsusto
noticethedisjunctivemomentsandengageinquestioningandconversationaboutthe
epistemologicalandontologicalunderstandingsthatliebeneaththem.
9.4.3Dialogue
Theprocessfollowedincompletingthisresearchwasadialogicone.Itembracedtheneed
formyselfandtheteacherparticipantstocontinueindialoguewithoneanother
throughouttheentireprocess.Wemovedbackandforthbetweenstoryanddialogueas
wediscoveredthepathsthatfelt‘right’fortheresearchtotake.Thisopenandhonest
dialoguewasanimportantaspectofworkingethicallytogether.Inthecommunitybased
modelofteachereducationboththeflexibledeliveryandthecohortdesignwerewaysof
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facilitatingdialoguebetweenthestudents,theschools,theuniversitystaffandthelocal
communities.Dialogueinvitesamultiplicityofideas,makesspacefordifferencesin
understandingandenablesaparticularsortofmetaphysicalengagementwherethegaps
betweencategoriesopenupthepossibilitiesoftheemergenceofnewwaysofgoingon
togetherthatmayhavebeenpreviouslyunimagined.Sadlytheexperienceoftheteacher
participantsshowsthatmanyoftheopportunitiesfordialoguewithinremoteeducation
havebeenshutdownbythesystemicinsistenceupon‘sameness’.
ThepointofPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkistofindgenerativewaysofdoingdifference.
Withthisinmind,basedaroundourmomentsofepistemicpanicanddisconcertmentwe
needtocommittoaprocessof‘mutualinterrogation,whichcanreveal‘our’traditionsto
ourselves,asmuchastotheother’(Verran2013,p.154).Weneedtousemechanismsfor
‘findingawaytogoonbystayinginthefeelingofdisconcertment…stayingwiththat
momentofexistentialpanicratherthantryingtocategorizeandlabelthingsaccordingto
ourownepistemologicalunderstandingsandknowledge’(Verran2013,p.157).
BothRose(2004),Martin(2008)andBuker(2014)allproposedialogueassucha
mechanism.Dialoguegivesusopportunitiestodeepenour‘knowingabout’and‘being
known’byothers(Martin2008).Itprovidespeoplewithachancetotalkbackontheirown
terms(Rose2004)andrequiresanon-judgementalspace(Martin2008).Rose(2004)
proposesthatdialogueisanethicalalternativetothemonologuethattoooftendominates
ourwaysofbeinganddoing.Sheproposesaparticularkindofdialogue
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Itisspecificallyaformofdialoguethatrequiresdifference.Itseeksrelationships
acrossothernesswithoutseekingtoerasedifference…dialoguebeginswhereoneis,
isalwayssituated…dialogueisopen…(the)outcomeisnotknowninadvance(Rose
2004,p.21)
RoseandFord(1995)alsoremindusthatethicaldialoguerequiresthatweacknowledge
andunderstandourparticularandharshlysituatedpresence.Thisisparticularlyimportant
giventheviolencethatmonologuehaswroughtonIndigenouspeopleinthepast,and
continuestodoso.Itisforthisreasonthatwemustfindnewwaysofcomingtogetherin
‘goodfaith’andtoolssuchasdialoguethatcanworkacrosschasmsofradicalharm.Thisis
thepurposeofcommittingtoaspaceofPost-ColonialKnowledgeWork.
9.5ImplicationsofPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkforteachereducation
Ifwewishtocreateeffectiveandmeaningfulpathwaysforpeoplefromremote
communitiesintoteachereducationthenwemustfindwaystodosothatdonotcontinue
thedoubledviolenceofcolonialismandneo-colonialism.Wehavetofindwaysof
identifyingandcallingouttheassimilationistpracticesstillembeddedinourpolicies,
curriculaandinstitutionalbehaviours,throughlisteningtothestoriesofthosewho
experiencetheimpactofthisassimilatoryintentfirsthand.Weneedtobehonestabout
thefactthatoureducationalsystems,includingschoolsandthecoursesthatprepare
peopletoworkinschools,operatewithinstructuresofculturalandsocialreproduction
thathaveembeddedinthemdeeplevelsofhegemonicideology.Wealsoneedto
understandthatmanyofthepeoplewhoworkinschoolsdonotcritiquethehegemonic
ideologythatundergirdsthestructureofoureducationalsystems(QuiochoandRios2000).
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AsSantoroandReid(2006)pointout,itisnotenoughtofocusonjusttheteacher
educationofIndigenousteachers.Thereisalsoaneedfornon-Indigenousteacherstobe
betterpreparedtoworkalongsideIndigenousteachersandwithinIndigenous
communities.
