T/l<, .4rr\ Ill P,>< h~rilrrcip~ . Vol. I I pp. ISi-164. Ankho international Inc.. 1981. Printed in the U.S.A. 01974556.81S3.00 - .OO

MORENO’S SOCIAL ATO31: A DIAGNOSTIC AND TREATMENT

FOR EXPLORING INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS*

DALE RICHARD BUCHANAN, MS+

TOOL

Moreno’s social atom inventory, a projective test and treatment technique for collecting infotma-

tion about a client’s interpersonal relationships, is presented. J.L. Moreno hypothesized that the smallest unit of mankind is not the individual but the social atom. The social atom is composed of

all the client‘s interpersonal relationships (dead or alive. real or fantasy) which are essential to the client’s daily living. Included in the discussion is a brief review of the history of sociometry and

the social atom inventory, a sample questionnaire, clinical case examples and guidelines and precautions for clinical application.

Although articles in 7’11~ Arts it1 Psyclwther- rrpy have tended to focus upon specific arts therapies (art, dance, music, drama and biblio- therapy) and general art therapy concepts and concerns, by and large the contributions of J.L. Moreno, MD (1889-1974) to the creative arts therapies have been neglected. Moreno, an ac- knowledged pioneer in the fields of group psy- chotherapy and role theory and the creator of psychodrama and sociometry, was an early advocate of therapeutic applications of the arts. Recently, creative arts therapy leaders such as McNiff (1979, 1981) and Fleshman and Fryrear (1981) have commented on the debt that all arts in therapy owe to Moreno, and the relevance of his theoretical, developmental and technical ap- plications to the creative arts therapies.

This author has presented workshops on vari- ous Morenean concepts to national conventions of the creative arts therapies for the past several years. In general, the response to the workshops has been overwhelmingly enthusiastic. In part

this may be because Moreno’s earlier works are relatively unknown to today’s creative arts prac- titioners. Though most creative arts therapists have integrated constructs such as creativity/ spontaneity, enactment, here-and-now processes and group dynamics into their clinical practice, they could benefit from a review of Moreno’s early writings in these subjects (Moreno, J.L., 1953, 1980, 1st Ed. 1946; Moreno & Moreno, 1959, 1969).

Two of Moreno’s seminal concepts which have received scant attention from arts therapists are his philosophical and treatment applications of the Godhead, and the theory and techniques of sociometry. While the idea of the Godhead con- tinues to be surrounded by mysticism, which is all too easily rejected by conservative therapists (see Moreno, J.L., 1941), sociometry has been widely adapted by educators, social psycholo- gists and sociologists. Sociometry, however, has not entered the mainstream of the creative arts therapies. This author hypothesizes that the lack

*Dale Buchanan wishes to thank Tom Nash, Alyce Smith Cooper and Denise Cline for their cooperation in obtaining social atom figures for this article. The work described in this paper was done as part of the author’s employment with the federal government and is therefore in the public domain. The views expressed are the opinion of the author and not necessarily those of Saint Elizabeths Hospital. +Dale Buchanan. Chief of the Psychodrama Section at Saint Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, DC, is also Vice President of the American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama. He is certified as a Trainer, Educator, Practitioner by the American Board of Examiners in Psychodrama. Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy. Inquiries and requests for reprints should be sent to Dale Richard Buchanan. Psychodrama Section, Saint Elizabeths Hospital, Washington. DC 20037.

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I!h D&ALE RICHARD BUCH.\SXN

of interest in sociometry among clinical practi- tioners is primarily a function of the lack of awareness of these concepts. This article is an attempt to in&roduce creative arts therapists to the concepts of sociometry and to the specific clinical technique of the social atom.

SOCIUMETRY

Sociometry in its li~erat sense refers to the sci- entific measurement of groups. In practical usage sociometry refers to the attraction, rejection and neutral patterns between members of a group. Moreno and his students (primarily Jennings, 1950. and Northway, 1952) pioneered in the use of sociometry. which has received widespread acceptance in the fields of education, social psy- chology and sociology. While Moreno intro- duced sociometry and the importance of inter- personal relations to his psychiatric colleagues, it is probably Sullivan (Perry, 19S31 who IS best known for establishing interpersonal relations as a vital domain in psychotherapy.

