MIDDLE SCHOOLmiddotAGED CHILDRENS A TIITUDES TOWARD WOMEN IN SCIENCE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AND THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA LITERACY TRAINING

Jocelyn Steinke) Maria Lapinski Aletta Zietsman-ThomasPaul Nwulut Nikki Crocker) Yaschica Williams) Stephanie Higdonand Sarvani Kuchibhotla Westen Michigan Ulliversity Michigll1 Stallt UllilJersily Ulliversity ojWitwaterstralld

Tins study examined Iile efficacy of media lileracy traillinE dcsigmd to Iltlell critical IIinking ab)1 gcnder stercutypes On lIIiddle sdlool-aged childrens recogllitioll of gender slereotypes l(rcepliol1s of WOllIe ill eimcc enKillurIIIg ald technology (SET) and atlitudes laullra SET alld SET careers A lolal rf 302 slmlh-gradc studell ts were random Iii assigned to one of three cOlldilitnl dSCUFsitm discussion pls mewing of mcdia images of womm or 11 cOlllrol No sigllificant d~ffercllces were foulld Oil aftitudls toward U~Ilell hI science IIlId aUiludes toward scence among middl( school-aged cllildrrm who parlicipated in eiIpoundT media literacy training condlliOlI compared wtl those who did lot participate in tnedi(lliteracy trailling HOWltver ~ig1ificall differences ill girl~ tllld boys pcmpliolls of women in SET alld tlleir tltlitud~ toward womm in SET wen found for girl~ and boys Valuatiuns f tll~ chamcteristics of female scientists u~th girls ratinglfmale scientsts liS more skilflf illtelligent experl alld quali(id 11m did boys [11 addItion Kirls and boys had tery different scores 011 items that Ilsked abut WQII1e11 ill science with girls beillK marc likeIi Illan boys to have pasifiz attitudes toward WllICII being as good 111 science careers liS lIlen UOll1eu 1II11I1g access to science cou rsrs and career opportunities and a womans career 1llving til same valur ItS man career The loys negative aIllude toward women in science found in thiS study were rclalcd II tile extent to Iucll boys reported that tile media plltlycd all important role in their Ihes The mpJications for fUlure research on media iflluellc~s 011 middle school-aged cllildrtns perceptions ofgender and science and tle droelopment of media litcracy illmlclltioll 10 Iroltloc Kirts inlereol ill SET will be addreSSld

JNTRODUCTJON

Programs to develop girls interest in science engineering and technology (SET) have focused on a wide variety of approaches for creating warmer climates in homes schools workplaces and elsewhere (National Science Foundation [NSF] 2003) Despite recent increases in the participation of women in SET women still are underrepresented in many SET disciplines with the most noticeable differences in representation occurring in physics engineering and computer science (Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development 2000 NSF 2000 Thomas amp Pedersen 2001 US Department of Education 2000) Greater participation of women and other underrepresented groups in SET is needed to ensure a diverse workforce with the varied perspectives and experiences needed to develop new questions approaches procedures and practices Creating more supportive environments in SET dearly remains a high priority in efforts to increase the participation of girls however more attention needs to focus on the role of broader societal factors in contributing to the gender gap in SET Existing intervention programs to promote girls partiCipation in SET can benefit from a greater understanding of the influence of media representations of gender in the everyday lives of children that can

Correspondence regarding this article should he addressed to Jocelyn Steinke School of Communication Western Michigan University Kalamazoo MI49008middot5318 telephone 269middot387middot3913 e-Mail Jocelynsteinke wmichedu

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lead to the formation and maintenance of stereotypes about the role of women in SET Media images of women can have an especially strong influence on girls during

the pre-adolescent and adolescent years During this time of transition from childhood to adulthood many girls experience a Joss of self-confidence and become preoccupied with fitting in looking thin and attractive and finding romance (Brown amp Gilligan 1992 Orenstein 1994) Many adolescent girls conform to traditional expectations of femininity in order to gain approval and acceptance and to avoid conflict (Brown amp Gilligan 1992) Girls preoccupation with meeting these expectations however can come at great cost by undermining their self-confidence and restricting future aspirations For image-conscious adolescent girls whose primary concern is being popular and who for years have been taught to value feminine ways media representations that reinforce traditional gender roles may limit career choices Research shows that adolescent girls who watch more television are more likely to agree with gender-stereotyped views of women that claim women are happiest working in the home and caring for children and that women are not interested in important jobs outside the home (Morgan 1982)

Consumers of media content can be taught to critically evaluate media content and this critical evaluation can change the ways in which the content is processed and internalized (Irving amp Berel 2001 Potter 1998) Media literacy programs focused on teaching a critical evaluation of media content have been found to be successful in (a) strengthening college womens resistance to media images that focus on the thin ideal of beauty (Irving and Berel 2001) (b) affecting childrens understanding of persuasive content (c) changing their perceptions of alcohol advertisements and their behaviors toward alcohol (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and (d) changing girls perceptions of nontraditional occupations (Griffin Sen amp Plotkin 1994 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) Although these studies provide some evidence that critical processing of media content can be learned more research is needed to understand the types of media literacy interventions that work best and the outcomes of these interventions on specific attitudes and behaviors In addition more research needs to focus on the efficacy of media literacy programs in teaching children to recognize and resist gender stereotypes of women in the media

Early adolescence is a time when many girls first start to show a decline in interest in SET (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and children at this age and younger hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET careers (Andre Whigham Hendrickson amp Chambers 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmer Rotella Anderson amp Wardrop 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) Childrens perceptions of womens roles in science engineering and technology careers as well as their attitudes toward SET are likely to be influenced by a variety of factors including those found at home and in schooL This research focuses on the potential influence of societal factors and specifically the potential influence of the mass media as socializing agents that may affect childrens perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The purpose of this study is to assess the efficacy of media literacy training that teaches middle school-aged children to recognize and resist the stereotypes of women in SET careers they may encounter in the mass media This study has three specific objectives

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TQurnal ~fWomen and Millorities in Scimce and Engineering Volume 22 Issue

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)f women in SET ce on girls during m from childhood ome preoccupied lrown amp Gilligan a1 expectations of onflict (Brown amp lowever can come re aspirations For pular and who for ons that reinforce 1t adolescent girls ~eotyped views of g for children and organ 1982) te media content Itent is processed gtrograms focused I to be successful that focus on the understanding of ements and their girls perceptiOns 1amp Ettema 1982) of media content of media literacy tions on specific on the efficacy of ender stereotypes

decline in interest d children at this n in SET careers Chambers 1983

Jacobowitz 1983 amp Metraux 1957 0 5 perceptions of as their attitudes

19 those found at )f societal factors gagents that may ard SET and SET racy training that gttypes of women las three specific

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 297

1 To assess the influence of media literacy training on middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

2 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their perceptions of women in SET

3 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their attitudes toward SET and SET careers

LITERATURE REVIEW

Media Images and Girls Perceptions of Gender Roles

The cumulative effect of all the media content girls see starting in their early years of childhood and into their adolescent years can influence their conceptions of gender Signorielli (1997) explains the link between media content and adolescent girls perceptions of gender and gender roles Medias portrayals contribute to girls perceptions helping them define what it means to be a girl and later a woman (p 1) Numerous studies have documented the potential influence of media models on childrens perceptions and behavior starting with studies dating back to the 1960s that first looked at the ways children learn behavior by modeling the actions of characters seen on television and in films (Bandura Ross amp Ross 1963a 13b) Media models that show women as intelligent and resourceful provide enabling self-images for adolescent girls however media models that overemphasize womens physical appearance and depict women as weak conveyconstraining self-images that limit the future potential of girls (Arnold 1993)

A review of the most popular television programs movie videos magazines and books used by middle school-aged children as identified in the preliminary findings from Getting the Media Message (Bernt Bernt amp Turner 2003 Turner Bernt amp Bernt 2003) and A Content Analysis Reflections of Girls in the Media (Signorielli 1997) indicates that very few images of women scientists and engineers appear in the media most often used by adolescent girls However many images of women in general appear in the media that adolescent girls actually use every day Typically these images focus on female characters that appear to be more concerned about appearance and romance than academics or careers While some media images portray girls and women as strong characters showing them as independent intelligent honest direct and capable of solving their own problems many more media images reinforce traditional stereotypes of girls and women as dependent passive and emotional (Signorielli 1997) Years of research on media content in fact has documented stereotypical images of women in a variety of media induding fairy tales and childrens picture books (Baker-Sperry amp Grauerholz 2003 Turner-Bowker 1996) childrens educational television programs (Barner 1999) prime time television programs (Elasmar Hasegawa amp Brain 1999 Lauzen amp Dozier 1999 2(02) television commercials (Coltrane amp Messineo 2000 White amp Kinnick 2000) video games (Dietz 1998) films (Hoerrner 1996) and teen magazines (Massoni 2004 Pierce 1993) Before girls even reach adolescence they have seen countless media images of women that emphaSize feminine qualities and urge conformity to traditional gender stereotypes

Volume 11 ISUf 4

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locelyn Steinke et al Middle School-Agl

The mass media are important sources of information about gender roles for some children Many children grow up in a media-rich environment and are active users of the media (Signorielli 1997) Research indicates that many children first begin to watch television between the ages of 2V2 and 3 (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) According to a major national study conducted for the Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) children ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 6 hours and 43 min using media each day The media become even more important sources of influence as children enter adolescence and begin to assert their independence from their parents (Signorieli 1997) During this time adolescents look to the media for information on specific life tasks or issues that have the greatest salience to them - tasks such as developing agender-role identity learning how to interact with members of the opposite sex and selecting an occupation and other future life roles (Faber Brown amp McLeod 1979) The amount of time children spend using the media each day (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) and their increasing reliance on the media for information during the adolescent years (Austin Chen Pinkleton amp Johnson 2006 Austin amp Johnson 1997 Faber et aI 1979 Griffin et aI 1994 Irving amp Bere 2001 Irving DuPen amp Berel 1998 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) underscore the role of the media as pervasive and influential socializing agents in childrens lives

Girls may rely on media images of women for information about future roles induding gender roles and occupational roles During adolescence many girls try on different roles as they envision different possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Researchers explain that possible selves represent what girlscould become would like to become and are afraid of becoming (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992 p 95) Girls current representations or visions of self gUide their behavior and affect their performance in a number of ways as girls shape their identities (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Media images of women can provide girls with representations of possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) that may influence perceptions of themselves and their future roles

Theoretical Overview Gender Schema Theory

Images of women on television also may shape the extensive networks of gender knowledge children first develop during early childhood (Campbell Shirley amp Candy 2(04) These networks are called gender $chemas (Bern 1981) the cognitive structures stored in memory that organize gender-related knowledge beliefs attitudes and preferences (Liben amp Signorella 1993 p 141) Gender schemas have been described as ways ofselecting processing and storing information (Barbera 2003 p 177) Gender schemas just like other schemas children create and store in memory are mental scripts (Schank amp Abelson 1977) that help children understand experiences in their lives and make decisions about how to behave Just as children develop schemas for information about everyday routines and experiences they develop schemas for information about gender and gender roles Once children have developed gender schemas they start to apply them to the situations and experiences they encounter in their everyday lives (Bern 1993) Gender schemas store gender-related information in memory and children call upon gender schemas whenever they encounter new information related to gender (Bern 1993) Research has found boys use gender schemas as early as the age of 25 months (Bauer 1993) Another study showed that children begin labeling based on gender around the age of 2 or 3 years and show an increase in gender knowledge and

Journal of Wcgtmell and MinIJrities ill Science Ilnd Engineering

sex-typed behav studies also fOUl activities as early amp Beissel 2002)

Gender sch however childre 1989 Nihlen amp B childrens percef of gender stereol et aI 2(04) Chi later on (Campo regard the gende Nugent 1998 p inhibition of gel gender stereotYI gender and gem amp Liben 1990) forget informati( 2003 Ruble amp St training in reduc

Media Lite

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This definit values and recog amp Jolls 2005) I most media litel representations ( and contexts (p interpret messag

Several stu literacy curricul of a media litera literacy intervenl arise in response that involved Wi

Volume 12 Issue 4

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Jcelyn Steinke et al

jer roles for some Ire active users of rst begin to watch ) According to a 9) children ages 8 he media become cence and begin During this time r issues that have identity learning lpation and other Ie children spend creasing reliance hen Pinkleton amp I 1994 Irving amp Iderscore the role s lives Out future roles nany girls try on ~ Markus 1992) come would like 15) Girls current performance in a 2) Media images uvolo amp Markus les

works of gender hirley amp Candy nitive structures i attitudes and lEen described as pI7) Gender re mental scripts n their lives and for information formation about rlas they start to r everyday lives lry and children elated to gender as the age of 25 gteling based on knowledge and

Middle School-Aged Clriidrens Attitudes Toward SET 299

sex-typed behavior between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Campbell et al 2004) Other studies also found that children show some knowledge of adult gender-stereotvped activities as early as by the end of their 2nd year (Poulin-Dubois Serbin Eichstedt Sen amp Beissel 2002)

Gender schemas are important for the development of childrens gender identity however children often derive gender skreotypes from gender schemas (Levy amp Carter 1989 Nihlen amp Bailey 1988) Research shows that gender stereotypes can then influence childrens perceptions beliefs and behavior (Bem 1993) Children begin to show signs of gender stereotype knowledge of items such as toys around the age of 3 (Campbell et al 2004) Children begin to develop gender stereotype knowledge of occupations later on (Campbell et al 2004) and girls between the ages of 4 and 5 years begin to regard the gender stereotyping of masculine occupations as excluding them (Durkin amp Nugent 1998 p 397) Gender schemas are dynamic and can be altered but a temporary inhibition of gender stereotyping does not necessarily indicate a transformation of gender stereotypes (Barbera 2003) As children encounter new information about gender and gender roles changes in gender stereotype knowledge may occur (Bigler amp Uben 1990) however children with more rigid gender schemas tend to alter or forget information that is inconsistent with existing gender schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Little research has assessed the efficacy of media literacy training in reducing gender stereotyping and altering gender schemas

Media Literacy Interventions

Media literacy has been defined a number of ways by researchers practitioners and educators The Center for Media Literacy (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) defines media literacy as follows

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education It provides a framework to access analyze evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms - from print to video to the Internet Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy (p 21)

This definition of media literacy focuses on messages as constructs with embedded values and recognizes the unique experiences of viewers or audience members (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) Hobbs (2004) identified the following key principles that underlie most media literacy efforts All messages are constructions (p 26) messages are representations of the world (p 26) messages have economic and political purposes and contexts (p 26) messages use languages and conventions (p 27) and people interpret messages differently (p 27)

Several studies of media literacy interventions have noted the efficacy of media literacy curricula and programs in changing perceptions and attitudes A comparison of a media literacy intervention focused on critical thinking and social action a media literacy intervention focused on how to IIchallenge negative body-related conditions that arise inresponse to media (Irving amp Berel 2001 p 104) and a media literacy intervention that involved watching the video Slim Hopes found that all three interventions were

mcc and FrtginffrirtB I Volume 12 J$SIlt 1J

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~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

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Volume 12 Issue 4

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es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

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Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

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Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

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Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

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items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

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Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