TorespondtothisrealityweneedtointentionallymoveallteachereducationintoaPost-
ColonialKnowledgespacewheretherecanbegenuinedialogueandnewknowledge
buildingbetweenpeoplefromdiverseknowledgetraditionswithaviewtofinding
generativewaysofdoingdifference-worktogether.Thisisanoptimisticandaspirational
stancethatassumesthatviolenceanddamagearenottheonlythingswearecapableof
(Rose2004).Itrequiresofusthecommitmenttofindingnewwaysofcomingtogetherin
‘goodfaith’basedonacommitmenttobuildingrelationships,allowingtime,groundingour
workinthelocalandexperientialandwelcomingdifference.Thiswillbechallengingfora
teachereducationsystemthatissostronglyentrenchedinnotionsoflineartimeand
segregatedknowledgewherestudentsarerequiredtometaphorically‘run’thecourseof
studyfromstarttofinishaccordingtoapre-determinedsetofstagesbasedaround
separate‘units’ofwork.Theseproposednewwaysofworkingwillalsoneedtocomeinto
beingcognizantofthefactthathighstatusWesternknowledgetraditionsare
extraordinarilywellentrenched(LawandLin2010,p.137)andresourced.Forthisreasonit
isnotenoughsimplytofocusonteachereducationforIndigenouspeoplebutonthe
intersectionsofraceandeducation(Leonardo2009)thatexistthroughouttheeducational
systemsoftheWest.ReflectingontheCanadianrealityBuker(2014)callsonFacultiesof
Educationtomakeboldcurriculumandpedagogicalchangethatacknowledgesthat
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Indigenousepistemologies,culturalworldviewsandcommunitypartnershipshaveaplace
atthetableoflearning.ThesameistrueofteachereducationinAustralia.
Toeffectsuchashiftchangeneedstohappenattheleveloftheinterpersonalthatis
experiencedinschools,atthelevelofschoolleadership,attheDepartmentallevel,atthe
interpersonalwithinteachereducationcoursesandinthedevelopmentofuniversity
coursesanddeliverymodels.ItisnotsufficienttoonlyfocusonTeacherEducation.Change
throughacommitmenttoPost-ColonialKnowledgeWorkmustbeeffectedthroughoutthe
interfacebetweeneducationandlocalIndigenouscommunities.Thelegacyofwhatexisted
beforecontinuestohappeninsmalloutofthewayplaces,inasporadicfashion,with
peopleattemptingtoworkcollaborativelyandgenerativelyin‘goodfaith’throughgenuine
dialogueandknowledgebuilding.However,thissortofworkcanandshouldbe
undertakenatalllevelsandsitesstartingwithsmalllocalinitiativestoreintegrate
traditionalauthorityintotheschoolandbuildthatinmanydifferentdirections–working
withteachers,workingwithdepartmentalofficials,workingwithparentsandElders,
workingwithcurriculumandworkingwithpolicyandpractices.Additionallythiswayof
workingneedstobothinformandbeinformedbyteachereducationinasymbiotic
relationship.BringingthoseworkinginremoteeducationintoaPost-Colonialknowledge
spaceholdsthepossibilitygeneratingnewwaysofworkingtogetherinandwithdifference
andensuringthatmoreIndigenousteacherscanbecomethekindofteachersthat
Indigenousstudentsneedthemtobe.
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Chapter10–Conclusionsandcontributiontonewknowledge
10.1Answeringtheresearchquestions
Thisdoctoralresearchsoughttoexplorefourkeyinterconnectedquestionsnamely,
1. WhathavebeentheexperiencesofIndigenousteachersfromremote
communitiesinCentralAustraliawhohavecompletedteachereducation?
2. Whataresomeoftheelementsthatsupportedthemandwhataresomeofthe
barrierstheseteachersencountered?
3. WhatarethebenefitsofhavingqualifiedIndigenousteachersinremote
schools?
4. Howcanmeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysbecreatedtosupportteacher
educationforfuturegenerationsofIndigenousteachersfromremote
communities?
Explorationofthesequestionswasdesignedtoprovidecluesastowhysofewyoung
IndigenouspeoplefromremotecommunitiesinCentralAustraliaarepursuingateacher
educationpathway.
10.1.1Researchquestion1
WhathavebeentheexperiencesofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiesin
CentralAustraliawhohavecompletedteachereducation?
Wewantedtobeginwiththeideaofsuccess.Indigenousteachersfromremote
communitiesinCentralAustraliahavebeensuccessfulincompletingtheirteacher
educationinthepast.Bylisteningtothestoriesoftheseteachersitwaspossibletoget
accountsofrichnessanddepthabouttheinsiderexperienceofbecomingateacherinthis
context.Seventeachernarrativeswerecollectedandanalysedandtheexperiencesof
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theseteachersweregroupedintoseventhemes:‘feelingforfamily’,‘learningwithmarlpa’,
‘mentoring,supportandencouragement’,‘teamteaching’,‘leadership’,‘exclusionand
power’,‘lookingatuslevel’.Throughthesethematicgroupingstheteachers’voicesclearly
articulateboththeelementsthatsupportedthemintheirsuccessandtheelementsthat
presentedbarriers.
