MemoryMemory

Response: Response:

How do you remember best? If you were How do you remember best? If you were studying for a test what strategies do you studying for a test what strategies do you use?use?

With no memory, how would you answer the With no memory, how would you answer the question, “how are you today?”question, “how are you today?”

With no memory, who would you be? How With no memory, who would you be? How would your identity be affected?would your identity be affected?

Clive Wearing VideoClive Wearing Video

Memory Test: 1Memory Test: 1

How many people here know the words to How many people here know the words to Oh Canada?Oh Canada?

What are the last 2 lines?What are the last 2 lines?What did you have to do in order to What did you have to do in order to

remember those 2 lines?remember those 2 lines?

What do youWhat do you know know about about memory? What do you memory? What do you Want to Want to

know?know?

Memory Test: 2Memory Test: 2 Memorize the following list of words: There will Memorize the following list of words: There will

be a quiz at the end to see how many you can be a quiz at the end to see how many you can remember:remember:

fishgeneratorduckShakespearearound pridethenchairfoxyou

pondbicyclebecause

pencilpumpkin

vacation

garbagesaltwordother

What strategies did you use to remember What strategies did you use to remember the list of words?the list of words?

Do you use the same techniques when Do you use the same techniques when studying for an exam?studying for an exam?

Memory is any indication that Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.learning has persisted over time.

To remember an event requires that we To remember an event requires that we get information into our brain, retain it, and get information into our brain, retain it, and later, get it back out. These three steps later, get it back out. These three steps are;are;

EncodingEncodingStorageStorageRetrievalRetrieval

There are two types of Encoding – There are two types of Encoding – AutomaticAutomatic and and Effortful.Effortful.

Automatic EncodingAutomatic Encoding is the effortless, day is the effortless, day to day memory of events and experiencesto day memory of events and experiences. . For example, who you saw today, what For example, who you saw today, what type of breakfast you had, etc…. Quite type of breakfast you had, etc…. Quite often you are unaware of this type of often you are unaware of this type of memory retention.memory retention.

Once something that has become learned Once something that has become learned and rehearsed, it becomes automatic. For and rehearsed, it becomes automatic. For example, language.example, language.

Effortful memory is memory that Effortful memory is memory that requires some effort in order to requires some effort in order to

learn.learn. MeaningMeaning: : We remember the general ideas, but not We remember the general ideas, but not

specifics.specifics. ImageryImagery: : which is visual encoding where we form which is visual encoding where we form

mental images mental images OrganizationOrganization: : which is chunking information into which is chunking information into

meaningful units. meaningful units. For example, we use the acronym For example, we use the acronym BEDMASBEDMAS to chunk the to chunk the

mathematical order of operations.mathematical order of operations.

Think of examples from your own life for how you use each of Think of examples from your own life for how you use each of these strategies to help you remember.these strategies to help you remember.

Once information is Once information is encoded it either becomes encoded it either becomes part of our short-term or part of our short-term or long-term memory.long-term memory.

Short-term memory is Short-term memory is temporary storage of temporary storage of information that fades if not information that fades if not rehearsed.rehearsed.

Long-term memory is Long-term memory is almost limitless. and almost limitless. and forgetting is often more a forgetting is often more a case of misplacing that case of misplacing that memory than actually memory than actually forgetting it all together.forgetting it all together.

Think of 1 example of a short term memory and 1 Think of 1 example of a short term memory and 1 example of a long term memory.example of a long term memory.

One helpful model of human memory is One helpful model of human memory is that of a computer-like information –that of a computer-like information –processing system. processing system.

To remember any event requires that To remember any event requires that we get information into our brain, retain we get information into our brain, retain it, and later get I back out. it, and later get I back out.

These three steps, These three steps, encoding, storage encoding, storage and retrievaland retrieval, apply not only to human , apply not only to human memory but also to other information-memory but also to other information-processing systems:processing systems:

A library, for example, must have some A library, for example, must have some way of acquiring and cataloguing way of acquiring and cataloguing information (encoding), retaining it information (encoding), retaining it (storage), and making it available to users (storage), and making it available to users (retrieval).(retrieval).

Like a computer, we store vast amounts of information in Like a computer, we store vast amounts of information in long-term memory. From our memory storehouse we long-term memory. From our memory storehouse we can retrieve information into a limited-capacity short-term can retrieve information into a limited-capacity short-term memory, or “working” memory, which also receives memory, or “working” memory, which also receives information form out current experience. information form out current experience.

Part of this short-term working memory is displayed on Part of this short-term working memory is displayed on the mental screen we call consciousness. Our short-the mental screen we call consciousness. Our short-term memory typically stores about seven or so chunks term memory typically stores about seven or so chunks of information (give or take two), a recall capacity that of information (give or take two), a recall capacity that has been enshrined in psychology as “the Magical has been enshrined in psychology as “the Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two”. Number Seven, plus or minus two”.

Actually, people’s short-term memory spans-the quantity Actually, people’s short-term memory spans-the quantity of information they can correctly recall 50% of the time – of information they can correctly recall 50% of the time – varies. Short-term recall is slightly better for random varies. Short-term recall is slightly better for random digits (such as those of a phone number) than for digits (such as those of a phone number) than for random letters, which sometimes have similar sounds. random letters, which sometimes have similar sounds.