-- gt---gt-----------------------~----+------ shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al296

lead to the formation and maintenance of stereotypes about the role of women in SET Media images of women can have an especially strong influence on girls during

the pre-adolescent and adolescent years During this time of transition from childhood to adulthood many girls experience a Joss of self-confidence and become preoccupied with fitting in looking thin and attractive and finding romance (Brown amp Gilligan 1992 Orenstein 1994) Many adolescent girls conform to traditional expectations of femininity in order to gain approval and acceptance and to avoid conflict (Brown amp Gilligan 1992) Girls preoccupation with meeting these expectations however can come at great cost by undermining their self-confidence and restricting future aspirations For image-conscious adolescent girls whose primary concern is being popular and who for years have been taught to value feminine ways media representations that reinforce traditional gender roles may limit career choices Research shows that adolescent girls who watch more television are more likely to agree with gender-stereotyped views of women that claim women are happiest working in the home and caring for children and that women are not interested in important jobs outside the home (Morgan 1982)

Consumers of media content can be taught to critically evaluate media content and this critical evaluation can change the ways in which the content is processed and internalized (Irving amp Berel 2001 Potter 1998) Media literacy programs focused on teaching a critical evaluation of media content have been found to be successful in (a) strengthening college womens resistance to media images that focus on the thin ideal of beauty (Irving and Berel 2001) (b) affecting childrens understanding of persuasive content (c) changing their perceptions of alcohol advertisements and their behaviors toward alcohol (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and (d) changing girls perceptions of nontraditional occupations (Griffin Sen amp Plotkin 1994 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) Although these studies provide some evidence that critical processing of media content can be learned more research is needed to understand the types of media literacy interventions that work best and the outcomes of these interventions on specific attitudes and behaviors In addition more research needs to focus on the efficacy of media literacy programs in teaching children to recognize and resist gender stereotypes of women in the media

Early adolescence is a time when many girls first start to show a decline in interest in SET (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and children at this age and younger hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET careers (Andre Whigham Hendrickson amp Chambers 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmer Rotella Anderson amp Wardrop 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) Childrens perceptions of womens roles in science engineering and technology careers as well as their attitudes toward SET are likely to be influenced by a variety of factors including those found at home and in schooL This research focuses on the potential influence of societal factors and specifically the potential influence of the mass media as socializing agents that may affect childrens perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The purpose of this study is to assess the efficacy of media literacy training that teaches middle school-aged children to recognize and resist the stereotypes of women in SET careers they may encounter in the mass media This study has three specific objectives

Middle 5cllool-

1 To a chile

2 To a won

3 Toa~ and

Media I

The cun years of child gender Sign( girls percepl girls percepb (p 1) Numer childrens peT first looked a seen on telev that show w( adolescent g appearance a1 future potent

A revie books used t from Gettin~ 2(03) and A ( that very few used by adoll media that al female chara than academi characters sl solving their of girls and research on r a variety of r Grauerholz (Barner 19lt)1

Lauzen amp D White amp Kin magazines (1 seen countJe conformity tlt

TQurnal ~fWomen and Millorities in Scimce and Engineering Volume 22 Issue

occlyn Steinke et II

)f women in SET ce on girls during m from childhood ome preoccupied lrown amp Gilligan a1 expectations of onflict (Brown amp lowever can come re aspirations For pular and who for ons that reinforce 1t adolescent girls ~eotyped views of g for children and organ 1982) te media content Itent is processed gtrograms focused I to be successful that focus on the understanding of ements and their girls perceptiOns 1amp Ettema 1982) of media content of media literacy tions on specific on the efficacy of ender stereotypes

decline in interest d children at this n in SET careers Chambers 1983

Jacobowitz 1983 amp Metraux 1957 0 5 perceptions of as their attitudes

19 those found at )f societal factors gagents that may ard SET and SET racy training that gttypes of women las three specific

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 297

1 To assess the influence of media literacy training on middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

2 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their perceptions of women in SET

3 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their attitudes toward SET and SET careers

LITERATURE REVIEW

Media Images and Girls Perceptions of Gender Roles

The cumulative effect of all the media content girls see starting in their early years of childhood and into their adolescent years can influence their conceptions of gender Signorielli (1997) explains the link between media content and adolescent girls perceptions of gender and gender roles Medias portrayals contribute to girls perceptions helping them define what it means to be a girl and later a woman (p 1) Numerous studies have documented the potential influence of media models on childrens perceptions and behavior starting with studies dating back to the 1960s that first looked at the ways children learn behavior by modeling the actions of characters seen on television and in films (Bandura Ross amp Ross 1963a 13b) Media models that show women as intelligent and resourceful provide enabling self-images for adolescent girls however media models that overemphasize womens physical appearance and depict women as weak conveyconstraining self-images that limit the future potential of girls (Arnold 1993)

A review of the most popular television programs movie videos magazines and books used by middle school-aged children as identified in the preliminary findings from Getting the Media Message (Bernt Bernt amp Turner 2003 Turner Bernt amp Bernt 2003) and A Content Analysis Reflections of Girls in the Media (Signorielli 1997) indicates that very few images of women scientists and engineers appear in the media most often used by adolescent girls However many images of women in general appear in the media that adolescent girls actually use every day Typically these images focus on female characters that appear to be more concerned about appearance and romance than academics or careers While some media images portray girls and women as strong characters showing them as independent intelligent honest direct and capable of solving their own problems many more media images reinforce traditional stereotypes of girls and women as dependent passive and emotional (Signorielli 1997) Years of research on media content in fact has documented stereotypical images of women in a variety of media induding fairy tales and childrens picture books (Baker-Sperry amp Grauerholz 2003 Turner-Bowker 1996) childrens educational television programs (Barner 1999) prime time television programs (Elasmar Hasegawa amp Brain 1999 Lauzen amp Dozier 1999 2(02) television commercials (Coltrane amp Messineo 2000 White amp Kinnick 2000) video games (Dietz 1998) films (Hoerrner 1996) and teen magazines (Massoni 2004 Pierce 1993) Before girls even reach adolescence they have seen countless media images of women that emphaSize feminine qualities and urge conformity to traditional gender stereotypes

Volume 11 ISUf 4

r p

locelyn Steinke et al Middle School-Agl

The mass media are important sources of information about gender roles for some children Many children grow up in a media-rich environment and are active users of the media (Signorielli 1997) Research indicates that many children first begin to watch television between the ages of 2V2 and 3 (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) According to a major national study conducted for the Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) children ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 6 hours and 43 min using media each day The media become even more important sources of influence as children enter adolescence and begin to assert their independence from their parents (Signorieli 1997) During this time adolescents look to the media for information on specific life tasks or issues that have the greatest salience to them - tasks such as developing agender-role identity learning how to interact with members of the opposite sex and selecting an occupation and other future life roles (Faber Brown amp McLeod 1979) The amount of time children spend using the media each day (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) and their increasing reliance on the media for information during the adolescent years (Austin Chen Pinkleton amp Johnson 2006 Austin amp Johnson 1997 Faber et aI 1979 Griffin et aI 1994 Irving amp Bere 2001 Irving DuPen amp Berel 1998 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) underscore the role of the media as pervasive and influential socializing agents in childrens lives

Girls may rely on media images of women for information about future roles induding gender roles and occupational roles During adolescence many girls try on different roles as they envision different possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Researchers explain that possible selves represent what girlscould become would like to become and are afraid of becoming (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992 p 95) Girls current representations or visions of self gUide their behavior and affect their performance in a number of ways as girls shape their identities (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Media images of women can provide girls with representations of possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) that may influence perceptions of themselves and their future roles

Theoretical Overview Gender Schema Theory

Images of women on television also may shape the extensive networks of gender knowledge children first develop during early childhood (Campbell Shirley amp Candy 2(04) These networks are called gender $chemas (Bern 1981) the cognitive structures stored in memory that organize gender-related knowledge beliefs attitudes and preferences (Liben amp Signorella 1993 p 141) Gender schemas have been described as ways ofselecting processing and storing information (Barbera 2003 p 177) Gender schemas just like other schemas children create and store in memory are mental scripts (Schank amp Abelson 1977) that help children understand experiences in their lives and make decisions about how to behave Just as children develop schemas for information about everyday routines and experiences they develop schemas for information about gender and gender roles Once children have developed gender schemas they start to apply them to the situations and experiences they encounter in their everyday lives (Bern 1993) Gender schemas store gender-related information in memory and children call upon gender schemas whenever they encounter new information related to gender (Bern 1993) Research has found boys use gender schemas as early as the age of 25 months (Bauer 1993) Another study showed that children begin labeling based on gender around the age of 2 or 3 years and show an increase in gender knowledge and

Journal of Wcgtmell and MinIJrities ill Science Ilnd Engineering

sex-typed behav studies also fOUl activities as early amp Beissel 2002)

Gender sch however childre 1989 Nihlen amp B childrens percef of gender stereol et aI 2(04) Chi later on (Campo regard the gende Nugent 1998 p inhibition of gel gender stereotYI gender and gem amp Liben 1990) forget informati( 2003 Ruble amp St training in reduc

Media Lite

Media litera and educators 1 literacy as follov

Media Lite framework of forms shyunderstand inquiry am

This definit values and recog amp Jolls 2005) I most media litel representations ( and contexts (p interpret messag

Several stu literacy curricul of a media litera literacy intervenl arise in response that involved Wi

Volume 12 Issue 4

--

Jcelyn Steinke et al

jer roles for some Ire active users of rst begin to watch ) According to a 9) children ages 8 he media become cence and begin During this time r issues that have identity learning lpation and other Ie children spend creasing reliance hen Pinkleton amp I 1994 Irving amp Iderscore the role s lives Out future roles nany girls try on ~ Markus 1992) come would like 15) Girls current performance in a 2) Media images uvolo amp Markus les

works of gender hirley amp Candy nitive structures i attitudes and lEen described as pI7) Gender re mental scripts n their lives and for information formation about rlas they start to r everyday lives lry and children elated to gender as the age of 25 gteling based on knowledge and

Middle School-Aged Clriidrens Attitudes Toward SET 299

sex-typed behavior between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Campbell et al 2004) Other studies also found that children show some knowledge of adult gender-stereotvped activities as early as by the end of their 2nd year (Poulin-Dubois Serbin Eichstedt Sen amp Beissel 2002)

Gender schemas are important for the development of childrens gender identity however children often derive gender skreotypes from gender schemas (Levy amp Carter 1989 Nihlen amp Bailey 1988) Research shows that gender stereotypes can then influence childrens perceptions beliefs and behavior (Bem 1993) Children begin to show signs of gender stereotype knowledge of items such as toys around the age of 3 (Campbell et al 2004) Children begin to develop gender stereotype knowledge of occupations later on (Campbell et al 2004) and girls between the ages of 4 and 5 years begin to regard the gender stereotyping of masculine occupations as excluding them (Durkin amp Nugent 1998 p 397) Gender schemas are dynamic and can be altered but a temporary inhibition of gender stereotyping does not necessarily indicate a transformation of gender stereotypes (Barbera 2003) As children encounter new information about gender and gender roles changes in gender stereotype knowledge may occur (Bigler amp Uben 1990) however children with more rigid gender schemas tend to alter or forget information that is inconsistent with existing gender schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Little research has assessed the efficacy of media literacy training in reducing gender stereotyping and altering gender schemas

Media Literacy Interventions

Media literacy has been defined a number of ways by researchers practitioners and educators The Center for Media Literacy (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) defines media literacy as follows

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education It provides a framework to access analyze evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms - from print to video to the Internet Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy (p 21)

This definition of media literacy focuses on messages as constructs with embedded values and recognizes the unique experiences of viewers or audience members (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) Hobbs (2004) identified the following key principles that underlie most media literacy efforts All messages are constructions (p 26) messages are representations of the world (p 26) messages have economic and political purposes and contexts (p 26) messages use languages and conventions (p 27) and people interpret messages differently (p 27)

Several studies of media literacy interventions have noted the efficacy of media literacy curricula and programs in changing perceptions and attitudes A comparison of a media literacy intervention focused on critical thinking and social action a media literacy intervention focused on how to IIchallenge negative body-related conditions that arise inresponse to media (Irving amp Berel 2001 p 104) and a media literacy intervention that involved watching the video Slim Hopes found that all three interventions were

mcc and FrtginffrirtB I Volume 12 J$SIlt 1J

~

p

~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

Journal poundf Wonu~n aud Minorities in Science alld Engineering

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H2 Parti stere and than and I midI

H3 Parti sterEO and than and agee

RQ1 Will mid perc SET

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RQ3 Will tow care

Participan

Middle sc because researc of 12 (Americar a heightened aV Orenstein 1994 classes at three with an averagt part in the stud (58) AfricanP 14) Hispanic received wrilter Participation toe scheduled seien

Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

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Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

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mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

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l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

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Volume 12 IsslU 4

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

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Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

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item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

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Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

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American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

occlyn Steinke et II

)f women in SET ce on girls during m from childhood ome preoccupied lrown amp Gilligan a1 expectations of onflict (Brown amp lowever can come re aspirations For pular and who for ons that reinforce 1t adolescent girls ~eotyped views of g for children and organ 1982) te media content Itent is processed gtrograms focused I to be successful that focus on the understanding of ements and their girls perceptiOns 1amp Ettema 1982) of media content of media literacy tions on specific on the efficacy of ender stereotypes

decline in interest d children at this n in SET careers Chambers 1983

Jacobowitz 1983 amp Metraux 1957 0 5 perceptions of as their attitudes

19 those found at )f societal factors gagents that may ard SET and SET racy training that gttypes of women las three specific

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 297

1 To assess the influence of media literacy training on middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

2 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their perceptions of women in SET

3 To assess the influence of media literacy training on their attitudes toward SET and SET careers

LITERATURE REVIEW

Media Images and Girls Perceptions of Gender Roles

The cumulative effect of all the media content girls see starting in their early years of childhood and into their adolescent years can influence their conceptions of gender Signorielli (1997) explains the link between media content and adolescent girls perceptions of gender and gender roles Medias portrayals contribute to girls perceptions helping them define what it means to be a girl and later a woman (p 1) Numerous studies have documented the potential influence of media models on childrens perceptions and behavior starting with studies dating back to the 1960s that first looked at the ways children learn behavior by modeling the actions of characters seen on television and in films (Bandura Ross amp Ross 1963a 13b) Media models that show women as intelligent and resourceful provide enabling self-images for adolescent girls however media models that overemphasize womens physical appearance and depict women as weak conveyconstraining self-images that limit the future potential of girls (Arnold 1993)

A review of the most popular television programs movie videos magazines and books used by middle school-aged children as identified in the preliminary findings from Getting the Media Message (Bernt Bernt amp Turner 2003 Turner Bernt amp Bernt 2003) and A Content Analysis Reflections of Girls in the Media (Signorielli 1997) indicates that very few images of women scientists and engineers appear in the media most often used by adolescent girls However many images of women in general appear in the media that adolescent girls actually use every day Typically these images focus on female characters that appear to be more concerned about appearance and romance than academics or careers While some media images portray girls and women as strong characters showing them as independent intelligent honest direct and capable of solving their own problems many more media images reinforce traditional stereotypes of girls and women as dependent passive and emotional (Signorielli 1997) Years of research on media content in fact has documented stereotypical images of women in a variety of media induding fairy tales and childrens picture books (Baker-Sperry amp Grauerholz 2003 Turner-Bowker 1996) childrens educational television programs (Barner 1999) prime time television programs (Elasmar Hasegawa amp Brain 1999 Lauzen amp Dozier 1999 2(02) television commercials (Coltrane amp Messineo 2000 White amp Kinnick 2000) video games (Dietz 1998) films (Hoerrner 1996) and teen magazines (Massoni 2004 Pierce 1993) Before girls even reach adolescence they have seen countless media images of women that emphaSize feminine qualities and urge conformity to traditional gender stereotypes