Sociometry is the philosophical cornerstone of psychodramatic treatment. Macro-sociometry is the study of cultures and countries, while micro- sociometty is the study of the social atom. Moreno [I9531 viewed man as developing from his interactions with the individuals around him, real and fantasized. Therefore he postulated that the smallest unit of society is riot the individual but the social atom. The social atom is composed of all the persons who are essential to one per- XXI’s life. Both friends and enemies are a part of the social atom. Every jndjvjdu~l from birth has a set of relationships around him-mother, father, brothers and sisters, lovers and antagonists, stu- dents and mentors. The volume of the social atom expands during the course of human devel- opment as the child moves from the nuclear fam- ily lo society, and with old age the social atom generally begins to shrink as the persons in the social atom move or die and are not replaced by others. The social atom is a dynamic construct which represents a person’s degree of ~lllrt b,itri/--the concept developed by Bergson which Moreno uses to describe aspects of sociometry. Basically, ekrz t-ifrrl is the life farce.

Each of us has certain feelings towards mem- bers of our social atom. Some individuals attract us, others repel us, and with some we are neutral

in our feelings. iCloreno refers to this range of feeiings bettveen persons as IP/CJ. t&e isociai forces) are invisible c~rnrn~in~cat~on channels be- tsveen individuals which form the glue of our society. Empathy and transference are both one- \\ay communication patterns from one individual to another. or to one individual from another. Tele embodies the concepts of accuracy and reci- procity. Difficulties in inrerpsrsonai relationships result tvhen there are inaccuracies or distortions ivithin these communication patterns. For esam- ple. difficulties arise when one indit,idual is nt- tracted to another but the other is either neutral or rejects him. Some people have culturally adapted to the double-bind commtlnication pat- terns of our society, while others have not and attempt to bring sociostatis (the tendency of a system to maintain internal-social-stability) to their lives by acting on perceived communication systems. We probably have ail encountered many of these approachiavoidance interactions. A rejecting mother may tell her child of her love while nonverbally communicating her rejection. An office worker may deny attraction to another but nevertheless rem:lin flirtatious and seductive in nonverbal interactions. The creative-sponta- neous person may try to seek out the reason for the contradictory messages or can accept the relationship as it is. The more neurotic individual may continue to respond solely to the verbal statements and never acknowledee thr; nonverbal messages. A neurotic may enter-into a love-hate relationship with another which replicates past experiences <e.g., an unwanted child may marry a mate similar to his own opposite ses parent and find himself in an unwanted marriage). A neu- rotic may also seek to project feelings onto someone who does not have the same character- istics OF his “model” sociat atom figure.

Social atoms are connected to one another to form social moiecuks. These sock1 moiecuies may also be called subcultures, and the social molecules join with one another to form a cul- ture. The estent to kvhich there are rejection and isolation patterns bet\veen members of a social atom or social molecules indicates the extent to which there is discord and tension within our society. The most observable cleavages in our society are racial, ethnic, religious and sexual. Hollander (1974) has documented the degree to which our prisons are populated by social isa-

SOCIAL ATOM 157

lates. Earlier Moreno (1953. 1st Ed. 1931) had concluded through empirical research that social isolates are most likely to be found in our institu- tions (mental. correctional) and are most likely to commit suicide. Many of the terrorist acts which have been committed over the past twenty years were performed by the socially and emotionally isolated in a desperate attempt for recognition (Bassin. 1977).

Sociometric stars (whether positive or nega- tive) generally reflect rather than lead the value systems of their culture. Sociometrists do not make value judgments but rather serve as facili- tators so that all members of a group have the right to be heard and the responsibility to listen. Through the group experience, sociometric con- nections of group members are explored and clarified.

In a group context, sociometry is the attrac- tion, rejection and neutral patterns among group members in regard to a specific set of criteria (Hale, 1981). A sociometric investigation can be formal (with stated criteria and written re- sponses) or informal (with the sociometrist rely- ing upon verbal and nonverbal interaction pat- terns to reveal the choice patterns of a group). Typical examples of formal sociometric ques-

tions asked of group members are: “With whom would you most like to go to a social activity (e.g., dance, bowling, lunch, movies)‘?” “With whom would you most like to participate in a work activity (e.g., class project, oral presenta- tion, writing project, conducting a group, clean- ing up the dayroom, etc.)?” To obtain the rejec- tion patterns, the word “least” is substituted for “most,” e.g., “With whom would you lcrrsr like to go to lunch’?”

