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Faculty of Pharmacy

Biochemistry Department

PREPARED BY:

Muhannad Soliman El-borolossy

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Index

1- Introduction. 2-3

2- Major minerals. 5-10

Calcium 4–8

Other elements P,Na,Cl,K,S,Mg 8-10

3- Minor minerals(Trace minerals). 11-16

Iron 12-14

Other elements Zn,I,Co,Se,Cu,F,Cr 15-17

4- References 17

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Minerals

Functions of minerals -Building tissue

- Activating, regulating, transmitting, and controlling metabolic processes

Major elements : Requirement >100 mg /day

-These minerals are called macrominerals.

Bone,muscle,heart and brain function depends on these minerals.

Calcium – Chloride – Magnesium - Sulphur- Phosphorous- Fluoride- Sodium - Potassium.

Trace elements : Requirement<100mg/day microminerals.

The body needs small quantities of: Iron - Chromium - Copper - Fluoride - Iodine

–- Manganese -

Molybdenum -

Selenium- Zinc.

Necessary for the body

but their exact

functions are not

known. Ex.: Iron ,

Chromium.

Non-Essentials : seen in

tissues. Contaminants

in food stuffs. Ex.:

Rubedium, Silver,

Gold,Bismuth

Toxic : should be avoided.Ex.: Aluminium, Lead, Cadmium, Mercury

Except for chromium, all trace minerals are incorporated into enzymes or

hormones required in body processes(metabolism).Chromium helps the body

keep blood sugar levels normal.

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Mineral metabolism

Digestion: minerals do not require much digestion.

Absorption:rate determined by food form, body need, tissue health.

Transport: enter through portal circulation, bound to proteins.

Tissue uptake: controlled by hormones, excess excreted in urine.

Occurrence in the body: basic forms are free ions and covalently bound.

- Homeostatic mechanisms regulate the concentration of minerals in body fluids. - Mineral toxicity can result from too much of a mineral or from overexposure to industrial pollutants, household chemicals, or certain drugs - The body varies in it’s capacity to absorb and use the minerals in food. Here are some things that affect the bioavailability of minerals in food:

Type of Food

o The small intestine readily absorbs minerals in animal products because plant binders and dietary fibers are unavailable to hinder digestion and absorption.

o Foods from the animal kingdom generally contain high mineral

concentration (except for magnesium, which has higher

concentration in plants.)

Mineral-Mineral Interaction

o Many minerals have the same molecular weight and have to

compete with each other for intestinal absorption.

Vitamin-Mineral Interaction

o Vitamin D helps with calcium absorption

o Vitamin C helps with iron absorption

Fiber-Mineral Interaction

o High fiber intake blunts the absorption of some minerals like calcium,

iron, magnesium, and phosphorus by binding them and causing them

to pass un absorbed.

Consuming too little or too much of certain minerals can cause a nutritional disorder. However, people who follow restrictive diets may not consume enough of a particular mineral (or vitamin). For example, vegetarians, including those who eat eggs and dairy products, are at risk of iron deficiency. Infants are more likely to develop deficiencies because they are growing rapidly (thus requiring larger amounts of nutrients for their size than adults).

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Minerals serve 3 main purposes in the body: Structure forming bones and teeth. Function maintain normal heart rhythm, muscle contraction, neural conductivity, and acid-base balance. Metabolism Regulation they become part of enzymes and hormones that control cell activity and the buildup (anabolism) and breakdown (catabolism) of the macronutrients.

Major minerals sources & main functions and RDA

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Calcium (Ca) Most abundant mineral in the human body . Total Calcium in the human body is about 1 to 1.5 kg, 99% of which is seen in bone together with phosphate.Small amounts in soft tissue & 1% in extracellular fluid Dietary Sources of calcium: Milk is a good source for calcium,Egg, fish, cheese, beans, lentils, nuts, cabbage and vegetables.

Daily requirement

Adults : 500 mg/day

Childrens:1200mg/day

Pregnancy &lactation : 1500 mg/day

After the age of 50, tendency for osteoporosis, prevented by increased calcium (1500

mg/day) & vitamin D (20 μg/day) Body

Calcium in plasma is of 3 types : Ionized or free or unbound calcium.

In blood, 50% of plasma calcium is free & is metabolically active.