Volume 11 ISUf 4

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locelyn Steinke et al Middle School-Agl

The mass media are important sources of information about gender roles for some children Many children grow up in a media-rich environment and are active users of the media (Signorielli 1997) Research indicates that many children first begin to watch television between the ages of 2V2 and 3 (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) According to a major national study conducted for the Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) children ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 6 hours and 43 min using media each day The media become even more important sources of influence as children enter adolescence and begin to assert their independence from their parents (Signorieli 1997) During this time adolescents look to the media for information on specific life tasks or issues that have the greatest salience to them - tasks such as developing agender-role identity learning how to interact with members of the opposite sex and selecting an occupation and other future life roles (Faber Brown amp McLeod 1979) The amount of time children spend using the media each day (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) and their increasing reliance on the media for information during the adolescent years (Austin Chen Pinkleton amp Johnson 2006 Austin amp Johnson 1997 Faber et aI 1979 Griffin et aI 1994 Irving amp Bere 2001 Irving DuPen amp Berel 1998 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) underscore the role of the media as pervasive and influential socializing agents in childrens lives

Girls may rely on media images of women for information about future roles induding gender roles and occupational roles During adolescence many girls try on different roles as they envision different possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Researchers explain that possible selves represent what girlscould become would like to become and are afraid of becoming (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992 p 95) Girls current representations or visions of self gUide their behavior and affect their performance in a number of ways as girls shape their identities (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Media images of women can provide girls with representations of possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) that may influence perceptions of themselves and their future roles

Theoretical Overview Gender Schema Theory

Images of women on television also may shape the extensive networks of gender knowledge children first develop during early childhood (Campbell Shirley amp Candy 2(04) These networks are called gender $chemas (Bern 1981) the cognitive structures stored in memory that organize gender-related knowledge beliefs attitudes and preferences (Liben amp Signorella 1993 p 141) Gender schemas have been described as ways ofselecting processing and storing information (Barbera 2003 p 177) Gender schemas just like other schemas children create and store in memory are mental scripts (Schank amp Abelson 1977) that help children understand experiences in their lives and make decisions about how to behave Just as children develop schemas for information about everyday routines and experiences they develop schemas for information about gender and gender roles Once children have developed gender schemas they start to apply them to the situations and experiences they encounter in their everyday lives (Bern 1993) Gender schemas store gender-related information in memory and children call upon gender schemas whenever they encounter new information related to gender (Bern 1993) Research has found boys use gender schemas as early as the age of 25 months (Bauer 1993) Another study showed that children begin labeling based on gender around the age of 2 or 3 years and show an increase in gender knowledge and

Journal of Wcgtmell and MinIJrities ill Science Ilnd Engineering

sex-typed behav studies also fOUl activities as early amp Beissel 2002)

Gender sch however childre 1989 Nihlen amp B childrens percef of gender stereol et aI 2(04) Chi later on (Campo regard the gende Nugent 1998 p inhibition of gel gender stereotYI gender and gem amp Liben 1990) forget informati( 2003 Ruble amp St training in reduc

Media Lite

Media litera and educators 1 literacy as follov

Media Lite framework of forms shyunderstand inquiry am

This definit values and recog amp Jolls 2005) I most media litel representations ( and contexts (p interpret messag

Several stu literacy curricul of a media litera literacy intervenl arise in response that involved Wi

Volume 12 Issue 4

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Jcelyn Steinke et al

jer roles for some Ire active users of rst begin to watch ) According to a 9) children ages 8 he media become cence and begin During this time r issues that have identity learning lpation and other Ie children spend creasing reliance hen Pinkleton amp I 1994 Irving amp Iderscore the role s lives Out future roles nany girls try on ~ Markus 1992) come would like 15) Girls current performance in a 2) Media images uvolo amp Markus les

works of gender hirley amp Candy nitive structures i attitudes and lEen described as pI7) Gender re mental scripts n their lives and for information formation about rlas they start to r everyday lives lry and children elated to gender as the age of 25 gteling based on knowledge and

Middle School-Aged Clriidrens Attitudes Toward SET 299

sex-typed behavior between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Campbell et al 2004) Other studies also found that children show some knowledge of adult gender-stereotvped activities as early as by the end of their 2nd year (Poulin-Dubois Serbin Eichstedt Sen amp Beissel 2002)

Gender schemas are important for the development of childrens gender identity however children often derive gender skreotypes from gender schemas (Levy amp Carter 1989 Nihlen amp Bailey 1988) Research shows that gender stereotypes can then influence childrens perceptions beliefs and behavior (Bem 1993) Children begin to show signs of gender stereotype knowledge of items such as toys around the age of 3 (Campbell et al 2004) Children begin to develop gender stereotype knowledge of occupations later on (Campbell et al 2004) and girls between the ages of 4 and 5 years begin to regard the gender stereotyping of masculine occupations as excluding them (Durkin amp Nugent 1998 p 397) Gender schemas are dynamic and can be altered but a temporary inhibition of gender stereotyping does not necessarily indicate a transformation of gender stereotypes (Barbera 2003) As children encounter new information about gender and gender roles changes in gender stereotype knowledge may occur (Bigler amp Uben 1990) however children with more rigid gender schemas tend to alter or forget information that is inconsistent with existing gender schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Little research has assessed the efficacy of media literacy training in reducing gender stereotyping and altering gender schemas

Media Literacy Interventions

Media literacy has been defined a number of ways by researchers practitioners and educators The Center for Media Literacy (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) defines media literacy as follows

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education It provides a framework to access analyze evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms - from print to video to the Internet Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy (p 21)

This definition of media literacy focuses on messages as constructs with embedded values and recognizes the unique experiences of viewers or audience members (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) Hobbs (2004) identified the following key principles that underlie most media literacy efforts All messages are constructions (p 26) messages are representations of the world (p 26) messages have economic and political purposes and contexts (p 26) messages use languages and conventions (p 27) and people interpret messages differently (p 27)

Several studies of media literacy interventions have noted the efficacy of media literacy curricula and programs in changing perceptions and attitudes A comparison of a media literacy intervention focused on critical thinking and social action a media literacy intervention focused on how to IIchallenge negative body-related conditions that arise inresponse to media (Irving amp Berel 2001 p 104) and a media literacy intervention that involved watching the video Slim Hopes found that all three interventions were

mcc and FrtginffrirtB I Volume 12 J$SIlt 1J

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p

~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

Journal poundf Wonu~n aud Minorities in Science alld Engineering

Middle School-A

H2 Parti stere and than and I midI

H3 Parti sterEO and than and agee

RQ1 Will mid perc SET

RQ2 Wi1 trair trair won

RQ3 Will tow care

Participan

Middle sc because researc of 12 (Americar a heightened aV Orenstein 1994 classes at three with an averagt part in the stud (58) AfricanP 14) Hispanic received wrilter Participation toe scheduled seien

Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

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Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

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l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

Volume 12 Tssut 4

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

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Volume 12 IsslU 4

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Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

r p

locelyn Steinke et al Middle School-Agl

The mass media are important sources of information about gender roles for some children Many children grow up in a media-rich environment and are active users of the media (Signorielli 1997) Research indicates that many children first begin to watch television between the ages of 2V2 and 3 (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) According to a major national study conducted for the Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) children ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 6 hours and 43 min using media each day The media become even more important sources of influence as children enter adolescence and begin to assert their independence from their parents (Signorieli 1997) During this time adolescents look to the media for information on specific life tasks or issues that have the greatest salience to them - tasks such as developing agender-role identity learning how to interact with members of the opposite sex and selecting an occupation and other future life roles (Faber Brown amp McLeod 1979) The amount of time children spend using the media each day (Comstock amp Scharrer 2001) and their increasing reliance on the media for information during the adolescent years (Austin Chen Pinkleton amp Johnson 2006 Austin amp Johnson 1997 Faber et aI 1979 Griffin et aI 1994 Irving amp Bere 2001 Irving DuPen amp Berel 1998 Johnston amp Ettema 1982) underscore the role of the media as pervasive and influential socializing agents in childrens lives

Girls may rely on media images of women for information about future roles induding gender roles and occupational roles During adolescence many girls try on different roles as they envision different possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Researchers explain that possible selves represent what girlscould become would like to become and are afraid of becoming (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992 p 95) Girls current representations or visions of self gUide their behavior and affect their performance in a number of ways as girls shape their identities (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) Media images of women can provide girls with representations of possible selves (Ruvolo amp Markus 1992) that may influence perceptions of themselves and their future roles

Theoretical Overview Gender Schema Theory

Images of women on television also may shape the extensive networks of gender knowledge children first develop during early childhood (Campbell Shirley amp Candy 2(04) These networks are called gender $chemas (Bern 1981) the cognitive structures stored in memory that organize gender-related knowledge beliefs attitudes and preferences (Liben amp Signorella 1993 p 141) Gender schemas have been described as ways ofselecting processing and storing information (Barbera 2003 p 177) Gender schemas just like other schemas children create and store in memory are mental scripts (Schank amp Abelson 1977) that help children understand experiences in their lives and make decisions about how to behave Just as children develop schemas for information about everyday routines and experiences they develop schemas for information about gender and gender roles Once children have developed gender schemas they start to apply them to the situations and experiences they encounter in their everyday lives (Bern 1993) Gender schemas store gender-related information in memory and children call upon gender schemas whenever they encounter new information related to gender (Bern 1993) Research has found boys use gender schemas as early as the age of 25 months (Bauer 1993) Another study showed that children begin labeling based on gender around the age of 2 or 3 years and show an increase in gender knowledge and

Journal of Wcgtmell and MinIJrities ill Science Ilnd Engineering

sex-typed behav studies also fOUl activities as early amp Beissel 2002)

Gender sch however childre 1989 Nihlen amp B childrens percef of gender stereol et aI 2(04) Chi later on (Campo regard the gende Nugent 1998 p inhibition of gel gender stereotYI gender and gem amp Liben 1990) forget informati( 2003 Ruble amp St training in reduc

Media Lite

Media litera and educators 1 literacy as follov

Media Lite framework of forms shyunderstand inquiry am

This definit values and recog amp Jolls 2005) I most media litel representations ( and contexts (p interpret messag

Several stu literacy curricul of a media litera literacy intervenl arise in response that involved Wi

Volume 12 Issue 4

--

Jcelyn Steinke et al

jer roles for some Ire active users of rst begin to watch ) According to a 9) children ages 8 he media become cence and begin During this time r issues that have identity learning lpation and other Ie children spend creasing reliance hen Pinkleton amp I 1994 Irving amp Iderscore the role s lives Out future roles nany girls try on ~ Markus 1992) come would like 15) Girls current performance in a 2) Media images uvolo amp Markus les

works of gender hirley amp Candy nitive structures i attitudes and lEen described as pI7) Gender re mental scripts n their lives and for information formation about rlas they start to r everyday lives lry and children elated to gender as the age of 25 gteling based on knowledge and

Middle School-Aged Clriidrens Attitudes Toward SET 299

sex-typed behavior between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Campbell et al 2004) Other studies also found that children show some knowledge of adult gender-stereotvped activities as early as by the end of their 2nd year (Poulin-Dubois Serbin Eichstedt Sen amp Beissel 2002)

Gender schemas are important for the development of childrens gender identity however children often derive gender skreotypes from gender schemas (Levy amp Carter 1989 Nihlen amp Bailey 1988) Research shows that gender stereotypes can then influence childrens perceptions beliefs and behavior (Bem 1993) Children begin to show signs of gender stereotype knowledge of items such as toys around the age of 3 (Campbell et al 2004) Children begin to develop gender stereotype knowledge of occupations later on (Campbell et al 2004) and girls between the ages of 4 and 5 years begin to regard the gender stereotyping of masculine occupations as excluding them (Durkin amp Nugent 1998 p 397) Gender schemas are dynamic and can be altered but a temporary inhibition of gender stereotyping does not necessarily indicate a transformation of gender stereotypes (Barbera 2003) As children encounter new information about gender and gender roles changes in gender stereotype knowledge may occur (Bigler amp Uben 1990) however children with more rigid gender schemas tend to alter or forget information that is inconsistent with existing gender schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Little research has assessed the efficacy of media literacy training in reducing gender stereotyping and altering gender schemas

Media Literacy Interventions

Media literacy has been defined a number of ways by researchers practitioners and educators The Center for Media Literacy (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) defines media literacy as follows

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education It provides a framework to access analyze evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms - from print to video to the Internet Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy (p 21)

This definition of media literacy focuses on messages as constructs with embedded values and recognizes the unique experiences of viewers or audience members (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) Hobbs (2004) identified the following key principles that underlie most media literacy efforts All messages are constructions (p 26) messages are representations of the world (p 26) messages have economic and political purposes and contexts (p 26) messages use languages and conventions (p 27) and people interpret messages differently (p 27)

Several studies of media literacy interventions have noted the efficacy of media literacy curricula and programs in changing perceptions and attitudes A comparison of a media literacy intervention focused on critical thinking and social action a media literacy intervention focused on how to IIchallenge negative body-related conditions that arise inresponse to media (Irving amp Berel 2001 p 104) and a media literacy intervention that involved watching the video Slim Hopes found that all three interventions were

mcc and FrtginffrirtB I Volume 12 J$SIlt 1J

~

p

~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

Journal poundf Wonu~n aud Minorities in Science alld Engineering

Middle School-A

H2 Parti stere and than and I midI

H3 Parti sterEO and than and agee

RQ1 Will mid perc SET

RQ2 Wi1 trair trair won

RQ3 Will tow care

Participan

Middle sc because researc of 12 (Americar a heightened aV Orenstein 1994 classes at three with an averagt part in the stud (58) AfricanP 14) Hispanic received wrilter Participation toe scheduled seien

Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

p

Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

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Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

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lt the appearance Iracters and the 1 on the gender laracters m to describe the leCome scientists n which women

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Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

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items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

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Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

--

Jcelyn Steinke et al

jer roles for some Ire active users of rst begin to watch ) According to a 9) children ages 8 he media become cence and begin During this time r issues that have identity learning lpation and other Ie children spend creasing reliance hen Pinkleton amp I 1994 Irving amp Iderscore the role s lives Out future roles nany girls try on ~ Markus 1992) come would like 15) Girls current performance in a 2) Media images uvolo amp Markus les

works of gender hirley amp Candy nitive structures i attitudes and lEen described as pI7) Gender re mental scripts n their lives and for information formation about rlas they start to r everyday lives lry and children elated to gender as the age of 25 gteling based on knowledge and

Middle School-Aged Clriidrens Attitudes Toward SET 299

sex-typed behavior between the ages of 2 and 3 years (Campbell et al 2004) Other studies also found that children show some knowledge of adult gender-stereotvped activities as early as by the end of their 2nd year (Poulin-Dubois Serbin Eichstedt Sen amp Beissel 2002)