In a therapy group, sociometric questions are often based upon therapeutic concerns. Such questions might include: “To whom do you go when you wish to discuss a personal problem?” “With whom would you most like to work on an art project’?” ” With whom would you least like to spend leisure time?” The group therapist can better understand the dynamics of the group through reviewing the attraction, rejection and neutral patterns among group members.

The choice patterns of group members are charted using a “sociogram” which diagrams the attraction and rejection patterns among group members. Generally, there are sociometric at-

traction stars and rejection stars. Indices of social expansiveness (e.g., the number of per- sons chosen versus the number which could be chosen) indicate whether a group is. in Moreno’s term. “constipated” or “expressive.” Indices of group cohesion (the number of mutual attractions between members) are also charted.

Sociometry as envisioned by Xloreno is a standard of principles universal,ly binding for human society. Given the empu-tcally proven sociodynamic effect of groups to overchoose some individuals while ignoring others, Moreno (1949) was extremely critical of Marxist theories. He claimed that Marxism was seriously flawed because it sought to redress the inequality of social-emotional relationships through an attempt to redistribute wealth. According to Moreno, wealth was merely a symptom of the underlying sociometric relationships of individ- uals. While the choices of group members are often based upon group or individual values (real or perceived), sociometry itself is value-free.

Sociometry is rzol a popularity contest, but a reflection of the actual choices that group mem- bers make in the course of their daily activities. A person might wish to be a rejection star, a positive star, neutral or even an isolate in a group, depending upon the members of the group and their expressed values. In administering sociometries to group members it is often useful to provide examples of a positive sociometric star (e.g., Adolph Hitler in Nazi Germany) and a negative star (Jesus Christ in Jerusalem) from other systems which dispel the notion of soci- ometry as a popularity contest. Within a clinical setting, a positive star among a patient group in an institutional setting might be a patient who is cooperative with the staff and institutionalized, while the negative star may be actively resisting institutionalization.

While the sociometries are value-free (one can neither assign a positive nor a negative label to an individual‘s position without investigating fur- ther the group processes and norms), isolates are seen as withdrawn and potentially disturbed indi- viduals. Isolates are people who neither make nor receive any choices on a variety of criteria. Such individuals are isolated from others and re- treat to worlds of make-believe and fantasy. By and large the homeless who are wandering the streets of our cities are isolates. The homeless

15’K D;1\LE RICHARD BUCHANAN

neither give nor receive choices: they are the ghosts of our interpersonal landscapes- abandoned souls. rather than abandoned buildings.

An important therapeutic component of all groups is the incorporation of isolates. These in- dividuals often sit by themselves, rarely initiating conversations and only speaking when spoken to. The therapist can ask the isolates sociometric questions which can later be implemented. For example. an isolate might say that she would like to spend leisure time with Ms. Jones. The group leader can pair Ms. Jones with the isolate during leisure time, which may be the beginning of an interpersonal relationship. Isolates are often so withdrawn that they can no longer initiate rela- tionships, but they are often willing to recipro- cate a relationship provided another individual makes the first move. Isolates can also be en- couraged to express their thoughts and feelings by having the isolates’ chosen partners initiate the activity or conversation. Mr. A. might be re- luctant to engage in an art therapy activity when the art therapist requests him to participate, but he might be more eager to participate if he was paired with hlr. S. Thus the group leader can use the attraction patterns of the group (learned from the sociogram) to further therapeutic encounters.

Through psychodramatic and sociodramatic enactment (using any component [art, dance, drama, mime, music, poetry, etc.] to move a group or person from talking about something to “doing it“), sociometric structures of individuals and groups are examined. Mixed communication messages and distortions in transference and countertransference are clarified. An attempt is made to democratize the group process so that each individual can experience his own sponta- neity and creativity. While sociometric investi- gations and experimentation were prevalent dur- ing the 40s and 5Os, there now appears to be a decrease in the interest in sociometry on the part of mental health workers. However, a growing trend towards networking and family therapy (family processes) demonstrates that mental health professionals still recognize the necessity of intervening with the entire social atom of the individual and not just the identified patient (Compemolle, 1981). Mendelson (1976) feels that it is the sociometric tools which are utilized and that the philosophy has been lost.