It is required for the maintenance of nerve function, membrane permeability, muscle contraction

and hormone secretion.

Bound calcium:

40% of plasma calcium is bound to protein mostly albumin.

(These two forms are diffusible from blood to tissues.)

Complexed calcium:

10% of plasma calcium is complexed with anions including bicarbonate, phosphate, lactate &

citrate..

Normal Range: The normal level of plasma calcium is 9 - 11 mg/dl .

Absorption taken in the diet as calcium phosphate, carbonate & tartarate salt.

In gut and first & second part of duodenum against a concentration gradient & requires energy.

Requires a carrier protein, helped by calcium-dependent ATPase.

Two mechanisms Simple diffusion + active transport [Process involving energy & Ca2+ pump]

require Calcitriol carrier(vit.D derivative activeted by kidney) --> synthesis of Ca-binding proteins

& transport.

Excretion stool & urine

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Biochemical functions

1-Bones &Teeth:Formation of bone &teeth.Bones are reservoir for Ca in the

body.Osteoblasts → bone deposition , Osteoclasts → demineralization.

2- Nerve conduction: stimulates

exocytosis of synaptic vesicles

containing ACh ACh release into

synaptic cleft.

3-Muscle Contraction:Ca mediates

excitation & contraction.

- Ca interacts with Troponin-C to

trigger muscle contraction. - Ca activates ATPase, ↑ interaction between actin

and myosin facilitates excitation-contraction coupling.

-Action on Heart: Ca

prolongs Systole. ↑ Ca

concentration → ↑

myocardial contractility.

4-Blood coagulation:

Calcium is known as factor IV

in blood coagulation

process. Prothrombin contains γ-carboxyglutamate residues which are chelated

by Ca2+ during the thrombin formation

5- Secretion of hormones : insulin, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin,

vasopressin.

6-Second Messenger:Ca& cyclic AMP are 2nd messengers of different

hormones. Eg: Glucogan.

7- Activation of Enzymes:Calmodulin – Ca binding regulatory protein. Binds with

4 Ca ions and leads to activation of enzymes.ex pancreatic lipase, enzymes of

coagulation pathway, and rennin.

8 -Membrane integrity &Permeability:Influences transport of number of

substances across the membranous barrier.

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Factors causing increased absorption:. 1-Vitamin D: Calcitriol induces the synthesis of carrier protein (Calbindin) facilitates the absorption. 2-Parathyroid hormone: ↑ transport from the intestinal cells by enhancing 1α- hydroxylase activity. The enzyme catalyzes the hydroxylation of Calcifediol to calcitriol (the bioactive form of Vitamin D) Ca carrier. 3-Acidity: Ca-salts, particularly PO4 & carbonates are quite soluble in acidic solutions.In alkaline medium, the absorption of calcium is lowered due to the

formation of insoluble tricalcium PO4 4-Amino acids: Lysine & arginine Amino acids ↑ the solubility of Ca-salts. 5-Sugars and organic acids: Organic acids produced by microbial fermentation of sugars in the gut ↑the solubility of Ca-salts.

Factors causing decreased absorption 1-Phytic acid( in Cereals) and oxalates(in some leafy vegetables) forms insoluble Ca-salts.

2-Fibres: Excess of fibres in the diet interferes with the absorption. 3-High dietary phosphates - precipitate as calcium phosphate. 4-High pH - (alkaline) In alkaline medium, the absorption of calcium is lowered due to the formation of insoluble tricalcium PO4

5-Malabsorption syndromes: formation of insoluble Ca salt of fatty acid. 6-Glucocorticoids: Diminishes intestinal transport of calcium Phosphate: 7-High phosphate content will cause precipitation as calcium phosphate Magnesium: High content of Mg decreases the absorption.

Homeostasis of Ca

The major factors regulate the plasma Calcium:

Calcitriol↑ intestinal absorption of Ca↑ Ca uptake by osteoblasts↑ promotes Calcification.

Parathyroid hormone ↑serum Ca Demineralization of bone(Osteoclasts)↑ Ca reabsorption by renal tubules↑ intestinal absorption of Ca by promoting synthesis of Calcitriol .

Calcitonin

secreted by Para follicular cells of Thyroid gland Lowers the serumCa Calcification of bone(by osteoblasts)↑the excretion of Ca into urine.