Gender schemas are important for the development of childrens gender identity however children often derive gender skreotypes from gender schemas (Levy amp Carter 1989 Nihlen amp Bailey 1988) Research shows that gender stereotypes can then influence childrens perceptions beliefs and behavior (Bem 1993) Children begin to show signs of gender stereotype knowledge of items such as toys around the age of 3 (Campbell et al 2004) Children begin to develop gender stereotype knowledge of occupations later on (Campbell et al 2004) and girls between the ages of 4 and 5 years begin to regard the gender stereotyping of masculine occupations as excluding them (Durkin amp Nugent 1998 p 397) Gender schemas are dynamic and can be altered but a temporary inhibition of gender stereotyping does not necessarily indicate a transformation of gender stereotypes (Barbera 2003) As children encounter new information about gender and gender roles changes in gender stereotype knowledge may occur (Bigler amp Uben 1990) however children with more rigid gender schemas tend to alter or forget information that is inconsistent with existing gender schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Little research has assessed the efficacy of media literacy training in reducing gender stereotyping and altering gender schemas

Media Literacy Interventions

Media literacy has been defined a number of ways by researchers practitioners and educators The Center for Media Literacy (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) defines media literacy as follows

Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education It provides a framework to access analyze evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms - from print to video to the Internet Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy (p 21)

This definition of media literacy focuses on messages as constructs with embedded values and recognizes the unique experiences of viewers or audience members (Thoman amp Jolls 2005) Hobbs (2004) identified the following key principles that underlie most media literacy efforts All messages are constructions (p 26) messages are representations of the world (p 26) messages have economic and political purposes and contexts (p 26) messages use languages and conventions (p 27) and people interpret messages differently (p 27)

Several studies of media literacy interventions have noted the efficacy of media literacy curricula and programs in changing perceptions and attitudes A comparison of a media literacy intervention focused on critical thinking and social action a media literacy intervention focused on how to IIchallenge negative body-related conditions that arise inresponse to media (Irving amp Berel 2001 p 104) and a media literacy intervention that involved watching the video Slim Hopes found that all three interventions were

mcc and FrtginffrirtB I Volume 12 J$SIlt 1J

~

p

~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

Journal poundf Wonu~n aud Minorities in Science alld Engineering

Middle School-A

H2 Parti stere and than and I midI

H3 Parti sterEO and than and agee

RQ1 Will mid perc SET

RQ2 Wi1 trair trair won

RQ3 Will tow care

Participan

Middle sc because researc of 12 (Americar a heightened aV Orenstein 1994 classes at three with an averagt part in the stud (58) AfricanP 14) Hispanic received wrilter Participation toe scheduled seien

Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

p

Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

ounlal DfWome1l Qud Minonlws in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Ag

but watched vid male or female s

Media litE

Group 1 Media L The medic

school-aged chil films and indue from lesson plar Teacher Guide dt and Boy v Girl (Abrahams amp A the media perpt of occupations a images of profe occupations am images of profe sessions are des

Class Ses~ introduction tho of their favorit stereotypes as gender stereoty and gender stet The participant~

1 Studel chara( discu~

noted 2 Stude

chara a part babys class I

The instr introduction

ClassSes an introductior included defini of gender stere telling the stue created by the acti vities

Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

ining as compared 1e intervention by md video) with a

os (a) discussion (discussion only)

If stereotypes and icipants in Group lcluded watching men in television unteT-stereotypes two groups were

l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

f

Middle School

The firs programs an data from Ni media use (amp of women sc 140 video clil previous ana Gender stere physical app nurturing al weak (f) sill) concerns an of women fa assertive (c) beauty (e) pI abilities and

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

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Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

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uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

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item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

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Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

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ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

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Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

p

~ 300 Jocelyn Steinke et al

effective in reducing college womens perceptions that media images of thinness are realistic (Irving amp Berel 2001) A study of a media literacy intervention designed to reduce eating disorder risk factors found the media literacy program was more effective than a self-esteem program in reducing eighth-graders concerns about weight (Wade Davidson amp ODea 2003) Another study found that a media literacy intervention focused on an information-based lesson and a media literacy intervention focused on emotion were both effective in increasing seventh- and eighth-graders knowledge about advertising practices and increased their skepticism toward advertisers (Austin et aI 2(06) A study designed to change childrens responses to violent television found that an evaluative approach focused on negative evaluations of television characters was more effective than a factual approach focused on providing facts about a television programs production techniques in changing childrens responses to a violent television program (Nathanson 2(04) These findings were not~d for younger children (ages 5-7) as well as older children (ages 10-12) but particularly for the younger children (Nathanson 20(4) A study of children in K-6 grades found that those who watched gender stereotypical clips from the television program Ollt World received instruction refuting the accuracy of the gender stereotyped information and were provided with counter-stereotypical information had less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program and were more accepting of nontraditional gender roles (Nathanson Wilson McGee amp Sebastian 2002)

Other studies of media literacy interventions have noted changes in both attitudes and behavior A study of third graders who had participated in media literacy training that included a discussion after viewing a videotape about the techniques used by advertisers found that media literacy training changed childrens perceptions of alcohol advertising and perceptions of social norms deSirability and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997) A study of high school students found that an 8-week media literacy curriculum that included lessons to raise awareness of the marketing strategies used by tobacco companies and also incorporated peer influence and resistance skills noted changes in tobacco-related knowledge attitudes and behaviors (Gonzales Glik Davoudi amp Ang 20(4)

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigated the overall hypothesis that media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women will help middle school-aged children recognize and resist gender stereotypes that lead to inaccurate perceptions of women in SET Based on the literature cited above the following hypotheses and research questions were posed

HI Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only partici panng in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes

Journal poundf Wonu~n aud Minorities in Science alld Engineering

Middle School-A

H2 Parti stere and than and I midI

H3 Parti sterEO and than and agee

RQ1 Will mid perc SET

RQ2 Wi1 trair trair won

RQ3 Will tow care

Participan

Middle sc because researc of 12 (Americar a heightened aV Orenstein 1994 classes at three with an averagt part in the stud (58) AfricanP 14) Hispanic received wrilter Participation toe scheduled seien

Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

p

Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

ounlal DfWome1l Qud Minonlws in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Ag

but watched vid male or female s

Media litE

Group 1 Media L The medic

school-aged chil films and indue from lesson plar Teacher Guide dt and Boy v Girl (Abrahams amp A the media perpt of occupations a images of profe occupations am images of profe sessions are des

Class Ses~ introduction tho of their favorit stereotypes as gender stereoty and gender stet The participant~

1 Studel chara( discu~

noted 2 Stude

chara a part babys class I

The instr introduction

ClassSes an introductior included defini of gender stere telling the stue created by the acti vities

Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

ining as compared 1e intervention by md video) with a

os (a) discussion (discussion only)

If stereotypes and icipants in Group lcluded watching men in television unteT-stereotypes two groups were

l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

f

Middle School

The firs programs an data from Ni media use (amp of women sc 140 video clil previous ana Gender stere physical app nurturing al weak (f) sill) concerns an of women fa assertive (c) beauty (e) pI abilities and

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

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Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

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Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

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item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

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Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

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ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

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Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

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items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

ocelyn Steinke et al

es of thinness are ntion designed to vas more (Heclive ut weight (Wade racy intervention ~ntion focused on Iders knowledge ivertisers (Austin t television found ~vision characters about a television violent television er children (ages younger children lse who watched ei ved instruction re provided with )f a stereotyped thanson Wilson

in both attitudes i literacy training miques used by ptions of alcohol avior (Austin amp k media literacy strategies used mce skills noted Gonzales Glik

lining designed viii help middle ld to inaccurate the following

ction on gender der stereotyped e more effective Jes in the media middle school-

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 301

H2 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in positively affecting changes in middle school-aged childrens perceptions of women in SET occupations

H3 Participation in media literacy training that provides instruction on gender stereotypes in the media in addition to viewing videos of gender stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media portrayals of women will be more effective than only participating in the instruction on gender stereotypes in the media and more effective than a control condition in improving middle schoolshyaged childrens attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ1 Will differences be found for middle school-aged girls compared with middle school-aged boys related to their recognition of gender stereotypes perceptions of women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers

RQ2 Will differences be found for children who participated in media literacy training compared to children who did not participate in media literacy training related to their perceptions of the accuracy of media portrayals of women

RQ3 Will importance placed on the media be related to participants attitudes toward women in SET occupations and attitudes toward SET and SET careers and will this vary by participants biological sex

METHOD

Participants

Middle school-aged children were selected as the population for this study because research indicates most girls report a loss of interest in SET around the age of 12 (American Association of University Women 1998 2000) and many girls show a heightened awareness of gender roles at this age (Erkut Marx Fields amp Sing 1999 Orenstein 1994) The sample included 319 participants from seventh grade science classes at three middle schools in the Midwest Participants were all seventh graders with an average age of 1265 (SD 57) slightly more girls (53) than boys (47) took part in the study The study included students who reported themselves as Caucasian (58) African American (14 ) Mixed race (primarily African American and Caucasian 14) HispanicLatino a (5) Asian or Pacific Islander (2) or Other (8) Participants received written consent from a parent or guardian and gave their own written assent Participation took place at the schools between January and June 2005 during regularly scheduled science classes over a 7-day scheduled period

Volume ll r~~ue IS

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Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

ining as compared 1e intervention by md video) with a

os (a) discussion (discussion only)

If stereotypes and icipants in Group lcluded watching men in television unteT-stereotypes two groups were

l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

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lt the appearance Iracters and the 1 on the gender laracters m to describe the leCome scientists n which women

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Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

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selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

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ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

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items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

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Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

p

Jocelyn Steinke et Ill302

Approximately equal numbers of participants were randomly assigned to the discussion only (n 107) discussion and video (n 1(4) and control (n =108) conditions Across conditions eight students failed to fully complete both the pretest and the posUest and nine participants missed more than one of the intervention sessions These participants were eliminated from the final data analysis resulting in a final sample size of 302 Previous research has indicated that approximately 10 of the variance in outcomes similar to this study can be explained with this type of intervention (Austin amp Johnson 1997) and a power analysis indicated that a sample size of approximately 52 participants per group can detect effects with 9OX power Over-sampling allowed for attrition from PosUest 1 to PosUest 2 and allowed for the inclusion of biological sex as a factor in the analysis

PHot Study

The media literacy conditions discussion only and discussion and video were piloted with 36 local middle school students who did not take part in the final study The pilot participants also completed the study questionnaire after the intervention sessions The purpose of the pilot was to give the facilitator familiarity with the intervention content to review the intervention content and to assess the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire Following the pilot modifications were made to the content of the intervention and to the questionnaire the details of which are addressed in the following sections The data from the pilot were not included in the final analysis

Procedure

Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in order to maximize the likelihood of initially equivalent groups and negate the need tor a pretest (Babbie 1992) This design w as chosen because it maximizes the internal validity of the research in several ways First random assignment to experimental conditions creates initial equivalence of groups and negates the need for pretests likely to sensitize participants Second the three experimental conditions allow for tests of the effectiveness of a discussion-only media literacy training and discussion-plus-video media literacy training as compared to a control This research design assesses changes resulting from the intervention by comparing the two condition groups (discussion only discussion and video) with a control group

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (a) discussion only (b) discussion and video and (c) control Participants in Group 1 (discussion only) participated in a media literacy training that included discussions of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs and films Participants in Group 2 (discussion and video) participated in media literacy training that included watching video clips of stereotypical and counter-stereotypical images of women in television programs and films as well as discussions of the stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in the video clips All of the intervention sessions for these two groups were moderated by the same facilitator a female science instructor from a locaJ university Each intervention lasted for approximately three 40-min class sessions and took place every other school day Participants in the control group did not receive any treatment

ounlal DfWome1l Qud Minonlws in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Ag

but watched vid male or female s

Media litE

Group 1 Media L The medic

school-aged chil films and indue from lesson plar Teacher Guide dt and Boy v Girl (Abrahams amp A the media perpt of occupations a images of profe occupations am images of profe sessions are des

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1 Studel chara( discu~

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Volume 12 Jssue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

ining as compared 1e intervention by md video) with a

os (a) discussion (discussion only)

If stereotypes and icipants in Group lcluded watching men in television unteT-stereotypes two groups were

l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

f

Middle School

The firs programs an data from Ni media use (amp of women sc 140 video clil previous ana Gender stere physical app nurturing al weak (f) sill) concerns an of women fa assertive (c) beauty (e) pI abilities and

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Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

Volume 12 Tssut 4

r r Jocelyn Steinke et poundII306

selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

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As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

Volume 12 IsslU 4

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyn Steinke et al

mly assigned to the I(n = 108) conditions the pretest and the ltion sessions These 19 in a final sample of the variance in ervention (Austin amp Jf approximately 52 mpling allowed for )f biological sex as a

on and video were the final study The tervention sessions th the intervention It of time needed to made to the content re addressed in the final analYSis

r to maximize the middottest (Babbie 1992) research in several initial equivalence pants Second the a discussion-only

ining as compared 1e intervention by md video) with a

os (a) discussion (discussion only)

If stereotypes and icipants in Group lcluded watching men in television unteT-stereotypes two groups were

l local university 1S and took place ve any treatment

Middle School-Aged Children 5 Attitudes Tnward SET 303

but watched videos that conformed to the normal science curriculum and did not show male or female scientists in the content of the video

Media Literacy Training

Group 1 Media LiteracH Trmning (Discussion Only) The media literacy training (discussion only) was designed to teach middle

school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films and induded three interactive discussion sessions The sessions were adapted from lesson plans for middle school-aged students from Gender Equity Lesson Plans and Teacher Guide developed by the Western Massachusetts Gender Equity Center (1999) and Boy v Girl How Gellder Shapes lNho We Are lNhat We Want and How We Get Along (Abrahams amp Ahlbrand 2(02) Class Session 1 focused on gender stereotypes and how the media perpetuate these stereotypes Class Session 2 focused on gender stereotypes of occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of profesSional women Class Session 3 focused on gender stereotypes of SET occupations and included a discussion of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped media images of professional women in SET The lesson plans used for each of these class sessions are described below

Class Session 1 (Images of Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking abollt some of their favorite television and film characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students wrote down the name of their favorite female and male television characters and wrote about their appearances and behavior and the instructor discussed the gender stereotypical and counter-stereotypical characteristics noted for these characters

2 Students were assigned to draw a picture of what they thought a female character would look like and to describe what she would act like if shown in a particular role on television (cheerleader wife and mother interior designer babysitter) and the instructor then commented on gender stereotypes as the class looked at transparencies of the students drawings

The instructor concluded with a review of the information covered in the introd uction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in tie Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and teIHng the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of working women are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two acti vities

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

f

Middle School

The firs programs an data from Ni media use (amp of women sc 140 video clil previous ana Gender stere physical app nurturing al weak (f) sill) concerns an of women fa assertive (c) beauty (e) pI abilities and

A total eight televisi Creek Buffy II Man Junior f Jurassic Park two middle s data collectic interested in of the projec in the pre vic (media sterec of women in

1 Lea 2 Lea

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)f occupations and ione by a man or a

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discussed in the

a) The instructor Iass session The asking the group ypes limit or box otypes of women participants also

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Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

Volume 12 Tssut 4

r r Jocelyn Steinke et poundII306

selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

Volume 12 IsslU 4

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

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Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyn Steinke et al304

1 Students completed a worksheet that listed different types of occupations and asked students to mark whether they thought that job was done by a man or a woman

2 Students worked in pairs to draw a picture of what they thought a stereotyped or nonstereotyped working woman on television would look like and wrote down how they thought she might act and the instructor then discussed the students responses noting gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 3 (Images of Women in SET careers in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women scientists are created by the people who create these shows The participants also completed two activities

1 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked about the appearance and behavior of female and male scientist television characters and the instructor then asked the students questions that focused on the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of the female scientist characters

2 Students worked individually on a worksheet that asked them to describe the obstacles they thought women face when they are trying to become scientists or worked as scientists and the instructor explained ways in which women can overcome these obstacles