Limitations of space prevent explaining in this

article the intricacies of sociometric process as it is applied in clinical therapy group settings, and readers are encouraged to explore this area fur- ther through readings by Hale (198l), Hollander (1973). Jennings (1950). Moreno (1933, 1949. 195 I, 1956) and Northway (1952).

In brief. sociometry is the measurement, ob- servation and intervention of the natural attrac- tion/rejection processes within groups. Like Freud’s recapitulation theory, we find that indi- viduals often repeat their sociometric pattern in a variety of groups. It is not unusual to find that a person who is an attraction star in one group is highly chosen in other groups. This person has learned to project and use interpersonal skills in communicating ‘with other group members. Likewise, rejection stars in one group are often rejection stars in other groups. These individuals have not learned how to express themselves and/ or relate to other group members. Their interper- sonal messages are often distorted, confused. neglected or misinterpreted by other group mem- bers. The sociometrist focuses on the here-and- now to illuminate group processes and/or help members change their interpersonal relationships and choice patterns to reflect their wishes and dreams more accurately.

SOCIAL ATOM

The sociometry of one individual is called the social atom, the perceived relationships with others which provide the basic building blocks and reinforcement systems of the person’s actual interpersonal relationships. Social atom mem- bers often include. but are not limited to. par- ents, peers, siblings, mentors, spouses, children, neighbors, employers, co-workers, teachers, lov- ers, enemies and family network members. Thus. every individual lives in a social atom from the moment of birth. Within each of these relation- ships, the person may have positive, negative or neutral feelings. It is the person’s perceptions of these social atom members which provide the feedback loop for self-concept and behavior pat- terns. Naturally, those the person perceives as being the closest and most influential will exert greater influence on his or her life than persons who are on the fringes of the client’s social atom.

In this context, it is important to remember that the social atom is the person’s perception of

SOCIAL ATOM 159

his or her interpersonal relationships and not the actual relationships. The healthier individual will have greater congruence between his or her per- ceptions and others’ perceptions. A common ex- ample of distorted perception is that of an addic- tive client. The client may have lost 100 pounds or stopped abusing drugs, but, nevertheless, may feel and perceive himself/herself as fat or an alcoholic. These perceptions exist, in part, because the perceptions in the social atom are unchanged. He still remembers his classmates calling him “Tubby,” or she still hears her hus- band’s voice calling her a “lush.”

For example, there was a group member who was extremely well-liked, personable, bright and friendly, but who consistently failed at most en- deavors. The other group members would pro- vide positive reinforcement to this person on his successes and popularity. He would be tempo- rarily buoyed by those responses, only to sink into a deeper depression. In his social atom, all other family members were bright, outgoing, friendly and successful. He was the outcast of the family. Nothing he ever did compared to his successful siblings. His teachers also said he was above average, but not what they expected from dealing with his superior siblings. Thus the client carried around a telescoped world in which he would continually fail. The client would then relapse to a self-fulfilling prophecy of giving up because in his own view he could never live up to his family’s expectations. In this case, while behavior change is paramount, there needs to be a shift in the individual’s perceptions of himself.

There are several popular ways in which people’s social atoms can be explored. The most traditional method is to have the person draw his social atom on paper. However, social atoms may also be enacted in group settings, with other group members portraying the roles of social atom figures. Some individuals have used toys as symbols for social atom figures. At the present time there is no one right way for the collection of social atom information. Social atoms have been used with a variety of populations from normal to mentally retarded, and the full range of psychiatric disorders. Social atoms have also been administered in school systems and prisons.

Naturally, instructions and care in administration of the instrument need to be modified for the specific patient population.

The first step in exploring the person’s social atom is to state the purpose of the exercise and to provide clear, concise instructions on completing the social atom inventory.

