modeling employee engagement (a ph.d. dissertation summary)

CHRIS MASON, PH.D.MARCH 20, 2012

© CHRIS MASON – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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PULLING BACK THE CURTAIN: Modeling the Motivational Process Underlying Employee Engagement

Primary Arguments Research Contributions

Employee Engagement is a relevant concept.

Today, there is agreement on the factors related to employee engagement; but significant disagreement about how to define engagement.

Identifying sources of the confusion will set the stage for a more useful engagement definition.

Engagement is linked to work motivation.

Drawing on models of work motivation will set the stage for a more useful engagement model.

Identify the primary sources of confusion surrounding engagement and summarize current areas of agreement.

Describe and define two possible forms of employee engagement.

Present a new theoretical model of the employee engagement process drawing from models of work motivation.

Empirically test components of the new employee engagement model.

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Research Overview

© 2012 – Chris Mason – All Rights Reserved

Extant Uses of the Engagement Concept

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Within Employee Engagement Surveys:Engagement surveys have been shown repeatedly to be effective predictors of job performance and other important organizational outcomes (Harter & Schmidt, 2008; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Wellins, Bernthal, & Phelps, 2005).

As a Predictor of Important Organizational Outcomes:Gallup found median differences between top-quartile and bottom-quartile units (on engagement scores) of: 12% in customer ratings, 16% in profitability, 18% in productivity, 49% in safety incidents, 27% in shrink, 37% in absenteeism, and 60% in quality (Harter, Schmidt, Killham, & Agrawal, 2009).

As a Replacement for Job Satisfaction:If there is agreement about the construct today, it resides in the axiom that engagement is not job satisfaction (Hallberg & Schaufeli, 2006; 2002; Kahn, 1990; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002) .


Pay & BenefitsRewards & RecognitionAdvancement OpportunitiesVariety of Work TasksMeaningfulness of WorkBelief in Future of OrganizationBelief in Org. Goals/ValuesCommunicationGoal SettingRole ClarityInformal Feedback / CoachingFormal Performance ReviewsLeadership VisionLeadership SupportTeam Member SupportAvailably of Tools & ResourcesPhysical SafetyEmpowerment / AutonomyTraining & DevelopmentTrust in Management

DiscretionaryEffort

The “Black Box” of Employee Engagement

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PerformanceE


Definitions of Engagement in the Literature

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Term Used Definition (in quotes) or Summarization SourcePersonal Engagement

“Personal Engagement is the simultaneous employment and expression of a person’s ‘preferred self’ in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others, personal presence (physical, cognitive, and emotional) and active, full performances” (p. 700).

(Kahn, 1990)

Job Engagement

“An energetic state of involvement with personally fulfilling activities that enhance one’s sense of professional efficacy” (p. 498)

(Maslach & Leiter, 2008)

Role Engagement

(Engagement) has two critical components – attention and absorption in a role – both of which are motivational.”

(Rothbard, 2001)

Work Engagement

“A positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (p. 74).

(Schaufeli et al., 2002)

Employee Engagement

Engagement is described as a meta construct combining Job satisfaction, Organizational commitment, job involvement, and psychological empowerment.

(Macey & Schneider, 2008)

Employee Engagement

“Employee Engagement is the behavioral provision of personal resources – time and energy – into one’s work role, and it can be specified as the higher order construct indicated by dependable covariation among several, valued work behaviors” (p. 34).

(Newman & Harrison, 2008)

Employee Engagement

“State Engagement, with its strong affective component including positive affect, energy, absorption, and passion, can be viewed as similar to the idea of collective mood or group affective tone.”

(Pugh & Dietz, 2008)

Employee Engagement

Engagement is a cognitive-affective construct involving the self-regulation of attention directed toward work tasks; with considerable day-to-day, and hour-to-hour within person variability in task absorption and energy.

(Dalal, Brummel, Wee, & Thomas, 2008)

Employee Engagement

“The employee engagement concept (is) some combination (of) affective commitment (pride in the organization), continuance commitment (intentions to remain with the organization), and discretionary effort” (p. 57).