The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group 2 Medill Literacy Training (Discussion and Video) Students in Group 2 participated in media literacy training designed to teach

middle school-aged children to recognize gender stereotypes on television programs and in films followed by viewing videos that showed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped portrayals of women in television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children The content of the sessions for Group 2 (discussion and video) was much like the content in the discussion class sessions for Group 1 (discussion only) but three videos were used to correspond to the themes and objectives of the class sessions The video for Session 1 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle school-aged students The video for Session 2 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women professionals from television programs and films popular with middle school-aged students The video for Session 3 featured stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women SET professionals from popular films

]OUnO of Women and Milwrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue

f

Middle School

The firs programs an data from Ni media use (amp of women sc 140 video clil previous ana Gender stere physical app nurturing al weak (f) sill) concerns an of women fa assertive (c) beauty (e) pI abilities and

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Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

Volume 12 Tssut 4

r r Jocelyn Steinke et poundII306

selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

Volume 12 IsslU 4

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

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participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

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Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

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Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

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Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

oceyn Steinke et al

)f occupations and ione by a man or a

ught a stereotyped ok like and wrote hen discussed the stereotypes

discussed in the

a) The instructor Iass session The asking the group ypes limit or box otypes of women participants also

lt the appearance Iracters and the 1 on the gender laracters m to describe the leCome scientists n which women

liscussed in the

Signed to teach m programs and 1ter-stereotyped middle schoolshyideo) was much only) but three ss sessions The ages of women d students The ages of women He school-aged ~otyped images

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 305

The first author and a research assistant viewed over 140 video dips from television programs and films identified to be popular among children ages 12 to 17 based on data from Nielsen Media Research (2004) data from studies on middle school students media use (Bernt et aL 2003 Signorielli 1997) and data from a previous study on images of women scientists in popular films (Steinke 2005) The first author selected 30 of the 140 video clips that best showed stereotypes or counter-stereotypes of women based on previous analyses of media images of women (Steinke 1999 2004 Steinke amp Long 1996) Gender stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) physical appearance and beauty (b) interest in relationships and romance (c) caring nurturing and affectionate nature (d) emotional and unpredictable (e) physically weak (f) silly (g) unimportant (h) indecisive (i) unintelligent 0) interested in domestic concerns and (k) lack of interest in professional careers Gender counter-stereotypes of women focused on the following attributes or characteristics (a) independent (b) assertive (c) self-confident (d) satisfied or not concerned with physical appearance and beautYi (e) physically strong (f) knowledgeable and intelligent (g) leadership skills and abilities and (h) interest in professional career

A total of 30 video clips of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women from eight television programs (Friends Gilmore Girls Will and Grace 71middot Heaven Dawsons Creek Buffy tile Vampire Slayer That 70s Show ER) and 11 films (Happy Gilmore Medicine Man Junior Batman find Robin Eve ofDe$truction Space Cowboys Love Potion No9 Contact Jurassic Park TIle Lost World Twister Evoltltion) were then reviewed and evaluated by two middle school teachers (from schools other than those that participated in the final data collection) and a university physics professor who has mentored young women interested in science The consultants were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project definitions of gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes as described in the previous paragraph a deSCription of the focus of each the three class sessions (media stereotypes of women media stereotypes of working women media stereotypes of women in SET careers) and each class sessions learning objectives

1 Leam about socially-maintained gender role stereotypes 2 Learn how the media perpetuate gender role stereotypes (stereotypes of

gender roles and occupations gender role stereotypes of SET careers) 3 Develop analysis skills to recognize gender stereotypes in the media (gender

stereotypes of occupations gender stereotypes of SET professionals)

The reviewers then completed a questionnaire for each video clip that included nine Likert-type items with a five-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree The questionnaire included items to assess (a) the vividness of the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes (b) appropriateness of the content and language for a middle school audience (c) likelihood that the video clip would interest a middle school audience and stimulate discussion and (d) usefulness of the video clip in helping a middle school audience think critically about gender stereotypes The consultants independently completed the questionnaire and then discussed the gender stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in each video clip with the first author The final

Volume 12 Tssut 4

r r Jocelyn Steinke et poundII306

selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

Volume 12 IsslU 4

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

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~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

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~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

r r Jocelyn Steinke et poundII306

selection of 12 video clips based on the ratings and comments provided by the three consultants is presented in Table 1

Table 1 Video Clips Selected for Group 2 (Discussion and Video)

Class Session VideoOips

Images of Women Friends Will and Grace 711bull Heaven Dawsons Creek

Images of Working Women Happy Gilmore 7fl Heaven Friends ER

Images of Women Scientists Junior Love Potion No 9 Jurassic Park Contact

Films

Class Session 1 ltImages of Women in the Media The instructor provided an introduction that included informing the group they would be talking about some of their favorite TV and movie characters defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists portrayed on television and in movies are created by media professionals The participants in this group then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in television programs popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on stereotypes that portrayed women as doting housewives or caregivers and as unprofesSional in the workplace and questions that focused on counter-stereotypes that showed women as bold independent outspoken and able to provide a valuable alternative perspective The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Class Session 2 (Images ofWorking Women in the Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of working women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips that included stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in television programs and films popular among middle school-aged children After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the television characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of working women in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of working women as assistants and subordinates viewed and treated as unimportant in the workplace and counter-stereotypes of working women as strong outspoken and competent workers able to effectively juggle work and family responsibilities and succeed in traditionally male-dominated careers The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Dumal Women and Minorilies ill Science and engineering

Middle SellOo-Agel

Class Sessio provided an intr( introduction incll for examples of gl people and tellinl of women scienti Students then wa After watching t

students question stereotypes and c this set of video c women scientists about the counteJ professional dedi of the informatior

Group 3 Control The control

different class ses women or men iT media literacy tra

Instrumentation ar The content

this study Becam the scales constn subject to confim and parallelism 5

these analyses arE the authors

As a check 0

several 7point s~ which they saw tl vividness of the iJ and perceptions c 67) CPA confir items were retain

Recognition a pictOrial image likelihood that tJ scientist is ) shypotential order e were approximal items assessing eI items derived fTC There were eight

Volume 12 IsslU 4

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

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Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

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I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

ceyn Steinke et Ill

ded by the three

1Wsons Creek R Irk Contact

tor provided an 5 about some of der stereotypes lder stereotypes lder stereotypes vies are created four video clips ision programs video clip the the appearance r-stereotypes of i questions that caregivers and

Iter-stereotypes vide a valuable he information

uctor provided le introduction for examples of )ple and telling orking women lOals Students -stereotypes of lie schOOl-aged tape and asked ion characters portrayals For he stereptypes s unimportant IS outspoken esponsibilities lei uded with a

Middle School-Aged 01ildrens Attitudes Tmvard SET 307

Class Session J (Images of Women in SET careers in tire Media) The instructor provided an introduction similar to the one given during the first class session The introduction included defining stereotypes and gender stereotypes asking the group for examples of gender stereotypes explaining how gender stereotypes limit or box in people and telling the students that stereotypes and gender stereotypes seen in images of women scientists on television and in movies are created by media professionals Students then watched four video clips of women in SET careers in popular movies After watching each video clip the instructor stopped the videotape and asked students questions about the appearance and behavior of the female characters noting stereotypes and counter-stereotypes of women in SET careers in these portrayals For this set of video clips the instructor asked questions that focused on the stereotypes of women scientists as clumsy absent-minded geeky and antisocial and asked questions about the counter-stereotypes of women scientists as competent brave adventurous professional dedicated determined and social The instructor concluded with a review of the information discussed in the introduction

Group J Control The control group watched three different educational science videos over three

different class sessions The videos were selected to insure they did not show images of women or men in SET careers Participants in the control group did not participate in media literacy training

Instrumentation and Measurement The contentof several existing measures was modified in order to be appropriate for

this study Because these modifications may have altered the psychometric properties of the scales construct validity and reliability were established for all scales All scales were subject to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to establish internal consistency and parallelism standardized item alphas were calculated for each scale The results of these analyses are provided below additional details of the analysis are available from the authors

As a check on the intervention perceptions of intervention content was assessed by several 7-point semantic differential items asking participants to estimate the extent to which they saw the content of the intervention as vivid and credible Perceptions of the vividness of the intervention were measured with four items (eg dullvivid a = 81) and perceptions of credibility were assessed with two items (eg realistic unrealistic a =67) CFA confirmed two distinct unidimensional dimensions of perceptions All scale items were retained and items for each dimension were summed

Recognition of gender stereotypes was assessed by prOViding participants with a pictorial image of a male and female scientist and asking participants to rate the likelihood that the scientist embodies a variety of characteristics (ie I think this scientist is ) The order of administration of the pictures was varied to minimize potential order effects The images were piloted to ensure that the stimulus pictures were approximately equivalent on ratings of perceived attractiveness and age The items assessing endorsement of stereotypes consisted of a series of semantic differential items derived from Steinkes (1997) work on stereotyping of women in SET careers There were eight semantic differential items with a 7-point response format in which

c awl Engincmng Volume 12 Isue 4I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

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Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

r 308 Jocelyn Steinke et al

participants are asked to rate the likelihood that the male and female scientists would have each characteristic Examples of the bipolar adjectives used in the measure are IntelligentUnintelligent Geeky Cool ltlnd ImportantUnimportant

Attitudes toward women in SET were assessed using a modified version of Erb and Smiths (1984) Women in Science Scale (WiSS) The original scale consisted of three dimensions and a total of 27 Likert-type items with a 6-point response format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Example items from the WiSS include We need more women in science careers and Women can make important scientific discoveries Erb amp Smith (1984) provide evidence for the construct validity and reliability of the scale with a sample of early adolescents The items were modified from a 6-point to a 7 -point response format to allow for a neutral point and to maintain consistency with other measures in the study CFA of the WiSS scale indicated three unidimensional factors following the removal of one item from each factor the 7-item scale measuring endorsement of womens competency in science careers (WiSS F8 a 78) the 8-item factor measuring perceptions of female scientists ability to balance careers and family lives (WiSS F9 a = 74) and the 13-item factor measuring attitudes toward womens competency in SET relative to mens competency (WiSS F10 a =87) The items on each scale were summed higher numbers indicate more positive attitudes toward women in science The means and standard deviations for the WiSS and TOSRA subscales are presented in Table 2

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Women in Science Scale (WiSS) and Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) Subscales

Std Scale Mean Deviation Women in Science Scale frYj5S) Womens Competency in Science Careers (WiSS F8) 417 073 Balance Career and Family (WiSS F9) 376 069 Womens Competency in Science Careers Relative to

410 072 ~ Mens Competency (WiSS FlO) Test ofScience-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) i Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) 282 063L Normality of Scientists (NS) 338 066I Leisure Interest in Science (US) 249 091

Career Interest in Science (CIS) 278 083

Attitudes toward SET and careers in SET were assessed with Frasers (1978) Test of Science-Related Attitudes (fOSRA) This measure consists of seven subscales each containing Likert-type items on a 5-point response format (which was modified to a 7shypoint response format) ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Schibeci amp McGaw (1981) provide evidence for the factor structure of the measure and Joyce and Ferenga (1999) prOVide reliability data with Alpha coefficients ranging from 60 to 93 for the subscales For the present investigation four subscales of the TOSRA were used because the other dimensions were not directly relevant to the present investigation CFA yielded four unidimensional scales in which all but one item was retained A 7shy

]vumal uf Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-A

item subscale t lifestyle (0 = i to which respo item removed participation ir Career Interes choose a career

Perceptio items with a 7 sometimes mi~ on television a accurately repr

Mediaimj various types oj rated the impOl ranging from U i importance Fo six items (a t

Perceptio

Priortote oi the content 01 viewed the vidl discussion-onl (2 320) = 390 I relative to the c control [t(200) bull

For the bull condition (M = 130) and con =14] this diffe [t(202) = 231 P sex X interventl that boys gener boys (M 490 credible than gi

Recogniti

The first stereotypes of f and experimenl

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

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Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyn Steinke et al

lie scientists would in the measure are )ortant ified version of Erb scale consisted of

ot response format ms from the WiSS an make important ~ construct validity ems were modified int and to maintain ale indicated three h factori the 7 -item areers (WiSS F8 a ) ability to balance leasuring attitudes WiSS FlO a =87) e positive attitudes ~ WiSS and TOSRA

e Scale (WiSS)

Std Deviation

073 069

072

063 066 091 083

rasers (1978) Test en subscales each 15 modified to a 7shylisagree Schibeci ure and Joyce and ng from 60 to 93 rOSRA were used ent investigation vas retained A 7shy

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attilurirs Toward SET 309

item subscale titled U Normality of Scientists (NS) addressed beliefs about a scientists lifestyle (0 75) a 6-item Enjoyment of Science Lessons (ESL) assessed the extent to which respondents enjoy learning about science in the classroom (0 89 with one item removed following CFA) The Leisure Interest in Science (US) scale assessed participation in science-related activities outside of school (six items 0 80) and the Career Interest in Science (CIS) scale assessed the likelihood that respondents would choose a career in science (six items 0 86)

Perceptions of media portrayals of women were measured with two Likert-type items with a 7-point response format The wording of these items was The media sometimes misrepresent female scientists (reverse scored) and women portrayed on television are just like real people Higher scores indicate belief that the media accurately represent women

Media importance was measured by asking participants the extent to which they see various types of media (eg television radio etc) as important to their lives Participants rated the importance of various media on a series of 7-point semantic differential scales ranging from important to unimportant in which higher numbers indicated greater importance Following CF A items were summed to form a unidimensional scale with six items (a 62)

RESULTS

Perceptions of the Intervention

Priorto testing the hypotheses and research questions the participants perceptions of the content of the interventions were assessed These analYSis indicate that participants viewed the video-plus-discussion condition (M 412 SO 118) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =406 SO 123) and control (M 365 SO 135) conditions [F (2320) = 390 p = 02 1]1 =03 r =17] this difference was statistically for the discussion relative to the control (t(202) 212 P 03J and the discussion plus video relative to the control [t(200) 255 p = 01]

For the credibility factor the participants rated the video-plus-discussion condition (M 528 SD 148) as more vivid than the discussion-only (M =523 SO = 130) and control (M 568 SO 136) conditions (F(2 299) 305 p = 05 ry2 =02 r =14] this difference was statistically significant for the discussion relative to the control [t(202) = 231 p 02] Further examination of this effect revealed a significant biological sex Xintervention interaction [F(2 299) = 336 P = 03 1 J =02 r =14] which indicated that boys generally rated the interventions as less credible than girls and in particular boys (M = 490 SO =176) rated the video-plus-discussion condition as significantly less credible than girls (M 556 SO 228)

Recognition of Gender Stereotypes

The first hypothesis predicted differences by condition in endorsements of stereotypes of female scientists A series of ANOV A s with biological sex of participant and experimental condition as independent variables and scientist rating items as the

Volume 12 ls~ue if

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

middot--------middot--middot-------------------f----shy

Jocelyn Steinke et al Middle School-A310

Attitudesdependent variables revealed no differences by experimental condition or interactions between condition and participants biological sex on these variables The means and

The5eCOIstandard deviations for these analyses are presented in Table 3 women in SEl with biological Table 3 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Experimental

Condition dimensions of

Female Scientist Ratings Male 5cientist Ratings (F1) which mE Mean (50) Mean (SO) to hold SET ca

Discussion Discussion significant mai Control Discussion and Video Control Discussion and Video effect for inter