The therapist begins by explaining the purpose of the social atom. The following is one way to do so. “You are not alone. Each of us lives in this world surrounded by our mothers/fathers/ enemiesilovers and strangers. I would like you to take a minute to think about the people in your life who are important to you. Think about those people who are so important to you that you often think about them. These people may also influence your thoughts and behaviors. You may have positive, negative or neutral feelings towards these other people. They may be dead or alive, real or imagined.” Time should be given so that patients can ask questions or clarify the pur- pose of the exercise before beginning.

Writtcti Itlstr~lctiotis

In conducting a written social atom inventory the patient is provided with a blank sheet of paper. The written exercise consists of the pa- tient drawing symbols for self and the important people in his life. Triangles (A) are used to repre- sent men, and circles (0) for women. Identifiers (first names, initials or roles, e.g., Cheryl, CRB or youngest sister) should be placed with the symbols so that the patient and the therapist can identify these individuals later. For the written exercise the patient may make the triangles or circles larger, smaller or the same size as their symbol. Some therapists supply the patient with a set of colored pencils for the exercise, while other therapists have the patient draw connecting lines between the social atom figures with straight lines symbolizing positive feeling and dotted lines symbolizing negative feelings.

SOCIODRAMATIC ENACTMENT

In the group context the patient can be asked to stand in the middle of the room and choose other group members to represent persons in his social atom. For example, the patient may ask

160 DALE RICHARD BUCHANAN

Fig. 1

one group member to be his father and then place the father somewhere in the room. The patient may choose to place the father close to him or in a distant comer. The assignment of group mem- bers to enact the social atom often has the added advantage of clarifying transference issues be- tween group members. Similarly, the therapist must take care to “derole” * the group member from the role following the social atom exercise or the patient may transfer his feeiings towards his father to the group member who played the role of his father. Family sculpting exercises can also be used by asking the patient to “mold” the social atom figure into a typical expression. Mother may be standing with her arms open, smiling, while father may have his back to the patient.

After the social atom has been drawn or en- acted, the therapist will want to obtain other information about the individuals who inhabit the patient’s social atom. One of the most frequently asked questions is which members of the social atom are alive. The therapist might also want to know the extent of daily contact that the patient has with these social atom figures. Of course, the therapist would also want to know which people provide the most support, and which people cause the most tension/conflict with the patient. Other exploratory questions include: “With

Fig. 2

whom do you have the most unfinished business?” “With whom do you most wish you could change your rel~~tionship?” “Who is the person(s) who gives you the most love and respect‘?” “Who is the person you are most like?” “Who is the per- son who is a role model for you’?”

Whether the exercise is conducted on paper or enacted in the group context, the therapist can ask the patient to reverse roles with the social atom figure and speak as that person. When the patient is in the role of the social atom figure (as, for example, wife), the therapist or other group members can ask the “wife” questions about her relationship with her husband. The patient, in the role of his wife, responds.

Figure 1 is a social atom completed by a male patient enrolled in an alcoholism treatment pro- gram. Figure 2 is a social atom taken from the same patient one month Iater. In the first social

“To help the person make the transition from playing a role back to a group member. Sometimes people are assigned or volunteer to play a powerful role in a psychodrama. The group needs to think UT the person as himselt’and not to continue to identify the person with the role. Example: A person of German ancestry is chosen to play the role of Adolph Hitler. The person plays the role well and. after the role. is not deroled-given a chance to separate himself from that role. The group members still reject him and relate to him negatively as Hitler and not as his true self.

SOCIAL ATOM Ihl

atom the patient ranked the importance of the people as: 1 = friend. 2 = alcoholism treatment program. 3 = prison. 1 = sister. 5 = brother. 6 = A.A., 7 = niece. 8 = cousin, 9 = old friend, 10 = mother, 11 = father. and 12 = girlfriend. In the second social atom the importance of the people had shifted so that: 1 = mother, 2 = father, 3 = niece. 4 = friend, 5 = A.A.. 6 = girlfriend. 7 = brother, 8 = church, 9 = sister. and 10 = alcohol- ism treatment program.

During the one-month period, there were three deletions-prison. cousin and old friend. In terms of sobriety, two of these are major ele- ments. One is the prison where the patient once spent time, and the other was an old friend who contributed to alcoholism. All were seen as either negative (prison, old friend) or neutral (cousin) in maintaining his sobriety. Both nega- tive figures are now absent from his social atom. This is not to say that they are forgotten, but apparently they are no longer as important to the individual. There has been an addition of church which is viewed by the patient as supporting his sobriety.