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Phosphorous (P) Sources red meat, fish, poultry, eggs, whole grains, nuts and seeds.

Biological function:

An essential component of bone, cartilage and the crustacean exoskeleton.

Phosphorus is an essential component of phospholipids, nucleic acids, phosphoproteins

(casein), high energy phosphate esters (ATP), hexose phosphates, creatine phosphate,

and several key enzymes.

As a component of these important biological substances, phosphorus plays a central

role in energy and cell metabolism.

Inorganic phosphates serve as important buffers to regulate the normal acidbase

balance (ie. pH).

How Phosphorous Works in the Body

Phosphorus works with calcium to help build bones. the most important thing is balance.

With too much calcium, your body absorbs less phosphorus, and vice versa. Like calcium,

you need vitamin D to absorb phosphorus properly.

Magnesium (Mg) Sources distributed in vegetables & also found in almost all animal tissues Other

important sources are cereals, beans, green vegetables, potatoes, almonds, and dairy

products, e.g. cheese. Biochemical functions

1-Co-factor: in peptidases, ribonucleases, glycolytic enzymes & co-carboxylation reactions.

2-It nfluences the secretion of PTH by the parathyroid glands & hypomagnesaemia

may cause hypoparathyriodism.

3-Magnesium exerts an effect on neuromuscular irritability similar to that of Ca2+,

high levels depress nerve conduction & low levels may produce tetany

(Hypomagnasemic tetany).

4-About 70% of body magnesium is present as apatites in bones, dental enamel and

dentin.

5-Insulin-dependent uptake of glucose is reduced in Mg2+

deficiency, magnesium supplementation improves glucose tolerance.

6-Required for DNA replication process (DNA Polymerase III).

Sulphur )S) Biological function: component of several key amino acids (methionine and cystine), vitamins (thiamine and biotin), the hormone insulin, and the crustacean exoskeleton. As the sulphate, sulphur is an essential component of heparin, chondroitin, fibrinogen and taurine. Several key enzyme systems such as coenzyme A and glutathione depend for their activity on free sulphydryl (SH) groups. Dietary sources sulphur containing amino acids include fish meal, chicken eggs.

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Sodium, Potassium and Chlorineoccur almost entirely in the fluids and soft tissues of the body, (Na) and (Cl) mainly in the body fluids, and (K) mainly in the cells. They serve a vital function in controlling osmotic pressures and acid-base equilibrium. They also play important roles in water metabolism.

Sodium (Na) Sources Common salt - Bread -whole grains-Nuts-leafy vegetables-Eggs -Milk Functions 1-AS sodium bicarbonate regulates the body acid base balance. 2-Sodium regulates ECF volume: Sodium pump is operating in all cells, so as to keep Sodium extracellular. 3-This mechanism is ATP dependent. 4-Required for maintenance of osmotic pressure and fluid balance. 5-Necessary for normal muscle irritability and cell permeability.

Chloride (Cl)

Sources: Table salt, leafy vegetables, eggs, milk. -Except for the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, practically all the chlorine involved in metabolism enters, exists in, and leaves the body in the form of chlorides, much the greater part as Sodium chloride. Functions 1-As a part of sodium chloride, chloride is essential for water balance, regulation of osmotic pressure and acid-base balance. 2-Chloride is necessary for the formation of HCL by the gastric mucosa and for the activation of enzyme amylase. 3-It is involved in the chloride shift. 4- Resulting from processes of building (anabolism) and breaking down (catabolism) body tissues.Chlorine also plays a specific role in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

Potassium(K) Sourcecitrus fruits, vegetables, grains, salmon, chicken, whole milk and almonds. important sources (avocados, bananas and coconut water). Functions 1-Stroke: it allows more O2 to reach the brain by stimulating neural activity and increasing cognitive function.Since act as a vasodilator, the blood vessels relax throughout the body when proper amounts of potassium are consumed. This means that blood flows more freely, and is less likely to clot and break off to cause Strocks. 2-Muscle disorders: required for contraction and relaxation of musclesregular. 3-Blood Pressure: reversing the role of sodium in unbalancing normal blood pressure. (maintains the normality of blood pressure in the human body). 4-Water BalanceIt rehydrates and optimizes fluid balance. 5-Electrolytes: electrolytes help to transmit electrical charges throughout the body from the brain and nervous system, so extra electrolytes keep everything functioning faster and more efficiently in the body.