(Masson, Royal, Agnew, & Fine, 2008)


Applied Definitions of Engagement6

Term Used Definition (in quotes) or Summarization SourceEmployee Engagement

“An engaged workforce is one in which employees possess a strong sense of organizational pride, proactively recommend their organization as a good place to work and are committed to staying with their employer given their high level of overall satisfaction” (p. 1).

Kenexa (Wiley, 2010)

Engagement “Engaged employees are psychologically committed to their work, go above and beyond their basic job expectations, and want to play a key role in fulfilling the mission of their organizations” (p. 1).

Gallup (Blizzard, 2004)

Employee Engagement

“The extent to which people value, enjoy, and believe in what they do” (p. 1). DDI (Wellins , Bernthal, & Phelps, 2005)

Engagement Engagement is defined as the degree of “employees’ willingness and ability to contribute to company success.” Or as the “extent to which employees put discretionary effort into their work, in the form of extra time, brainpower and energy” (p. 3).

Towers Perrin (2003)(now Towers Watson)

Purposeful Engagement

“The extent to which employees commit to something or someone in their organization, how hard employees work, and how long they stay as a result of that commitment” (p. 14).

Corporate Leadership Council (Ward, 2005)


Academic Engagement Measures 7

Measure Items SourceUltrecht Work Engagement Scale

Vigor 1.At work, I feel full of energy.2.In my job, I feel strong and vigorous.3.When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work.4.I can continue working for very long periods at a time.5.In my job, I am mentally very resilient.6.At work, I always persevere, even when things do not go well.

Dedication 1.I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose.2.I am enthusiastic about my job.3.My job inspires me.4.I am proud of the work I do.5.I find my job challenging.

Absorption 1.Time flies when I’m working.2.When I am working, I forget everything else around me.3.I feel happy when I am working intensely.4.I am immersed in my work.5.I get carried away when I’m working.6. It is difficult to detach myself from my job.

(Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005)


Applied Engagement Measures8

Measure Items SourceKenexa Engagement Index

1. I am proud to tell people I work for my company. 2. Overall, I am extremely satisfied with my company as a place to work. 3. I would recommend this place to others as a good place to work. 4. I rarely think about looking for a new job with another company.

(Wiley, 2010)

Corporate Leadership Council (CLC) Engagement Index

1. I believe in what I do every day at work2. I enjoy working with my team3. When speaking to others, I speak highly of my supervisor4. I am proud to work for my organization5. The best way for me to develop my skills in my organization right now is to stay with my current team6. The best way for me to advance in this organization is to stay with my current supervisor7. The best way for me to advance my career is to stay with my current organization8. My performance would suffer if I worked with any other team in my organization

(Ward, 2005)

Galup Q12TM 1. I know what is expected of me at work.2. I have the materials and equipment I need to do my work right.3. At work, I have the opportunity to do what I do best every day.4. In the last seven days, I have received recognition or praise for doing good work.5. My supervisor, or someone at work, seems to care about me as a person.6. There is someone at work who encourages my development.7. At work, my opinions seem to count.8. The mission/purpose of my company makes me feel my job is important.9. My associates (fellow employees) are committed to doing quality work.10. I have a best friend at work.11. In the last six months, someone at work has talked to me about my progress.12. This last year, I have had opportunities at work to learn and grow.

(Avery et al., 2007)


Source Key Question OptionsNature How should we operationalize

engagement in general as a psychological construct?

• Affect• Behavior• Cognition

Variability What is its expected within-person variability of engagement?

• Mood (hours – days)• State (weeks – months)• Trait (years – lifetime)

Target With whom or what is the worker engaging?

• Task• Role• Job• Career

Level At what level of analysis does engagement emerge and operate?

• Individual• Team• Department• Company

4 Sources of the Confusion9


An Analysis of Engagement Definitions10


How long does engagement last?11

Which of the following is an example of a worker disengaging from his/her job?

A.A worker leaves the office for an hour-long lunch break.B.A worker sets a frustrating task aside for a few hours and plans to come back to it later.C.A worker takes a week-long vacation in Maui.D.A worker ceases to care about performing well in his job and does the bare minimum to get by for several months.