There is also a rearrangement of the persons who are the most important to the patient. IMother. father and niece have now replaced a friend, the alcohol treatment program, and prison. A.A.. which has increased in importance, is probably illustrative of the patient’s continued sobriety. His sister and brother have decreased in importance and the patient has rated them as bein! of less help to him in maintaining his sobriety than his mother, niece. close friend and lover. The girlfriend has increased in significance and the patient indicates in the written record ‘that he is now seeing his girlfriend more than during the previous month. The patient also indi- cates that his father is now more important than on the first social atom. The patient’s father is deceased and the patient has been discussing his father’s relationship to him in therapy. His father was an alcoholic too and the patient perceives his deceased father as supporting his sobriety.

Figures 3, 4 and 5 were drawn by the same patient during an I l-month time period. The same directions (as in example one) were given for drawing the social atom. The patient is a 44- year-old male committed to the forensic facility

at Saint Elizabeths Hospital by court order of not guilty by reason of insanity. Figure 3 shows that he drew himself as a small “me” inside a circle of women. The therapist. who is a female, worked with the patient on issues of positive self-esteem. power issues with women and developing func- tional relationships with members of his imme- diate family. Six months later the patient was asked to draw his social atom again.

In Fig. 4. specific individuals are now identi- fied. Mother and sisters are identified, and the patient drew plusses (L) beside them to indicate his positive feelings toward them. Other women (+) are also identified as positive, but all female figures continue to be drawn on the outer circle. Inside the circle with the patient (-) are his father (t). brother (+) and other men (+). Dur- ing the next treatment period (five months) the patient explored the same themes, but with the added goal of expressing emotions (particularly anger) without antisocial behavior toward these and other family members.

In the final social atom (Fig. 5). seven individ- uals are identified and there are no general refer- ences to men or women. The patient now identi- fied all persons inside the circle as positive. Some persons (mother and a sister) are identified as positive and negative, while one sister com- pletely outside of the circle is identified as nega- tive. The therapist used the social atom both diagnostically and as a planning guide for treat- ment sessions. An initial goal of helping the patient to develop stronger ego boundaries and identify specific persons of support or conflict has been completed. The current goal is for inte- gration of the previous therapy and an expansion of the patient’s role repertoire to develop closer relationships with members of his family and new relationships with others.

Jim selected group members to be his social atom figures during a psychodrama session. He chose other group members to play the role of his wife, three children, father-in-law, mother-in- law. best friend and mother. The psychodrama- tist asked who his greatest source of comfort and support was, and Jim named his wife. Asked to say something to his wife, Jim responded, “Thank you for being there and accepting me through thick and thin. I love you.” Jim was then

DALE RICHARD BUCHANAN

asked to role reverse and assume the role of his wife. The person playing his wife then took the role of Jim. Jim, as his wife, stated “I love you and know that you will be able to work things through.” The psychodramatist then asked Jim who his greatest source of tension was and Jim replied that his mother was. Told to speak to his mother, he asked, “Why won‘t you leave me alone and let me grow up?” Jim then assumed the role of his mother and responded by saying, “Why won’t you just let me mother you‘?” Thus, in a matter of a few minutes Jim’s source of sup- port and his primary interpersonal tension were outlined. It was also no coincidence that he chose a group member who was very supportive to play his wife and a group member with whom he often disagreed to play his mother.

Fig. 4

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

While various authors (Allen, 1978; Nash & Pollin, 1983; Taylor, 1977,) have speculated on the significance of the drawing of the social atom, to date there have been no empirical studies which have identified major differences in social atom drawings. Psychodramatists contend that individuals with few persons in their social atom Fig. 5

SOCIAL ATOM 163

are more vulnerable to changes in their social networks than persons with larger social atoms. Some psychodramatists also believe that a client who places others directly above his own figure feels subservient to those individuals and, con- versely, those individuals placed beneath the client are seen as inferior. Taylor (1977) has speculated that persons in the clockwise posi- tions (I to 6) represent individuals with whom there are more open tensions and/or represent new persons to the social atom, while those per- sons at the 12 o’clock position represent individ- uals who are leaving the person’s life. Individuals drawn closest to the subject are usually spouses.