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Minor minerals sources & main functions and RDA

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Iron (Fe) Sources spinach, turnip, sprouts, broccoli and dry fruits also have good iron content.meat

Importance:

1-Tissue Respiration:-Iron can change readily between Ferrous and Ferric states and

function in electron transfer reactions.(Cytochromes - NADH dehydrogenase -Succinate

dehydrogenase)

2-Transport of gases :Able to bind with molecular O2 and CO2.

The main function is to coordinate the O2 molecule into heme of hemoglobin, so that it can

be transported from the lungs to the tissues.

3-Oxidative Reactions : Component of various oxidoreductase enzymes

4- Immune Response :Required for effective activity of lysosomal enzyme peroxidase –

helps in phagocytic and bactericidal activity of neutrophils.

Total body iron content : 3 - 5 gm

Heme containing proteins: Hb, myoglobin, cytochromes, cytochrome oxidase, catalase,

peroxidase, xanthine oxidase & Trp pyrrolase.

Non-heme iron containing proteins : ferritin, transferrin, hemosiderin, lactoferin (milk) &

neutrophils.

Factors affect on absorption:

-Ferric ions are reduced with the help of gastric HCl, ascorbic acid, cys. and -SH groups of

pro. favors absorption.

- Ca, Cu, Zn, Pb inhibit absorption. ↓

- Phytates (in cereals), oxalates (leafy veg) & phosphates in the diet reduce↓absorption by

forming insoluble iron salts.

- Marginal ↓ by tea & eggs.

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Metabolism of Iron 1-Inorganic/non-heme iron (90%) Fe3+ (less soluble) - Organic/heme iron (10%) Fe2+ (more soluble) To be soluble, Ferric (Fe3+) needs to be reduced toFerrous (Fe2+) by enzyme Duodenal cytochrome b (Dcytb)( Vitamin Cdependent). 2-From the gut lume moved into the enterocyte before getting to the bloodstream by transporter.Inorganic iron uses DMT1& Organic iron uses HCP1.(ferrous binds to mucosal cell protein called Divalent Metal Transporter-1 (DMT-1) and transported into the mucosal cell.[Unabsorbed Iron is excreted.] 3-Iron oxidized to ferric state.complexed with apoferritin to form Ferritin. 4-Ferric Iron is released, reduced to Ferrous state crosses the cell membrane. Reoxidized to Ferric state by Ceruloplasmin 5-Ferric Iron bound with Transferrin and transported to tissues.Iron is stored in liver, spleen & bone marrow in the form of ferritin(temporary storage).Hemosiderin It is another iron storage protein, which accumulates when iron levels are increased. In the liver, iron is stored as ferric ion into ferritin, and is released by ferroportin and ceruloplasmin bound to Tf, as needed. In the bone marrow, iron is used by erythroid precursors to synthesize hemoglobin. Iron is recycled by macrophages, especially in the spleen. In macrophages, Macrophages engulfs old RBCs and releases heme. Heme contains protoporphyrin and Fe. Heme oxygenase separates them and Fe is then stored as ferritin. iron may accumulate as hemosiderin or released back into the circulation by ferroportin and ceruloplasmin. Hepcidin (binds to ferroportin–Fe exporter-), a hormone synthesized by the liver, acts as the main negative regulator of iron absorption in the duodenum and of iron release by macrophages. Iron is lost in very small quantities in feces, but menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation may cause important iron loss in women. 1-Fe2+ is transported out by ferroportin1(FPN)Once it leaves the enterocyte, the Fe2+ changes back to Fe3+ by Hephaestin. Once in the bloodstream, Fe3+ couples with Transferrin (Tf) forming a Tf-Fe complex. 2-Tf-Fe complex meets up with transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) in most cells. Proton ATPase drops the pH in the endosome to release Fe3+ from Tf.