Multiple forms of Employee Engagement

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Task Engagement: • Energy directed at completing a specific task.• Moment-to-moment (minutes to hours)• Tasks to task• Results in task performance

Job Engagement: • Energy directed at sustaining job performance.• Ongoing (weeks to years)• Project to project• Results in job performance


Linking Engagement to Work Motivation

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Term Used Definition (in quotes) or Summarization SourceJob Engagement

“An energetic state of involvement with personally fulfilling activities that enhance one’s sense of professional efficacy”

(Maslach & Leiter, 2008)

Role Engagement

(Engagement) has two critical components – attention and absorption in a role – both of which are motivational.”

(Rothbard, 2001)

Work Engagement

“A positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption”

(Schaufeli et al., 2002)

Employee Engagement

“Employee Engagement is the behavioral provision of personal resources – time and energy – into one’s work role…”

(Newman & Harrison, 2008)

Employee Engagement

“State Engagement, with its strong affective component including positive affect, energy, absorption, and passion…”

(Pugh & Dietz, 2008)

Employee Engagement

Engagement is a cognitive-affective construct involving the self-regulation of attention directed toward work tasks; with considerable day-to-day, and hour-to-hour within person variability in task absorption and energy

(Dalal, Brummel, Wee, & Thomas, 2008)

Engagement “Engaged employees are psychologically committed to their work, go above and beyond their basic job expectations, and want to play a key role in fulfilling the mission of their organizations”

Gallup (Blizzard, 2004)

Engagement Engagement is defined as the degree of “employees’ willingness and ability to contribute to company success...”

Towers Perrin (2003)

Work Motivation: A set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration. (Pinder, 1998, p. 11)


New Employee Engagement Definitions

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Task Engagement: A short-term motivational process resulting in effort directed at completing a task and characterized by a sense of energy, dedication, and absorption.

Job Engagement:An ongoing cognitive-evaluative state of motivation to perform a job and characterized by a continual willingness to expend effort in the service of sustaining job performance.


Contributions from Motivation Research

VIE Theory (Vroom, 1964) Separating “Expectancy” from “Instrumentality.” Outlining the foundational components of motivation:

1) identify a valued outcome 2) identify actions that will obtain that outcome3) believe one is capable of carrying out those actions4) trust that environmental conditions will support his or her efforts

Goal Setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 1990; 2002) Incorporating the concept of self-efficacy. The importance of feedback in sustaining motivation.

Perceptual Control Theory (Powers, 1973; Carver & Scheier, 1998) The function of negative feedback loops. The concept of higher-order goals.

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(1)Do I want

to perform inmy job?

No

(2)Can I identify

tasksto do?

(3)Do I believe I can do those

tasks?

(4)Then I am

motivated to tryto do the tasks.

Person

Work Environment (5) Worker expends effort on tasks(Task Engagement).

(6)Did I completed

The tasks?

Yes

YesYes; continue cycle

Why try again if I am not able to be successful?

No, I was unable to complete the tasks

JobEngagement

Why try again if I do notknow if I am successful?

No, I did not receiveany feedback

Why would it be worth the effort?

How can I try if I do not know what to do?

No

No

Why try if I have no chance of success ?

Conceptual Model of Job Engagement

Yes


(1)Do I want

to perform inmy job?

(2)Can I identify

tasksto do?

(3)Do I believe I can do those

tasks?

(4)Then I am

motivated to tryto do the tasks.

Person

Work Environment

(6)Did I completed

The tasks?

Yes

YesYes; continue cycle

JobEngagement

Conceptual Model of Job Engagement

Yes(2)

Task Goal Identification

(1)Goal Commitment to Job Performance

(4)Task Motivation

(5)Task Engagement

(6)Evaluation of

Goal Achievement

(3)Task Efficacy

(5) Worker expends effort on tasks(Task Engagement).