The projective nature of the drawings often stimulates numerous speculations which are best tested by directly asking the client about his own interpretation. For example, it is not unusual for psychotic patients to embellish the circles and triangles. One patient put wings on dead persons’ symbols (his comment was that they were flying to heaven), while others have used dotted lines in drawing a circle or triangle to indicate that a per- son is mentally ill (e.g., going to pieces). Others have used symbols (such as crosses, swastikas, stars, etc.) for the individuals instead of or in addition to circles and triangles. In general, it is best simply to repeat the instructions to the pa- tients and allow them to use whatever creativity they wish in drawing their own social atom. After the patients have completed the drawings, the clinician can ask what the symbols mean.

The reliability and validity of the social atom have never been established. One of the major difficulties in establishing validity and reliability is the wide range of instructions which therapists use in taking the inventory. In general, the inven- tory has been seen as an important diagnostic and therapeutic tool which has a tremendous amount of flexibility to quickly uncover patients’ interpersonal relationships.

The therapist can further explore these rela- tionships by asking the client to speak of his feel- ings regarding his world. A favorite psychodrama tactic is to ask the client how he wishes the world would be. Moreno referred to many therapy ses- sions as “Social Atom Repair Work.” Specifical- ly, Moreno felt that therapy gives patients an opportunity to relive their lives and to change the interactions between self and others. A with- holding mother could become nurturant, or an

abusive father‘s actions could be perceived as a response to unemployment rather than to the pa- tient’s behavior.

The social atom is an important clinical tool that can be used in individual as well as group practice. The social atom also provides focusing for the patient and will often help in delineating treatment goals. It can also provide a barometer of the progress of therapy. If therapy is progress- ing and the patient is changing, there should be a concomitant change in the patient’s social atom. New individuals may enter the client’s life (a prospective mate, new friends, etc.), while previous dominant relationships (dead parents) may move to the background. The patient’s per- ceived feelings about htmself and others will also change. Additionally, the social atom can also point to tension systems and unresolved inter- personal conflicts, which can be a focus in fur- ther therapy sessions.

Social atoms can be collected with a group of patients in twenty minutes or one-to-one with a fuller exploration of perceptions in approximate- ly fifty minutes. Numerous clinicians who have used the social atom technique have marvelled at how quickly they are able to enter their patients’ world via the use of the Social Atom Inventory. In summary, the Social Atom Inventory is an interpersonal projective technique which can be used for diagnosis, treatment and evaluation of patient progress.

REFERENCES

ALLEN, S. (1978) E.t/>lorcir~~~/l 01’ rirc .\<~cicll u~,,,H. Unpub-

lished research project. Washington. DC: Saint Elizabeths Hospital, Psychodrama Section.

BASSIN. A. (1977) 71te hcct~t i,t or,r midvr. Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology, Dallas, Texas.

COMPERNOLLE. T. (1981) J. L. hloreno: An unrecoenized pioneer of family therapy. Frir?ti/y I’rocex., 20: 33 IT335.

FLESHMAN, B. & FRYREAR. J. L. (1981) 71t(, r\rts i/t TItcbrct[>y. Chicago: Nelson Hall.

HALE, A. E. ( 198 I) Corrdrtcriug Clinicril S~ciomrrric E.rp/~,- rcirion: A ,Llotrf~nl /i,r ~‘.s~cil(Jtl~ci~iIclrisl.s ~tfd Sociotfrc~- rrist.v. Roanoke. VA: Ann E. Hale.

HOLLANDER. S. L. (197-t) Social atom: An alternative to imprisonment. Grorr[> P.s~ci~~~ritrrc~p,? 27: 173-183.

JENNINGS, H. H. ( 1950) Lcudcr.sl!ip & I.~drrrivt~: A Srd~ I</’ Pf~r.S~~,l~lli~\ i/l /r~r~rpc~rso~~~~/ Rcltrtims. New York:

Longmans. Green. MCNIFF, S. (1979) From Shamanism to art therapy. r\rr

Ps~c/wrlterrrp\. 6: 15_Ll61.

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