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Zinc (Zn) Sources: meat and other proteins stuff. Active transport of zinc into portal blood is mediated by metallothionein.Zinc competes with other metals for absorption, and absorption is believed greatly retarded by ingestion of fiber and phytates. Functions 1- It plays a role in cell division, cell growth, wound healing, and the breakdown of

carbohydrates. 2- Zinc is also needed for the senses of smell and taste. 3- During pregnancy, infancy, and childhood the body needs zinc to grow and develop

properly.

Iodine (I) Sources large quantities in marine plants and animals.Garlic, lima beans, summer squash, sesame seeds. Iodized salt. Functions

1- Metabolic Rate: Iodine influences the functioning of thyroid glands by assisting in the production of hormones, which are directly responsible for controlling the body’s base metabolic rate.

2- Energy Levels:by ensuring the efficient utilization of calories, without allowing them to be deposited as excess fats.

3- Formation of healthy and shiny skin, teeth and hair. 4- immune System Strength: Iodine is itself a scavenger of free hydroxyl radicals(like

vitamin-C),it also stimulates antioxidants throughout the body to provide a strong . 5- Reduce conditions like fibrosis, turgidity, and breast tenderness.

Cobalt(Co)

Biological function: The principal biological functions of cobalt may be summarised as follows;

Cobalt is an integral component of cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12), and as such is essential for red blood cell formation and the maintenance of nerve tissue.Although not confirmed, cobalt may also function as an activating agent for various enzyme systems.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of cobalt include copra meal (2 mg/kg Co), linseed meal, dried brewers yeast, fish meal, meat meal, cottonseed meal, and soybean meal (0.5–0.1 mg/kg).

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Selenium (Se) Sources Plants (varies with soil content) , meat , sea foods. Biochemical Functions -Selenium, as selenocysteine is an essential component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. -Glutathione peroxidase functions as an antioxidant enzyme. It suppresses the oxidative stress by converting oxygen free radicals into less toxic forms or non-toxic forms. 1- Acts as a non-specific intracellular antioxidant , it protects the cells against the damage caused by H2O2 . 2- Complementary to vit.E : availability of vit.E reduces the Se requirement. 4- Protects from developing liver cirrhosis. 5 - Selenium contains enzyme 5’deiodinase converts thyroxine (T4) to triiodo-thyronine (T3) in thyroid gland. 6- Selenium may exert anticancer effects because of its antioxidant role.

Copper (Cu) Sources:lgumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains and drinking water Health benefits of Copper: Proper Growth-Pigmentation of Hair and Eyes-Brain Stimulation Utilization of Iron and Sugar. Copper is part of many enzymes needed for iron metabolism Enzymatic Reactions: Copper is either an element or a cofactor in as many as 50 different enzymes THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF COPPER-TRANSPORTING ATPases ATP7A AND ATP7B IN HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. This process is essential for human growth and development.

Fluoride(F) Main Functions:

Involved in formation of bones and

teeth; helps prevent tooth decay

Source:Drinking water (either fluoridated or

naturally containing fluoride), fish, and most

teas

Chromium(Cr) Biological function: Trivalent chromium is an integral component of the glucose tolerance factor (GTF; a low molecular weight compound with trivalent chromium coordinated to two nicotinic acid molecules with the remaining coordinates protected by amino acids) and acts as a cofactor for the hormone insulin. Apart from its vital role in carbohydrate metabolism (ie. glucose tolerance and glycogen synthesis), trivalent chromium is also believed to play an important role in cholesterol and amino acid metabolism. Dietary sources :chick shell meal, shrimp tail meat, Artemia salina, dried brewers yeast, shellfish.

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4- References

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[2] Peeling P, Dawson B, Goodman C, Landers G, Wiegerinck ET, Swinkels DW & Trinder D. Effects of

Exercise on Hepcidin Response and Iron Metabolism during Recovery. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 19 (6):

583-597.

[3] Díaz V. (2011). Regulation of Iron Metabolism and Exercise. Medicina Sportiva, Vol. 15 Issue 4, p 230.

[4] Mustafa A & Cagri C. (2013). Iron Metabolism and Importance of Iron in Exercise. International Journal

of Academic Research, Vol. 5 Issue 4, p 222.

[5] Qian ZM. (2002). Nitric Oxide and Changes of Iron Metabolism in Exercise. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc.

77 (4): 529-536

[6] http://www.cell.com/action/showImagesData?pii=S1043-2760%2812%2900064-1

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