Cool 374 (174) 353 (141) 351 (151) 347 (177) 345 (146) 349 (145) 87] The mean Serious 356 (178) 342 (16]) 340 (160) 355 (182) 342 (162) 341 (152)

Boring 414 (193) 378(165) 367 (154) 377 (l84) 369 (167) 378 (157) Table 5 Wi~ Smart 599 (121) 576 (131) 578 (145) 559 ( 72) 562 (164) 567 (145) Experimental Hardworking 570 (152) 543 (169) 556 (153) 551 (174) 563 (153) 561 (148)

Professional 565 (175) 568 (143) 556 (154) 566 (159) 561 (164) 540 (156)

Skillful 564 (153) 546 (134) 541 (159) 573 (141) 570 (126) 542 (148)

Expert 549 (154) 541 (141) 505 (161) 5)4 (155) 555 (137) 518 (155)

Note None of the hypothesized differences for stereotyptgts were significant at p 05 Condition

The analysis for Research Question 1 indicated Significant main effects for biological sex of participants on their evaluation of scientists In particular girls in the study rated female scientists as more skillful [F (1 283) = 433 P = 04 ry2 =02 r =14] intelligent [F (1 284) = 426 P = 04 1]2 =02 r =14] and expert [F (1290) = 457 P= 031]2=02 r

=15] than boys Main effects for sex on the other variables measuring endorsement of stereotypes were not significant Boys and girls did not differ significantly on their ratings on male scientists The mean scores (and standard deviations) on the items for boys and girls are presented in Table 4

Table 4 Stereotype Means and Standard Deviations for Female and Male Scientists by Biological Sex of Participants

Female Scientist Ratings Male Scientist Ratings Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) Boy Mean (SO) Girl Mean (SO) For the slt

Cool 341 (154) 360 (150) 350 (157) 345 (157) perceived tha Serious 346 (173) 349 (161) 357 (184) 339 (151) analysis indielt Boring 379 (183) 393 (164) 376 (182) 3n (158) 267 p =07] 1 Smart 567 (160) 599 (101) 573 (161) 580 (l38) P= 01 1]1 = 01 Hardworking 543 (171) 571 (143) 560 (171) 556 (150) was not signifl Professional 558 (161) 567 (144) 566 (166) 545 (155) Analysis Skillful Expert

530 (170)h 513 (174)lt

567 (127)h 548 (1301

568 (143) 538 (164)

555 (136)

533 (137) participants e significant rna

Note a b amp c are statistically different at plt 05 for sex [F (1 2 between sex aJ

Control

Discussion

Discussion and Video

Marginal Means

oumal ~fWomen and MitlOrities in Science and Engineering Volume 12 Issue 4

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

ocelyn Steinke et 01

on or interactions s The means and

ists bv Experimental

Hst Ratings (SD)

Discussion lion and Vidw

46) 349 (145) 62) 341 (152)

67) 378 (157)

64) 567 (145)

53) 561 (148)

64) 540 (156)

26) 542 (148)

37) 518 (155)

5

ects for biological in the study rated =14 intelligent p = 03 1J1=02 r ing endorsement lificantIy on their ) on the items for

ale Scientists by

Middle ScllOol-Aged Cltildnfls Attitudes Toward SET 311

Attitudes Toward Women in SET

The second hypothesis tested the effect of the interventions on attitudes toward women in SET careers This hypothesis was tested by a series of ANOV A analyses with biological sex and condition as the independent variables and scores on the three dimensions of tht Wi5S scale as the dependent variables Ana lysis of the first dimension (Fl) which measured the extent to which participants perceived women as competent to hold SET careers indicated no main effect for condition [F (2 290) = 35 P = 71 j a significant main effect for sex [F (1 290) = 18921 =01 1J2= 06 r =25] and no significant effect for interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 13 P 87] The means and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Table 5 WiSS Means (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for Boys and Girls by EXErimental Condition

Womens Women in Womens Competency SET Can Have Competency in SET to Have SET Successful Careers Careers Relative to J

I Careers and Family Mens

Condition Sex M(SD) M(SD) M(SD f

Control Boys 405 (077) 364 (074) 394 (068) I Girls 439 (053) 3 (063) 421 (065) i Total 423 (067) 381 (070) 409 (067)

Discussion Boys 402 (082) 369 (072) 408 (062) Girls 433 (058) 401 (056) 431 (068) Total 417 (073) 384 (067) 420 (066)

Discussion Boys 394 (085) 345 (074) 393 (068) and Video

Girls 434 (052) 382 (064) 426 (056) Total 417 (071) 366 (071) 412 (063)

Marginal Boys 408 (80) 359 (73) Igt 398 (65) Means

Girls 435 (54) 392 (61) b 426 (62)lt

ist Ratings Girl Mean (SD)

345 (157) 339 (151) 377 (158) 580 (138) 556 (150) 545 (155) 555 (136) 533 (13)

For the second WiSS factor (F2) which measured the extent to which participants perceived that femaJes in SET could have both successful career and family Jives analysis indicated that there was not a significant main effect for condition IF (2 290) 267 P 07] The ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for sex [F (1290) = 1821 P 01 1J =06 r =25] and the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions was not significant IF (2290) 04 P=]

Analysis of scores on the WiSS factor designed to measure the extent to which participants endorse women in science careers relative to men (F3) indicated no significant main effect for condition [F (2 290) 107 P =36] a Significant main effect for sex [F (1290) =1326 P = 01 04 r =20] and no significant for the interaction between sex and the intervention conditions [F (2 290) = 17 P=85] Thus across WiSS

Volume 11 Issue 1 j

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

t

~ r 312 Jocelytl Steinke et al

I dimensions a similar pattern emerges significant main effects for sex with girls having I more positive attitudes towards women in science than boys (RQ1) and no main effects r ~ for condition or interactions between sex and experimental condition (H2) The means

and standard deviations for these effects are presented in Table 5

Attitudes toward SET and SET Careers

The third hypothesis examined the effects of the intervention on TOSRA subscale scores Analysis of scores on the NS scale indicated a small but significant main effect for sex [F (I 290) 453 p = 03 1J1 = 01r = 12] and for experimental condition [F (2 290) = 317 P = 04 IJ =02 T 15] The interaction between the two scores was not significant IF (2290) 08 P 93J Examination of the means (Table 6) indicates that mean scores were highest for people in the control condition Girls exhibited higher means scores than boys

Table 6 TOSRA Mean (SO) Ratings for Boys and Girls by Experimental Condition

Normality Enjoyment Leisure Career of of Science Interest in Interest in

Scientists Lessons Science Science Condition Gender Mean SOl Mean SO Mean ISOl Mean SOl Control Boy 342 (065) 295 (064) 254 (088) 291 (093)

Girl 357 (056) 295 (065) 256 (087) 287 (078) Total 350 (060) 295 (064) 255 (087) 289 (085)

Discussion Boy 329 (079) 278 (064) 250 (UJO) 278 (087) Only Girl 349 (060) 289 (058) 252 (087) 287 (070)

Total 339 (068) 284 (061) 251 (093) 282 (079) Discussion Boy 319 (068) 283 (062) 259 (093) 276 (080) and Video Girl 333 (061) 262 (058) 230 (093) 256 (084)

Total 331 (071) 270 (060) 242 (094) 264 (082)

ANOV A indicated a small but statistically significant main effect for the intervention variable [F (2 290) 324 P = 03 12 = 02 T == 15] on scores on the ESL measure Examination of the means indicates that the mean scores were in the opposite of the predicted direction (see Table 6) The main effect for sex [F (1290) = 21 P= 64J and the interaction between sex and experimental condition [F (2 290) =162 P 20J were not significant

Analysis of the LIS scores indicated neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 33 P = 72] or sex IF (1 290) 58 P 45J nor the interaction between the two IF (2 290) = 95 P= 39] were significant Similarly for scores on the CIS neither the main effects for experimental condition IF (2 290) = 201 P = 13] or sex IF (1 290) 25 P= 62J nor the interaction between the two [F (2 290) =81 P 45J were significant Thus the analysis of T05RA subscale scores indicates effects for experimental condition of two of the dimensions not in the direction predicted by H3 (Table 6) and a significant main effect for sex on the nonnality of science scale (RQl) such that girls viewed scientists as more normal than did boys

loumlli of Women alld Minorities in Science Qnd Engineering

Middle Scltool-A

Research experimental cc of women as th for biological sc women are acc 498 P 03 1J1 that people in tl women are acc 82) or video 05 r = 22] B and discussion not differ from

Research media related I extent to which 7 indicate a ne for boys but no (ESL NS LIS)

Table andT( Scales

Wome ScienCi WiS5E Balanc WiSS~

Wome Scieno Mens Enjoyr (ESLS Norm (NSSc Leisur (LIS 5lt CareeI (CIS S

signi signi

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyn Steinke et al

ex with girls having and no main effects on (H2) The means

on TOSRA subscaJe nificant main effect ntal condition [F (2 two scores was not ble 6) indicates that Is exhibited higher

)ental Condition re Career tin Interest in e Science D~ Mean (SD 58) 291 (093) S7) 287 (078) 7) 289 (085) JO) 278 (087) 17) 287 (070) 3) 282 (079) 13) 276 (080) ~3) 256 (084) 14) 264 (082)

lin effect for the scores on the ESL ere in the opposite 290) = 21 P = 64] 90) 162 P =201

for experimental lor the interaction for Scores on the = 201 P = l3J or (2 290) 81 P =

Middle School-Aged Childrens Attitudes Toward SET 313

Research Question 2 was tested via 2 X 2 ANDV A with biological sex and experimental conditions as the independent variables and evaluation of media portrayals of women as the dependent variable These analyses indicated a significant main effect for biological sex such that boys (M == 281 SD == 86) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than girls (M = 26 SD 71 F (I 290) = 498 P 03 II = 02 r = 13) There was also a Significant main effect for condition such that people in the control condition (M == 294 SD = 73) were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed in the media than those in the discussion (M = 267 SD =82) or video and discussion condition [M = 249 SD = 76 F (2290) == 753 P 01 1]

== 05 r == 22] Bonferroni post hoc analysis indicated that both the video and discussion and discussion only differ Significantly from control but that these two conditions did not differ from one another (p =05)

Research Question 3 examined the extent to which the importance placed on the media related to participants attitudes toward science and women in science and the extent to which these vary by sex of the participant The correlations presented in Table 7 indicate a negative association between WiSS factor 8 and 9 and media importance for boys but not for girls The data also indicate a negative association between TOSRA (ESL NS US) scores and media importance for girls but not for boys

Table 1 Correlations between the Media Importance Scale and WiSS and TOSRA Dimensions for Boys and Girls Scales Boys Girls

r E r E Womens Competency in middot010 026 001 093 Science Careers WiSS8 Balance Career and Family - Z-J 0003 -008 035 WiSS9 Womens Competency in -21 002 -015 006 Science Careers Relative to Mens WiSS 10 Enjoyment of Science Scale -008 038 -016 005 (ESLScale) Normality of Scientists -006 05 -018 003 (NS Scale) Leisure Interest in Science -010 026 -016 005 (LIS Scale) Career Interest in Science 001 0 -008 029 (CIS Scale)

Idicates effects for significant at p 005 1 predicted by H3 si~ificant at E = 001 ience scale (RQ1)

Volume 12 15suc 4

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

f

Jocelyn Steinke et al314

DISCUSSION

The overall goal of the study was to assess whether media literacy training designed to teach critical viewing of stereotyped media portrayals of women influenced middle school-aged childrens ability to recognize gender stereotypes their perceptions of women in SET and their attitudes toward SET and SET careers The study also was designed to understand the role of the media literacy training on evaluations of media portrayals of women and to examine the role of media importance on attitudes Contrary to expectations there were no significant differences found among middle schoolshyaged children who participated in media literacy training compared with those who did not participate in media literacy training on scores on the WiSS and TOSRA This was true for children who participated in the media literacy condition that included only interactive discussions on gender stereotypes in the media and for children who participated in the media literacy condition that involved interactive discussion on gender stereotypes in the media plus viewing of stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images of women from television programs and films popular among middle schoolshyaged children These findings occurred despite the fact that both boys and girls rated the video plus discussion intervention as more vivid and interesting than the control

Because the interventions focused on discussions of media images of women and the discussion-plus-video intervention featured primarily images of women the lack of influence of the interventions on boys attitudes was not completely unexpected Research indicates that the effectiveness of a message is related to viewers perceived similarity to the source of the message (Appiah 2002 Basow amp Howe 1980) and other research shows that children are more likely to identify with same-sex characters on television (Miller amp Reeves 1976) Our finding which indicates that boys considered the interventions as less credible than the girls is one explanation for the limited findings for boys It was more surprising that no differences were found for girls who had participated in the media literacy training especially those who had participated in the media literacy training that induded video dips featuring stereotypes and countershystereotypes of women on television and in films

Several factors may be useful in strengthening the media literacy intervention First the duration of the intervention may not have been long enough Although effects have been noted for media literacy interventions of similar (Wade et al 2003) or even shorter duration (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Nathanson 2004 Nathanson et aI 2002) a longer intervention period may be needed in order to detect the effects assessed in this study because such changes correspond to alterations in gender schemas which are known to be highly resistant to change (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Second the content of the intervention may not have provided strong enough messages about the inappropriateness of using gender to define womens professional roles and womens abilities as professionals in SET careers Recent research has begun to examine how different approaches in media literacy training such as media literacy instruction that involves factual vs evaluative approaches (Nathanson 2(04) and media literacy instruction that involves information-based vs an emotive teaching style (Austin et ai 2006) may influence outcomes Third the media literacy training may have unintentionally made middle school-aged students more resistant to accepting changes in gender schemas thus also resistant to changing attitudes toward

oumal jWumen and MilUlrities itl Science and Engineering

Middle Sclloo-A

gender roles I existing gender change existin~ in perceptions a day after the and updating c determine how follow-up que because of the Fifth it may bE such as critical which can be I

women in the I perceptions p women are acc This finding in skills might be

Interestin in girls and bo There were dif of female scieo and qualified I

items that ask have positive having access I the same value in this study w important role had more neg media were Ie boys may hoI I female scienti~ hold stereotyp 1997 Chambel 1989 Maoldon Newton 1998 school-aged gi ways and sug womens scier study on midd with previous toward womel

Althoug girls interest i

important to E

development (

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyll Steinke ef al

training designed influenced middle leir perceptions of he study also was aluations of media attitudes Contrary 19 middle schoolshy~ with those who and TOSRA This tion that included I for children who tive discussion on mnter-stereotyped ng middle schoolshyand girls rated the

I the control ges of women and f women the lack etely unexpected iewers perceived e 1980) and other middotsex characters on t boys considered n for the limited und for girls who ad participated in ypes and counter-

racy intervention nough Although ide et aL 2003) or Nathanson 2004 )rder to detect the rations in gender Seta 2003 Ruble

provided strong define womens

5 Recent research training such as

ches (Nathanson d vs an emotive le media literacy more resistant to attitudes toward