10.1.2Researchquestion2
Whataresomeoftheelementsthatsupportedthemandwhataresomeofthebarriers
theseteachersencountered?
Inordertobetterunderstandthesupportsandbarriersthatunderpinnedthecareerand
learningjourneysoftheteacherparticipantsinthisdoctoralresearchitwasnecessaryto
exploretheseventhemesthroughsometheoreticalandphilosophicallenses.Thebarriers
andchallengesthatemergedfromthenarrativesoftheteacherswereexaminedagainst
thebackdropofcolonisationinAustralia.
ThespecifictheoriesofWhitenessTheory,CriticalRaceTheoryandthetheoryofcolonial
mimicrywereusedtopeelbackthelayersofbarriersexperienced,asarticulatedinthe
narratives,toshowtheunderlyingideologiesatplayinthecontextofremoteIndigenous
teachereducation.Thisanalysisshowedthatinequalityplayedoutatathreelevelswithin
thesystem.Firstly,duetothecolonialdefaultpositionwithintheAustralianeducation
system,Indigenousteacherswereconsistentlytreatedaslessequalthantheirnon-
Indigenouscounterparts.Despitemeetingalloftherequirementsforbecoming‘qualified’
teachers,theteacherparticipantsconsistentlyfeltthemselvesheldatarm’slength,and
weretreatedas‘whitebutnotquite’asexplainedbyBhabha’s(1984)theoryofcolonial
360
mimicry.Secondly,educationalsystemshavedevelopedwaysofattributinghigherstatus
toWhite/WesternknowledgethanitdoestoIndigenousknowledgesystems.The
Indigenousteachers,asholdersofIndigenousknowledge,weresubsequentlyalso
relegatedtoalowerstatuswithintheirschools.Finally,theteachernarrativesrevealed
manyexamplesofmechanismsofsystemicWhitenessatworkintheexperienceofthe
teachers.These‘toolsofwhiteness’wereexperiencedinvariousformsthroughleadership
styles,culturallybiaseddiscoursesaroundconceptionsof‘quality’andthrough
interpersonaldysconsciousracism.
Theteachernarrativesalsorevealedsignificantinsightsintothoseprofessionalbehaviours
andprogramsthatsupportedsuccessinbecomingaqualifiedteacher.Whatbecameclear
wasthecentralimportanceofIndigenousteachereducationbeingengagedandembedded
inthelocalcontextoftheteachers’respectivecommunities.Theeraofcommunitybased
teachereducationprovidedimportantmechanismsforthelocalcommunityandfamiliesto
engageinwhattheteachereducationprogramsweredoing.Thecohortmodelofthis
approachprovidedcrucialsupportamongstudentsandafeelingofculturalsafety.These
deliverymodelsalsoprovidedflexibilityandinvitedopportunitiesfortwowaylearning.
Thesemodelsweregenerativeinnatureandco-createdknowledgegrewoutofthem,
ratherthanthecurrentmodelofteachereducationwhichoffersaone-sizefitsall
standardizedandimposedapproach.
10.1.3Researchquestion3
WhatarethebenefitsofhavingqualifiedIndigenousteachersinremoteschools?
361
Indigenousteachersfromwithinremotecommunitiesareuniquelyplacedtounderstand
children’searlyexperiencesandprovidecontinuityintheireducationbecausetheyshare
ontologicalandepistemologicalknowledgeandunderstandingswiththechildrenfrom
theircommunitiesandcanthereforeundertaketheworkofateacher‘withoutengagingin
imposition’(Dewey1938).TheimpositionDeweyisreferringtoistheimpositionofone
wayofknowingattheexpenseofanother.Thedeepontologicaldifferencesthatthese
teachershaveexperiencedintheirownnavigationoftheeducationalsystemalsoexistfor
thechildrenintheirhomecommunities.Thesharedontologicalidentitybetweenthese
teachersandtheirstudentsandthesharedlanguage,cultureandpracticesthatembody
thatidentityprovidestheseteacherswithuniqueinsightsabouthowbesttoteach
studentsfromtheirhomecommunities
10.1.4Researchquestion4
Howcanmeaningfulandeffectivepathwaysbecreatedtosupportteachereducationfor
futuregenerationsofIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunities?
Astheteachereducationsystemcurrentlystandsitwouldbeanactofirresponsibilityto
encourageyoungpeoplefromremotecommunitiestopursueateachereducation
pathway.Todosowouldbetoexposethemtoaformofdoubledviolence,suchistheneo-
colonialimperativeofthecurrentstandardizedsystem.Itallowsnoroomfordifference.
However,thisthesisproposesaframeworkforPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkwiththe
beliefthatsupportingthecreationofthiskindofknowledgespaceatalllevelsofremote
education,includingteachereducation,wouldprovidethefoundationforanew
362
generationofyoungIndigenousteachersfromremotecommunitiestosuccessfully,
effectivelyandmeaningfullyengageinteachereducationpathways.
10.2Contributiontonewknowledge
Thisthesishasmadeacontributiontonewknowledgeintwoways.Firstofall,by
embodyingaPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkapproachtoresearchitoffersthreeinsights
intohowtodoresearchintheinterculturalspace.Secondly,throughtheexaminationof
theteachernarrativesandthesubsequentanalysisthroughtheoreticalandphilosophical
lenses,thethesisoffersaframeworkfordoingPost-ColonialKnowledgework,whichwould
beconstructiveforIndigenousteachereducation.
10.2.1InsightsintodoingresearchusingaPost-ColonialKnowledgeapproach
AsdiscussedinChapter5the‘participatorynarrative’methoddevelopedinthisthesis
cameaboutasaresultofintentionallyinhabitingaPost-ColonialKnowledgeresearch
space.Whiletheframeworkforsuchanapproachevolvedovertimeasaproductofthe
workwedid,wewereabletofocusonimportantgenerativeknowledgethatemerged
fromourprocessesofworkingtogether.Thethreekeyinsightsthatwelearnedfrom
workingtogetherin‘goodfaith’wereasfollows;
• Welearnedthat‘anma’wasimportantforhowweworkedtogether.Thisrelatesto
ournotionsoftimeandallowingenoughtimeandflexibilitytoensurethatthings
aredoneatthe‘righttime’andinthe‘rightway’foreveryoneinvolved.Thishad
significancewhenitcametoaspectsofresearchsuchasethicallyinformed
consent.
363
• Welearnedthat‘marlpa’wasimportantforhowweworkedtogether.Thisrelates
toideasaboutconnectednessandrelationality.Allowing‘marlpa’toinformthe
waythatweworkedmeantthatnoonewasleftbythemselvesandeveryonefelt
included,involvedandvalued.Thisexperienceofproviding‘company’forone
anotherandbasingdecisionsabouttheresearcharoundrelationalvaluesprovided
astrongcompassforthedirectiontheresearchtook.
• Welearnedthat‘ngapartjingapartji’,‘reciprocity’or‘mutualgenerosity’,informed
howweworkedtogether.Thismeantseekingwaysformultipleneedsbeingmetby
theresearchprocessfromwithintheresourcesofthegroup.Thisrequired
negotiation,patienceandflexibility.Itprovidedawayforeveryone’sknowledgeto
bevaluedandincludedintheresearch.
ThesethreeinsightsareanexampleofthegenerativepossibilitiesofPost-Colonial
Knowledgework.Theyarethenewandemergentunderstandingsthattheteacher
participantsandItakewithusfromtheprocessofdoingthisworktogetherin‘goodfaith’.
Theinsightsarenotofferedasaprescriptiveguideforhowto‘doresearch’.Thatwouldgo
againsttheideaofPost-ColonialKnowledgeworkneedingtobecontextualisedandco-
created.However,bybetterunderstandingthenewknowledgethatwelearnedthrough
thisresearchcollaboration,othersmaydiscoverthepossibilitiesaffordedbyworkingina
Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkspace.
10.2.3Post-Colonialknowledgework–apossibleframework
Thesecondcontributiontonewknowledgemadebythisthesis,asdetailedinChapter9,is
thedevelopmentofaframeworkforPost-ColonialKnowledgework.Thisframeworkis
364
developedwiththeviewthatitneedstobeinhabitedandusedatmanylevelsofthe
educationalsystems–interpersonal,classroom,leadership,community,departmentaland
faculty.Itconsistsofthefollowingwaysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’andtoolsfor
Post-ColonialKnowledgework.
FourWaysofcomingtogetherin‘goodfaith’:
• Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkisrelations;
• Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkallowstime;
• Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkisengagedinthelocalcontextandembeddedin
experience;
• Post-ColonialKnowledgeworkwelcomesdifference.
ThreeToolsforPost-ColonialKnowledgework:
• Story;
• Cultivatingdisconcertment;
• Dialogue.
Thethesis’smainassertionisthatlocatingremoteeducationefforts,includingteacher
education,intoaPost-ColonialKnowledgespacethatisguidedbythisframeworkisthe
mostresponsiblewaytoensurethatcollaborativeandgenerativepartnershipscan
(re)emerge.ItisinthiskindofknowledgespacethatyoungIndigenouspeoplefromremote
communitiescaneffectively,safelyandmeaningfullyengageinateachereducation
pathway.
365
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