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MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING

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Page 1: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

MODULE 23

COGNITION/THINKING

Page 2: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THINKING

Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts.

The ultimate result of the above building blocks can be the higher processes that we call reasoning, imagining, judging, deciding, problem-solving, creativity---and—sometimes—genius.

Page 3: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

COGNITION/THINKING

A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Prototype is a mental image or best example of a category-

formed on the basis of frequently experienced features. (natural concept for a bird)

Testing concepts can be hard since they are not observable. We must infer their influence on people’s thinking indirectly by studying their observable side effects.

Concept of the color red –need to observe whether person responds same way you do to stimuli that you both call ‘red’

Page 4: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

TYPES OF CONCEPTS

There are two types of concepts Natural concepts: imprecise mental classifications

that develop out of our everyday experiences. Most of the concepts in our everyday life

Artificial concepts: concepts defined by a set of rules or characteristics, such as dictionary definition or mathematical equations. Most of the concepts learned in school- example-

definition of triangle that you learned in school.

Page 5: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

CONCEPT HIERACHIES

Page 6: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

COGNITIVE MAPS

As we saw before, cognitive maps are mental representations of a given place or situation. Just the mental image is not enough however. Along

with the visual cortex, the frontal lobe of the brain provides us with information on the episode, the context and stimulus of a situation. Ex. What shape are a German Shepherd’s ears?

--probably consulted a visual image of a German shepherd stored in your memory.

Page 7: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

MAKING INFERENCES

To help us figure out the episode, the context and stimulus of a situation we do have tools: Schema: General frameworks that provide expectations

about topics, events, objects, people and situations.-Assimilation (integrating new info with what you already

know) v. Accommodation (if you find a discrepancy b/w new input and existing schemas-you overcome it by changing what you know.

Script: Schemas about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.

Ex. We have scripts for going to a restaurant, using the library, listening to a lecture, going on a first date, and even making love

Page 8: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

PROBLEM SOLVING

When we are faced with a problem, we have a few options for figuring out a solution. Algorithms: Problem solving procedures or formulas

that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied. Designed to solve particular kinds of problems for which you have all the necessary information

Heuristics: Simple, basic rules that serve as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. They do not guarantee a correct solution.

Page 9: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

SOME USEFUL HEURISTIC STRATEGIES

Working BackwardSearching For AnalogiesBreaking a Big Problem into Smaller

Problems

Page 10: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

ALGORITHMS VS. HEURISTICS

Unscramble

S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithm

all 907,208 combinations Heuristic

throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?

Page 11: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

MATCHSTICK PROBLEM

How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

Page 12: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THE THREE JUGS PROBLEM

Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated

Page 13: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THE CANDLE MOUNTING PROBLEM

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Page 14: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS

One problem with heuristic are mental sets. When faced with problems, we have a tendency to

approach it in a familiar way. Especially a way that has been successful in

the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems.

Page 15: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS

Another problem with relying on heuristics is called functional fixedness, a sort of mental set issue. Functional Fixedness: The inability to perceive a new

use for an object associated with a different purpose.

Page 16: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

INSIGHT

Insight involves a sudden novel

realization of a solution to a

problem. Humans and animals have

insight.

Page 17: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

INSIGHT

Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.

Page 18: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THE MATCHSTICK PROBLEM

SOLUTION TO THE MATCHSTICK PROBLEM

Page 19: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THE THREE JUGS PROBLEMSolution:

a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.

b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

Page 20: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

THE CANDLE MOUNTING PROBLEM

Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

Page 21: MODULE 23 COGNITION/THINKING. THINKING Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create

JUDGING AND DECISION-MAKING

Along with mental sets, bias can make heuristics a faulty decision making tool. Confirmation bias: makes us pay attention to events that

confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them.

Hindsight bias: Tendency to second guess a decision after the event has happened.

Representative bias: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototype

Availability bias: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common