Middle School-Aged Childrens Aftjh~des Toward SET 315

gender roles Research shows that when faced with new information that contradicts existing gender schemas children often ignore or distort the new information rather than change existing schemas (Hughes amp Seta 2003 Ruble amp Stangor 1986) Fourth changes in perceptions may need to be assessed immediately after the intervention rather than a day after the intervention in order to detect incremental changes in the configuration and updating of gender schemas (Barbera 2003) although additional research needs to determine how to achieve long-term changes to gender schemas In this study the initial follow-up questionnaire was administered 1 to 2 days after the intervention sessions because of the logistics involved in working around the students class schedules Fifth it may be important to use other measures that can assess intermediate outcomes such as critical thinking rather than more long-term outcomes such as attitude change which can be more difficult to achieve Our findings regarding critical evaluation of women in the media indicate that the interventions were influential in modifying these perceptions Participants in the control conditions were more likely to indicate that women are accurately portrayed by the media than those in the intervention conditions This finding indicates that targeting these endogenous factors such as critical evaluation skills might be most profitable when creating media literacy training programs

Interestingly the findings of tills research found a number of significant differences in girls and boys perceptions of women in SETand their attitudes toward women in SET There were differences in the ways in which girls and boys evaluated the characteristics of female scientists with girls rating female scientists as more skillful intelligent expert and qualified than did boys In addition girls and boys had very different scores on items that asked about women in science with girls being more likely than boys to have positive attitudes toward women being as good at science careers as men women having access to science courses and career opportunities and a womans career having the same value as a mans The boys negative attitudes toward women in science found in this study were related to the extent to which boys reported that the media played an important role in their lives That is boys who indicated the media were very important had more negative attitudes toward women in science than those who indicated the media were less important These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls and boys may hold very different perceptions of female scientists with girls perceiving female scientists in less gendermiddotstereotyped ways Previous research shows children hold stereotyped perceptions of SET and women in SET (Andre et al 1999 Barman 1997 Chambers 1983 Farmeret aI 1998 Fort amp Varney 1989 Jacobowitz 1983 Kahle 1989 Maoldomhnaigh amp Hunt 1988 Matthews 1996 Mead amp Metraux 1957 Newton amp Newton 1998 Rosenthal 1993 Song amp Kim 1999) These findings suggest that middle school-aged girls may be less likely than boys to see female scientists in stereotypical ways and suggest that girls have overall more positive attitudes towards the value of womens science careers and womens abilities in science These findings from this study on middle school-aged boys attitudes toward women in science were consistent with previous research that found high school-aged boys have more negative attitudes toward women in science than did girls (Stake 2003)

Although many science inter~ention programs have centered around improving girls interest and ability in SET (NSF 2003) these findings suggest that it is equally important to explore the efficacy of science intervention programs to encourage the development of positive attitudes among boys related to girls and women in SET The

J

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

f Jocelyn Steinke et al316

need for the development of science intervention programs focused on promoting boys positive attitudes toward girls and women in SET when offered to complement the many existing science intervention programs forused on developing girls may be critical for changing the overall culture of the SET workforce Recent research has documented the negative experiences voiced by women in scientific workplaces (Gunter amp Stamach 2005) One study found that larger percentages of female scientists than male scientists described uncomfortable tense or hostile interactions (Gunter amp Stamach 2005 p 133) Another study described the extra burden placed on women who experience conflict that stems from the inflexible social organization of science at work (Gupta Keme1gor Fuchs amp Etzkowitz 2005 p1383) a disproportionate amount of domestic responsibilities because of traditional gender role expectations and exclusion from strong professional networks (Gupta et aL 2005) Careful attention to boys and girls attitudes toward women in SET is needed in order to ensure workplace cultures that are inclusive of women as well as men

The findings for media importance indicate the influential role of this factor in shaping attitudes and indicate that this variable manifests differently for boys and girls Specifically these findings indicate that the extent to which boys view the media as an important part of their lives is negatively associated with their attitudes towards women in science These findings were not replicated for girls in this sample For girls these data indicate that media importance was negatively associated with the extent to which girls enjoy science view scientists as normal and take a leisure interest in science there was no such pattern of effects for boys These findings suggest that it is important to examine more specifically the media used by boys and to examine the specific messages and images in this media content ft is important to determine for example whether the media messages and images in the media most often used by adolescent boys are gender stereotyped and to assess the impact if any of this media content on boys perceptions of women in SET Studies from the 19805 have shown gender bias in science television programming for children (LaFollette 1981 Steinke amp Long 1996) but more recent research in this area needs to address current media content that is most likely to be used by adolescent boys today

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research shou Id continue to explore how media literacy training can be best designed as part of science intervention programs to foster positive attitudes toward women in SET Although many science intervention programs have been found to increase girls interest in SET the effectiveness and long-term influence of these programs varies For example one study showed that participation in computer-assisted career intervention increased middle school-aged childrens interest in nontraditional careers and suggested that interventions may need to be combined with career planning and vocational development (Turner amp Lapan 2005) Another study indicated it was possible to change childrens attitudes toward science through the use of female role models as teachers and the use of informal hands-on science and engineering activities (feshome Maushak amp Athreya 2001) An intervention that included teaching female students about the effects of stereotype threat Oohns Schmader amp Martens 2004) p

OUn1a of Wome~l and Minorities in Science and Eng1flfring

Middle Sclrool-I

175) was foune However a 2shyrole models ca found the pro science and ca

Althoug study have no 1997 Irving amp on the most ef Research nee( models and m attractiveness effects may bE stereotypes c( emphasize thE both stereotyI this study pa stereotyped ar the participan stereotyped in subtle stereot potential influ toward SET a

Further 1

ways of incorj As Potter writ

Educatir them aV the potel about hc to believ how um 266)

A co8Oil existing co8Oi what motivat should includ when achieVE perceptual ch

The authors Foundation (I

Volume 12 Issue bull

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

Jocelyn Steinke et al

m promoting boys 0 complement the ~rls may be critical h has d~umented unter amp Stamach ~an male scientists amp Stamach 2005 n who experience at work (Gupta nount of domestic Id exclusion from to boys and girls ~e cultures that are

e of this factor in for boys and girls jew the media as attitudes towards sample For girls d with the extent leisure interest in suggest that it is

d to examine the to determine for )st often used by ny of this media )805 have shown tte 1981 Steinke ss current media

ling can be best Htitudes toward lYe been found f1uence of these mputer-assisted n nontraditional career planning indicated it was e of female role leering activities teaching female 1artens 2004) p

flee and Engilll1lri1l8

Middle Schoo-Aged Cilildr(I1~ Attitudes Toward SET 317

175) was found to be effective in improving these womens performance on a math test However a 2-week residential program that included hands-on experiments female role models career information and exercises to dispel stereotypes of women in science found the program had no affects on science self-concept enjoyment and interest in science and career aspirations in science (Jayaratne Thomas amp Trautmann 2(03)

Although studies that have employed similar approaches to the one used in this study have noted changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior (Austin amp Johnson 1997 Irving amp Berel 2001 Johns et al 2004 Wade et al 2003) further research is needed on the most effective strategy for using media images in media literacy interventions Research needs to determine the specific criteria girls use when evaluating media models and messages in order to assess how specific features of media models such as attractiveness age race and appearance might influence girls perceptions Different effects may be noted for interventions that use stereotyped images to dispel gender stereotypes compared with interventions that use counter-stereotyped images to emphasize the dearth of gender stereotypes or compared with interventions that use both stereotyped and counter-stereotyped images to reduce gender stereotyping In this study participants in the discussion-plus-video media literacy condition viewed stereotyped and counter-stereotyped as part of the media literacy training It is possible the participants were influenced more by the stereotyped images than the countershystereotyped images It also is possible that even positive images sometimes conveyed subtle stereotypes Furthermore additional research is needed to assess better the potential influence of media role models on girls perceptions of women in SET attitudes toward SET and SET careers

Further research on the efficacy of media literacy training also needs to explore ways of incorporating what Potter (2004) calls u a cognitive theory of media literacy As Potter writes

Educating people to be more literate involves far more than simply making them aware of the medla content motives of the media industries and the potential negative effects it needs to build from a deep understanding about how people use the media in their everyday lives how people come to believe that their media usage is functional to achieving their goals and how unwanted effects accumulate as by products of everyday exposure (p 266)

A cognitive approach to media literacy that takes into account the influence of existing cognitive structures like gender schemas would proVide additional insight on what motivates changes in perceptions attitudes and behavior Future research also should include longitudinal studies to determine how enduring are perceptual changes when achieved through media literacy interventions (Finson 2002) and how these perceptual changes then influence behavior

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge support provided by the National Science Foundation (HRD 04-29005) Any opinions and recommendations expressed are those

Volume 12 1~~1tC

--_~_~J

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

REFERENCES

Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

~---------------~- -- -_r Jocelyrl Strinke et at318

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NSF The authors also thank the school administrators principals staff teachers students parents and project consultants for their assistance with this study In addition the authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments

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Abrahams G amp Ahlbrand S (2002) Boy v girl HOrD gender shapes who we are what we want and haw we get along Minneapolis MN Free Spirit Publishing

American Association of University Women (1998) Gender gaps Where schools still fail our children Washington DC Author

American Association of UniverSity Women (2000) Tech-savvy Educating girls in the new computer age Washington DC AAUW Education Foundation

Andre T Whigham M Hendrickson A amp Chambers S (1999) Competency beliefs positive affect and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36(6)719-747

Appiah O (2002) Black and white viewers perceptions and recall of occupational characters on television Journal ofCommunication 52(4) 776-793

Arnold K D (1993) Undergraduate aspirations and career outcomes of academically talented women A discriminant analysis Roeper Review 15(3)169-175

Austin E W Chen Y-c Y Pinkleton B E amp Johnson J Q (2006) Benefits and costs of channel one in a middle school setting and the role of media-literacy training Pediatrics 117 423-433

Austin E W amp Johnson K K (1997) Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third graders decision making for alcohol Health Communication 9(4) 323-349

Babbie E (1992) The practice of social researc (6th ed) Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company

Baker-Sperry L amp Grauerholz L (2003) The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in childrens fairy tales Gender amp Society 15(5) 711-726

Bandura A Ross D ampRoss S A (l963a) A comparative test of the status envy social power and secondary reinforcement theories of indentificatory learning Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psychology 67(6) 527middot534

Bandura A Ross D amp Ross S A (1963b) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models Journal of Abnonnal and Social Psyclwlogy 66(1) 2-11

Barbera E (2003) Gender schemas Configuration and activation processes Canadian Journal ofBehavioral Science 35(3) 176-184

Barman C R (1997) Students views of scientists and science Results from a national study Science and Children 18-23

Barner M R (1999) Sex-role stereotyping in FCC-mandated childrens educational television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43(4) 551-564

Basow S A amp Howe K G (1980) Role model influence Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students Psychology ofWomen Quarterly 4(4) 558-571

Bauer P J (1993) Memory for gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent event sequences by twenty-five-month-old children Child Development 64(1) 285-297

oul7lJl of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering

Middle School-Age(

Bern S L (1981) ( Review 88(4)

Bern S L (1993) HavenCT

Bernt P W Ben school studen Association

Bigler R S amp Li schematic pI

Brown L M amp I girlsdevelopl

Campbell A Shi cognition an

Chambers D W Science Eduo

Coltrane S amp M genderimag

Comstock G amp 5 D Singeramp Oaks CAamp

CongressionaJ Co Engineering Americas COl

Author RetI DietL T L (1998

games Impl 38(56)425middot

Durkin K amp Nu television ac

Elasmar M HaS( time televisi

Erb T 0 amp Smi scale for earl

Erkut S Marx F One size dOE (Eds) Gend 101) Mount

Faber R J Brow Television al development Publications

Farmer H S Rol in science rr Journal of Vo

Finson K D (200 of drawings

Volume 12 Issue 4

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

relyn Steinke et Ill

lthors also thank mts and project Irs wish to thank

o we are wllat we ing re schools stilI fail

ating girls in tIle 1

lpetency beliefs nd their parents Science Teaching

of occupational

of academically ~-175

mefits and costs iteracy training

f media literacy 11unication 9(4)

A Wadsworth

rsistence of the 5)711-726 tus envy social mingournalof

ted aggressive

esses Canadian

rom a national

ts educational

x and sex-role 1-571 nsistent event 1(1) 285-297

Middle School-Aged Cilildren Attitudes Toumrd SET 319

Bern S L (1981) Gender schema theory A cognitive account of sex typing Psychological Revtew 88(4) 354-364

Bern S L (1993) Tile lenses of gender Tmnsforminx the debllte on sexual Identity New Haven CT Yale University Press

Bernt P w Bernt J P amp Turner S V (2003 April 23) Gender patterns in middle school students media use Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Bigler R 5 amp Liben L S (1990) The role of attitudes and interventions in gendershyschematic processing Grild Development 61 1440-1452

Brown L M amp Gilligan C (1992) Meeting at the crossroads Womens pSycl1010gy and girls developmmt New York Ballantine Books

Campbell A Shirley L amp Candy J (2004) A longitudinal study of gender-related cognition and behaviour Developmental Science 7(1)1-9

Chambers D W (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist The draw-a-scientist test Science Education 67(2)255-265

Coltrane S amp Messineo M (2000) The perpetuation of subtle prejudice Race and gender imagery in 1990 s television advertiSing Sex Roles 42(56) 363-389

Comstock G amp Scharrer E (2001) The use of television and other film-related media In D Singer amp J Singer (Eds) Handbook of chlldrm amp the media (pp 47-72) Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science Engineering and Technology Development (2000) Land of plenty Diversity as Americas competitive edge in science engineering and technology Washington DC Author Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovodcawmset

Dietz T L (1998) An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior Sex Role~ 38(56)425-442

Durkin K amp Nugent B (1998) Kindergarten childrens gender-role expectations for television actors Sex Roles 38(56) 387-402

Elasmar M Hasegawa K amp Brain M (1999) The portrayal of women in US prime time television Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 44(1) 20-34

Erb T 0 amp Smith W S (1984) Validation of the attitude toward women in science scale for early adolescents Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 21(4) 391-397

Erkut S Marx F Fields J P amp Sing R (1999) RaiSing confident and competent girls One size does not fit all In L A Peplau S C DeBro R C Veniegas amp P L Taylor (Eds) Gender culture and ethnicity Current research about women lind men (pp 83shy101) Mountain View CA Mayfield Publishing Company

Faber R J Brown J D amp Mcleod J M (1979) Coming of age in the global village Television and adolescence In E Wartella (Ed) Children communicating Medillllnd development of thought speech understanding (pp 215-249) Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Farmer H S Rotella S c Anderson c amp Wardrop J L (1998) Gender differences in science math and technology careers Prestige level and Holland interest Type Journal oVocational Behavior 53 73-96

Finson K D (2002) Drawing a scientist What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings School Science and Mathematics 102(7)335-345

I 1

320

f

Tocelyn Steinke et al

Fort D c amp Varney H L (1989) How students see scientists Mostly male mostly white and mostly benevolent Science anti C11ildrm 8-13

Fraser B] (1978) Development of a test of science-related attitudes Science Education 62(4)509-515

Gonzales R Glik D Davoudi l M amp Ang A (2004) Media literacy and public health Integrating theory research and practice for tobacco control American Behavioral Scientist 48(2) 189-201

Griffin R J Sen S amp Plotkin R (1994) Sex schemata and social status TV characters identification and occupational aspirations among adolescents In L H Turner amp H M Sterk (Eds) Differences that make a diffrrence Examining the assumptions in gender research (pp 85-97) Westport CT Bergin Garvey

Gunter R amp Stamach A (2005) Differences in men and women scientists perceptions of workplace climate Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 11(1)97-116

Gupta N Kemelgor c FuchsS amp Etzkowitz H (2005) Triple burden on women in science A cross-cultural analysiS Current Science 89(8) 1382-1386