Full Theoretical Model of Job EngagementFactor 3: Enablers•Leadership Vision•Leadership Support•Team Member Support•Physical Safety

•Trust in Management•Psychological Safety•Psychological Empowerment

• Availably of Tools & Resources• Training & Development

Outcomes

-Job Satisfaction

-Job Performance -Advocacy-Customer Service

Person

Work Environment

JobEngagement

Person

Work Environment

Factor 1: Incentives•Pay & Benefits•Advancement Opportunities•Rewards & Recognition•Job Characteristics

•Job Involvement•Org. Commitment•Meaningfulness of Work•Belief in Future of Org.•Belief in Org. Goals/Values

Input 1

Factor 2: Directives•Communication•Goal Setting

•Role Clarity

Input 2

(2)Task Goal

Identification

(1)Goal Commitment to Job Performance

(4)Task Motivation

(5)Task Engagement

Input 4

(3)Task Efficacy

(6)Evaluation of

Goal Achievement

Input 3

Factor 4: Feedback•Informal Feedback•Performance Reviews


Research Study 19


Study Hypotheses20


Research Method – Data Set

22,448 engagement survey responses were collected during March of 2008 at a Fortune 500 company with employees located across the United States and Canada.

Data Demographics: Sex

55.3% were male 44.7% were female

Ethnicity 65.2% White 11.6% Hispanic/Latino 10.2% Black/African American 7.5% unknown 4.2% Asian 0.6% Two or More Races 0.6% American Indian or Alaskan Native 0.2% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander

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Age:29.7% under age 2527.2% between 25 and 3520.3% between 36 and 45 15.4% between 46 and 557.4% over the age of 55


Research Method – Measures

Incentives was measured by eight items (e.g., “I am proud to work for this company” ). Cronbach’s alpha for the scores on this scale measured .88, n = 19150.

Directives was measured by three items (e.g., “I feel well informed about what is expected in my job” ). Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .84, n = 19150.

Personal Enablers was measured by five items (e.g., “I have the training I need to do my job effectively” ). Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .85, n = 19150.

Managerial Enablers was measured by four items (e.g., “My manager treats me with respect and dignity” ). Cronbach’s alpha for the scores on this scale measured .93, n = 19150.

Team Enablers was measured by five items (e.g., “There is a strong sense of teamwork among the associates at this location”). Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .89, n = 19150.

Organizational Enablers was measured by five items (e.g., “This company is committed to providing equal opportunities for all associates” ). Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .89, n = 19150.

Feedback was measured by two items (e.g., “I understand how my performance has been evaluated” ). The Pearson R correlation between these times was .73, n = 19150.

Goal Commitment to Job Performance was measured by two items (e.g., “It is important to me to feel successful in my job” ). These items were asked of a subset of the survey participants. The Pearson R correlation between these times was .46, n = 1158.

Task Goal Identification was measured by three items (e.g., “My manager clearly communicates what is expected of me” ). These items were only asked of a subset of the survey participants. Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .80, n = 875.

Task Efficacy was measured by two items (e.g., “I feel I have what it takes to be successful in my job” ). These items were only asked of a subset of the survey participants. The Pearson R correlation between these times was .60, n = 1660.

Task Engagement was measured by three items (e.g., “I work hard for this company every day” ) These items were only asked of a subset of the survey participants. Cronbach’s alpha on this scale measured .73, n = 1156.

Job performance was measured using the employee’s most recent annual performance review provided by his or her manager.

Note: All items were self-report ratings on a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

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Factor 3a: Personal Enablers•Psychological Empowerment*•Training & Development*Factor 3b: Managerial Enablers•Leadership Support*•Trust in Management*Factor 3c: Team Enablers•Team Member Support*Factor 3d: Org. Enablers•Psychological Safety*

Test of Hypotheses 1a-1d using CFA23

Factor 1: Incentives•Pay & Benefits•Advancement Opportunities*•Rewards & Recognition*•Job Characteristics•Job Involvement*•Org. Commitment*•Meaningfulness of Work•Belief in Future of Org.•Belief in Org. Goals/Values

Factor 2: Directives•Communication*•Goal Setting•Role Clarity*

Factor 4: Feedback•Informal Feedback•Performance Reviews*

Factor 3: Enablers•Leadership Vision•Leadership Support*•Team Member Support*•Physical Safety•Trust in Management*•Psychological Safety*•Psychological Empowerment*•Availably of Tools & Resources• Training & Development*

1 Factor Model (1FM)

*measured in this study

Model 2 df p GFI AGFI RMSEA 2 df1FM 131536.21 434 .00 .63 .57 .154FM 108850.86 428 .00 .67 .62 .13 M1-M2=2685.35** 67FM 41522.33 413 .00 .86 .84 .07 M2-M3=67328.53** 15Note. 1FM= Null Single Factor Model; 4FM= Proposed Four Factor Model; 7FM=Alternative Seven Factor Model; GFI = goodness-of-fit index (recommended level >.90); AGFI = adjusted goodness-of-fit index (recommended level > .90; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation (recommended level < .08); 2 = change in chi-square (**Indicates a statistically significant change at the .01 level).

Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis using LISREL 8.80 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993)


Test of Hypotheses 2a-2d using SEM24


Summary of Findings

Study Hypotheses Finding

Hypothesis 1a. “Incentives” Factor Supported

Hypothesis 1b. “Directives” Factor Supported

Hypothesis 1c. “Enablers” Factor Partially Supported

Hypothesis 1d. “Feedback” Factor Supported

Hypothesis 2a. Incentives commitment to job performance task engagement Partially Supported

Hypothesis 2b. Directives task goal identification task engagement Not Supported

Hypothesis 2c. Enablers task efficacy task engagement Supported

Hypothesis 2d. Feedback task goal identification task engagement Not Supported

Hypotheses 2a-2d (overall structure of the model) Tentative Support

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•Pay & Benefits•Advancement Opportunities•Rewards & Recognition•Job Characteristics•Job Involvement•Org. Commitment•Meaningfulness of Work•Belief in Future of Org.•Belief in Org. Goals/Values

•Communication•Goal Setting•Role Clarity

Personal Enablers•Psychological Empowerment•Training & DevelopmentManagerial Enablers•Leadership Support•Trust in ManagementTeam Enablers•Team Member SupportOrg. Enablers•Psychological Safety

Factor 1: Incentives

Factor 2: DirectivesFactors 3a-3d: Enablers

The “Black Box” of Employee Engagement

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Performance•Informal Feedback•Performance Reviews

Factor 4: Feedback

•Pay & Benefits•Advancement Opportunities•Rewards & Recognition•Job Characteristics•Job Involvement•Org. Commitment•Meaningfulness of Work•Belief in Future of Org.•Belief in Org. Goals/Values•Communication•Goal Setting•Role Clarity•Psychological Empowerment•Training & Development•Leadership Support•Trust in Management•Team Member Support•Psychological Safety•Informal Feedback•Performance Reviews•Job Satisfaction•Advocacy

E


Applied Views of The Model27


Direction Enablers

Feedback

Incentives

4 Gears Powering the Engagement Engine4 Gears Powering the Engagement Engine

© 2014 – Chris Mason

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An Applied Model of Job Engagement:

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JobJobEngagemenEngagemen

tt

Direction

EnablersFeedback

Incentives• Pay & Benefits• Advancement Opportunities• Rewards & Recognition• Variety of Work Tasks• Meaningfulness of Work• Belief in Future of Org.• Belief in Org. Goals/Values

• Communication• Goal Setting• Role Clarity

• Informal Feedback• Formal Performance Reviews

• Psychological Safety• Empowerment / Autonomy• Availably of Tools/Resources• Training & Development

• Leadership Vision• Leadership Support• Team Member Support• Physical Safety• Trust in Management


Linking HR Processes to Job Engagement

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JobJobEngagemenEngagemen

tt

Direction

EnablersFeedback

Incentives• Compensation• Benefits Programs• Bonus Programs• Recognition Programs• Career Development Tools• Succession Planning

• Communications• Goal Setting Process• Job Descriptions

• Performance Management Process• Coaching / Mentorship Programs• 360 Degree Feedback• Job Design

• Training Interventions• Learning & Development Resources• Safety Programs• Associate Relations Initiatives• Diversity & Inclusion Initiatives


modeling employee engagement (a ph.d. dissertation summary)

Business

job engagement conceptual model

corporate leadership council

evaluation ofgoal achievement

recognitionjob characteristicsjob involvementorg

affective construct involving

critical components attention

benefitsadvancement opportunitiesrewards

recommended level