Hobbs R (2004) Media literacy general semantics and K-12 education Etc 61(1) 24-28

Hoermer K L (1996) Sex roles in Disney films Analyzing behaviors from Snow White to Simba Womens Studies in Communication 19(2)213-228

Hughes F M amp Seta C E (2003) Gender stereotypes Childrens perceptions of future compensatory behavior follOWing violations of gender roles Sex Roles 49(1112) 685-691

Irving L M amp Berel 5 R (20m) Comparison of media-literacy programs to strengthen college womens resistance to media images Psychology ofWomen QUllrterly 25(2) 103-111

Irving L M DuPen J amp Berel S (1998) A media literacy program for high school females Eating Disorders 6119-131

Jacobowitz 1 (1983) Relationship of sex achievement and science self-concept to the science career preferences of black students Journal of Research in Science Teaching 20(7)621-628

Jayaratne 1 E Thomas N G amp Trautmann M (2003) Intervention program to keep girls in the science pipeline Outcome differences by ethnic status Journal of Research in Science Teaching 40(4)393-414

Johns M Schmader T amp Martens A (2004) Knowing is half the battle Teaching stereotype thread as a means of improving womens math performance Psychological Science 16(3) 175-179

Johnston J amp Ettema J S (1982) Positive images Breaking stereotypes with childrens television Beverly Hills CA Sage Publications

Joyce B AI amp Farenga S J (1999) Informal science experience attitudes future interest in science and gender of high-ability students An exploratory study School Science and Mathematics 99(8)431-437

Kahle J B (1989) Images of scientists Gender issues in science classrooms The Key Centre for School Science and Mathematics (4) 1-9

Kaiser Family Foundation (1999) Kids and media at the new millennium A comprehensive national analysis of childrens media use Retrieved June 23 2003

Ioumal ofWomen I1tld MinoritIes in ScienU and Engineering

Middle School

from ht laFollette M

for child Lauzen M ~

screen a and Elee

Lauzen M 1 and apr 429-437

Levy G D ( knowle aUribut

Liben L S role of i

Maoldomhn sdentis Educati

Massoni K Gender

Matthews B Mead M amp

1263amp Miller M ~

stereo) Morgan M

study ) Nathanson

respom Nathanson J

of fema 52(4)9

National SciE science

National Scit and eng htm

Newton L r thescie Internat

Nielsen Mea Dayparl

Nihlen A S interact 19(2) 1

Orenstein P York 0

Volume 12 Issue

ocelyn Steinke et al

)stly male mostly

Science Education

and public health lmerican Behavioral

tus TV characters In L H Turner amp the assumptions in

ntists perceptions e and Engineering

den on women in S6 ation Etc 61(1)

from Snow White

ceptions of future Roles 49(1112)

ams to strengthen n Quarterly 25(2)

n for high school

elf-concept to the Science Teaching

ttion program to status Journal of

battle Teaching th performance

es with children 5

25 future interest dy School Science

srooms TIle Key

millennium A ed June 23 2003

rence and Enginaring

Middle School-Aged Olildrens Attitudes Toward SET 321

from httpwwwkfforgentmedia 1535-indexcfm LaFollette M C (1981) Wizards villains and otller scrmtists TH science content of television

for children Report prepared for Action for Childrens Television Newton MA Lauzen M M amp Dozier D M (1999) Making a difference in prime time Women on

screen and behind the scenes in the 1995-96 television season Journal ofBroadcasting and Electronic Media 43(1) 1-19

Lauzen M MJ amp Dozier D M (2002) You look mahvelous An examination of gender and appearance comments in the 1999-2000 prime-time season Sex Roles 46(1112) 429-437

Levy C D amp Carter D B (1989) Gender schema gender constancy and gender-role knowledge The role of cognitive factors in preschoolers gender-role stereotype attributions Developmental Psychology 25(3)444-449

Liren L 5 amp Signorella M L (1993) Gender-schematic processing in children The role of initial interpretations of stimuli Developmental Psychology 29(1) 141-149

Maoldomhnaigh M 0 amp Hunt A (1988) Some factors affecting the image of the scientists drawn by older primary school pupils Research in Science and Technological Education 6(2)384-126

Massoni K (2004) Modeling work Occupational messages in Seventeen magazine Gender amp Society 18(1)47-65

Matthews B (1996) DraWing scientists Gender and Education 8(2) 231-243 Mead M amp Metraux R (1957) Image of scientist among high-school students Science

126384-390 Miller M M amp Reeves B (1976) Dramatic TV content and childrens sex-role

stereotypes Journal ofBroadcasting 20(1) 35-50 Morgan M (1982) Television and adolescents sex role stereotypes A longitudinal

study Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43(5)947-955 Nathanson A I (2004) Factual and evaluative approaches to modifying childrens

responses to violent television Journal ofCommunication 321-336 Nathanson A L Wilson B J McGee J amp Sebastian M (2002) Counteracting the effects

of female stereotypes on television via active mediation Journal ofCommunication 52(4)922-937

National Science Found ation (2000) Women minori ties and persons with disa bili ties in science and engineering Retrieved from http wwwnsfgov sbe srs nspound00327

National Science Foundation (2003) New formulas for Americas workforce Girls in science and engineering Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovpubs2003nsf03207 start htm

Newton L D amp Newton D P (1998) Primary childrens conceptions of science and the scientist Is the impact of a national curriculum breaking down the stereotypes Internationalournal ofScience Education 20(9) 1137-1149

Nielsen Media Research (2004) Broadcast rank 9222003-5262004 Primetime Daypart ages 12-17 Unpublished data

Nihlen A S amp Bailey B A (1988) Childrens display of gender schemas through interaction with nontraditional workers Anthropology and Education Quarterly 19(2)155-162

Orenstein P (1994) School Girls Young women self-esteem and the con[zdence gap New York Doubleday

Vollime 12 i5SUC t

ocelyn Steinke et al

)stly male mostly

Science Education

and public health lmerican Behavioral

tus TV characters In L H Turner amp the assumptions in

ntists perceptions e and Engineering

den on women in S6 ation Etc 61(1)

from Snow White

ceptions of future Roles 49(1112)

ams to strengthen n Quarterly 25(2)

n for high school

elf-concept to the Science Teaching

ttion program to status Journal of

battle Teaching th performance

es with children 5

25 future interest dy School Science

srooms TIle Key

millennium A ed June 23 2003

rence and Enginaring

Middle School-Aged Olildrens Attitudes Toward SET 321

from httpwwwkfforgentmedia 1535-indexcfm LaFollette M C (1981) Wizards villains and otller scrmtists TH science content of television

for children Report prepared for Action for Childrens Television Newton MA Lauzen M M amp Dozier D M (1999) Making a difference in prime time Women on

screen and behind the scenes in the 1995-96 television season Journal ofBroadcasting and Electronic Media 43(1) 1-19

Lauzen M MJ amp Dozier D M (2002) You look mahvelous An examination of gender and appearance comments in the 1999-2000 prime-time season Sex Roles 46(1112) 429-437

Levy C D amp Carter D B (1989) Gender schema gender constancy and gender-role knowledge The role of cognitive factors in preschoolers gender-role stereotype attributions Developmental Psychology 25(3)444-449

Liren L 5 amp Signorella M L (1993) Gender-schematic processing in children The role of initial interpretations of stimuli Developmental Psychology 29(1) 141-149

Maoldomhnaigh M 0 amp Hunt A (1988) Some factors affecting the image of the scientists drawn by older primary school pupils Research in Science and Technological Education 6(2)384-126

Massoni K (2004) Modeling work Occupational messages in Seventeen magazine Gender amp Society 18(1)47-65

Matthews B (1996) DraWing scientists Gender and Education 8(2) 231-243 Mead M amp Metraux R (1957) Image of scientist among high-school students Science

126384-390 Miller M M amp Reeves B (1976) Dramatic TV content and childrens sex-role

stereotypes Journal ofBroadcasting 20(1) 35-50 Morgan M (1982) Television and adolescents sex role stereotypes A longitudinal

study Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43(5)947-955 Nathanson A I (2004) Factual and evaluative approaches to modifying childrens

responses to violent television Journal ofCommunication 321-336 Nathanson A L Wilson B J McGee J amp Sebastian M (2002) Counteracting the effects

of female stereotypes on television via active mediation Journal ofCommunication 52(4)922-937

National Science Found ation (2000) Women minori ties and persons with disa bili ties in science and engineering Retrieved from http wwwnsfgov sbe srs nspound00327

National Science Foundation (2003) New formulas for Americas workforce Girls in science and engineering Retrieved from httpwwwnsfgovpubs2003nsf03207 start htm

Newton L D amp Newton D P (1998) Primary childrens conceptions of science and the scientist Is the impact of a national curriculum breaking down the stereotypes Internationalournal ofScience Education 20(9) 1137-1149

Nielsen Media Research (2004) Broadcast rank 9222003-5262004 Primetime Daypart ages 12-17 Unpublished data

Nihlen A S amp Bailey B A (1988) Childrens display of gender schemas through interaction with nontraditional workers Anthropology and Education Quarterly 19(2)155-162

Orenstein P (1994) School Girls Young women self-esteem and the con[zdence gap New York Doubleday

Vollime 12 i5SUC t

Jocelyn Steinke et al322

Pierce K (1993) Socialization of teenage girls through teen-magazine fiction The making of a new woman or an old lady Sex Roles 29(12)59-68

Potter W J (1998) Media literacy Thousand Oaks NJ Sage Publishing Potter W J (2004) Argument for the need for a cognitive theory of media literacy

Section 7 Media literacy in the future American Behavioral Scientist 48(2) 266-272

Poulin-Dubois D Serbin L A Eichstedt J A Sen M G amp Beissel C F (2002) Men dont put on make-up Toddlers knowledge of the gender stereotyping of household activities Social Development 11(2) 166-181

Rosenthal D B (1993) Images of scientists A comparison of biology and liberal studies majors School Science and Mathematics 93(4)212-216

Ruble D R amp Stangor C (1986) Stalking the elusive schema Insights from developmental and social-psycholOgical analysiS of gender schemas Social Cognition 4(2) 227-261

Ruvolo A P amp Markus H R (1992) Possible selves and performance The power of self-relevant imagery Social Cognition 10(1)95-124

Schank R c amp Abelson R P (1977) Scripts plans goals and understanding Hillsdale NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Schibed R A amp McGaw B (1981) Empirical validation of the conceptual structure of a test of science-related attitudes Educational and PsydlOlogical Measurement 41 1195-1201

Signorielli N (1997) A content analysis Reflections ofgirls in the media Report for Children Now and the Kaiser Family Foundation

Song L amp Kim K-S (1999) How Korean students see scientists The images of the scientist International Journal of Science Education 21(9) 957-977

Stake J E (2003) Understanding male bias against girls and women in science Journal ofApplied Social Psychology 33(4) 667-682

Steinke J (1997) A portrait of a woman as a scientist Breaking down bruriers created by gender-role stereotypes Public Understanding ofScience 6409-428

Steinke J (1999) Women scientist role models on screen A case study of Contact Science Communication 21(2) 111-136

Steinke J (2004) Science in cyberspace Science and engineering World Wide Web sites for girls Public Understanding ofScience 13(1)7-30

Steinke J (2005) Cultural representations of gender and science Portrayals of female scientists and engineers in popular films Science Communication 2727-63

Steinke j amp Long M (1996) A lab of her own Portrayals of female characters on childrens educational science programs Sdence Communication 18(2)91-115

Teshome Y Maushak N amp Athreya K (2001) Attitude toward informal science and math A survey of boys and girls participating in hands-on science and math (funtivities) Journal ofWomen and Minorities in Science and Engineering 759-74

Thoman E amp Jails T (2005) Literacy for the 21st Century An Overview and Orientation Guide to Media Literacy Education Center for Media Literacy

Thomas J A amp Pedersen J E (2001) VVhen do science teachers learn to teach A comparison ofschool childrens and preservice teachers science teacher illustrations Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe Association for the Education of Teachers and Science Costa Mesa

Journal ofWomeu and Millorilies in Sdence and Engineering

Middle Scllool-A~

Turner-Bow ker books DO(

Turner S V Bt as co-resea Education

Turner S L amp traditional adolescent

Us Departmer Washingt(

Wade T D D of a schoo eating disc 383

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White K amp Ki of womel Communic

Volume 12 Issue 4

Jocelyn Steinke et al

19azine fiction The -68 ing f ot media literacy lral Scientist 48(2)

oeissei C F (2002) der stereotyping of

I and liberal studies

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hers and Science

Middle School-Aged Childrens 4ttitudes Toward SET 323

Turner-Bowker D M (1996) Gender stereotyped descriptors in childrens picture books Does Curious Jane exist in the literature Sex Roles 35(78)461-488

Turner S V Bernt P W amp Bernt J P (2003 April 23) Involving middle school students as co-researchers of tl1eir media environment Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Turner S L amp Lapan R T (2005) Evaluation of an intervention to increase nonshytraditional career interests and career-related self-efficacy among middle-school adolescents Jourrull of Vocational Behllvior 66 516-531

US Department of Education (2000) Trends in educational equity of girls and women Washington DC Author

Wade T 0 DavidsonS amp ODea J A (2003) A preliminary controlled evaluation of a school-based media literacy program and self-esteem program for reducing eating disorder risk factors International Journal of Eating Disorders 33(4) 371shy383

Western Massachusetts Geuronder Equity Center (1999) Media literacy and gender equity curriculum Springfield MA

White K amp Kinnick K N (2000) One click forward and two clicks back Portrayals of women using computers in television commercials Womens Studies m Communication 23(3)392412

Icrrce lInd Engintmug I Vollime 12 Issue 4

1

Jocelyn Steinke et al

19azine fiction The -68 ing f ot media literacy lral Scientist 48(2)

oeissei C F (2002) der stereotyping of

I and liberal studies

rna Insights from ~r schemas Social

mce The power of

standing Hi1lsdale

nceptual structure (II Measurement 41

leport tor Children

The images of the

in science Journal

n barriers created 9-428 study of Contact

Id Wide Web sites

rtrayals of female 2727-63 ale characters on 18(2)91middot115 informal science

science and math fring 7 59-74 wand Orientation

~clt A comparison Paper presented

hers and Science

Middle School-Aged Childrens 4ttitudes Toward SET 323

Turner-Bowker D M (1996) Gender stereotyped descriptors in childrens picture books Does Curious Jane exist in the literature Sex Roles 35(78)461-488

Turner S V Bernt P W amp Bernt J P (2003 April 23) Involving middle school students as co-researchers of tl1eir media environment Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association 84th Annual Meeting Chicago IL

Turner S L amp Lapan R T (2005) Evaluation of an intervention to increase nonshytraditional career interests and career-related self-efficacy among middle-school adolescents Jourrull of Vocational Behllvior 66 516-531

US Department of Education (2000) Trends in educational equity of girls and women Washington DC Author

Wade T 0 DavidsonS amp ODea J A (2003) A preliminary controlled evaluation of a school-based media literacy program and self-esteem program for reducing eating disorder risk factors International Journal of Eating Disorders 33(4) 371shy383

Western Massachusetts Geuronder Equity Center (1999) Media literacy and gender equity curriculum Springfield MA

White K amp Kinnick K N (2000) One click forward and two clicks back Portrayals of women using computers in television commercials Womens Studies m Communication 23(3)392412

Icrrce lInd Engintmug I Vollime 12 Issue 4

1