It is slightly better for information we hear rather than It is slightly better for information we hear rather than see. Adults have greater memory spans than children. see. Adults have greater memory spans than children. Still, the basic principle holds true: At any given Still, the basic principle holds true: At any given moment, we can process only a very limited amount of moment, we can process only a very limited amount of information.information.

What controls each system? What controls each system? With the computer, the With the computer, the operator retrieves or adds operator retrieves or adds information into working information into working memory. With our memory memory. With our memory system, novel stimuli have a system, novel stimuli have a way of intruding into way of intruding into consciousness. Like consciousness. Like orchestra conductors, we orchestra conductors, we can’t focus on everything at can’t focus on everything at once. So we shine the once. So we shine the flashlight beam of attention on flashlight beam of attention on certain incoming stimuli and certain incoming stimuli and on experiences that we on experiences that we retrieve form long-term retrieve form long-term memory.memory.

How We Encode InformationHow We Encode Information

How does sensory information, once registered, get How does sensory information, once registered, get encoded and transferred into the memory system? As encoded and transferred into the memory system? As you read this sentence, how do its words get encoded? you read this sentence, how do its words get encoded? Did you encode the image of the words, a process called Did you encode the image of the words, a process called visual encodingvisual encoding? Did you encode the sound of the ? Did you encode the sound of the words, through a process called words, through a process called acoustic encodingacoustic encoding? ? Or was the sentence coded by its meaning, a process Or was the sentence coded by its meaning, a process called called semantic encodingsemantic encoding??

To some extent, encoding occurs automatically, freeing To some extent, encoding occurs automatically, freeing your conscious attention for processing information that your conscious attention for processing information that requires effort. Thus, your memory for the route you requires effort. Thus, your memory for the route you walked to class yesterday can be handled by walked to class yesterday can be handled by automatic automatic processingprocessing. .

Your Your learninglearning of this particular concept of memory of this particular concept of memory requires requires effortful processingeffortful processing..

Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing

With little or no effort, you encode an enormous amount With little or no effort, you encode an enormous amount of information about space, time and frequency: During of information about space, time and frequency: During an exam, you may recall the place on the textbook page an exam, you may recall the place on the textbook page where the forgotten material appears. where the forgotten material appears.

You can recreate a sequence of the day’s events in You can recreate a sequence of the day’s events in order to guess where you left your coat. You may order to guess where you left your coat. You may realize that “this is the third time I’ve run into you this realize that “this is the third time I’ve run into you this afternoon.” Memories like these form almost afternoon.” Memories like these form almost automatically. In fact, not only can automatic processing automatically. In fact, not only can automatic processing occur effortlessly, but it is also difficult to shut off. When occur effortlessly, but it is also difficult to shut off. When you hear or read a word in you native language, it is you hear or read a word in you native language, it is virtually impossible not to register its meaning virtually impossible not to register its meaning automatically. automatically.

Other kinds of processing, such as the Other kinds of processing, such as the encoding of word meaning, are not built into encoding of word meaning, are not built into our automatic systems. We must learn them our automatic systems. We must learn them first. Then their encoding becomes first. Then their encoding becomes automatic. For example, learning to read automatic. For example, learning to read reverse sentences at first requires effort:reverse sentences at first requires effort:

.citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE.citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE

Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing

We encode and retain other types of information only We encode and retain other types of information only with effort and attention. During your finger’s trip from the with effort and attention. During your finger’s trip from the phone book to the phone, your memory of a telephone phone book to the phone, your memory of a telephone number will disappear unless you work to maintain it in number will disappear unless you work to maintain it in consciousness. To find out how quickly it will disappear, consciousness. To find out how quickly it will disappear, Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson asked people to Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson asked people to remember three consonants, such as CHJ. To prevent remember three consonants, such as CHJ. To prevent rehearsal of the letters, they asked the subjects to begin rehearsal of the letters, they asked the subjects to begin immediately counting aloud backward by threes from immediately counting aloud backward by threes from 400. After 3 seconds people recalled the letters only 400. After 3 seconds people recalled the letters only about half of the time; after 12 seconds they seldom about half of the time; after 12 seconds they seldom recalled them at all.recalled them at all.

The importance of The importance of rehearsalrehearsal, or conscious , or conscious repetition, was shown long ago by the repetition, was shown long ago by the pioneering researcher of verbal memory, pioneering researcher of verbal memory, German philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus German philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)> Ebbinghaus did for the study of (1850-1909)> Ebbinghaus did for the study of memory what Ivan Pavlov did for the study of memory what Ivan Pavlov did for the study of conditioning. Impatient with philosophical conditioning. Impatient with philosophical speculations about memory, Ebbinghaus wanted speculations about memory, Ebbinghaus wanted to study it scientifically. To do so, he decided to to study it scientifically. To do so, he decided to study his own learning and forgetting of novel study his own learning and forgetting of novel verbal materials.verbal materials.

Where could Ebbinghaus find verbal material Where could Ebbinghaus find verbal material that was not familiar? His solution was to form a that was not familiar? His solution was to form a list of all possible nonsense syllables create by list of all possible nonsense syllables create by sandwiching a vowel between two consonants. sandwiching a vowel between two consonants. Then, for a particular experiment, he would Then, for a particular experiment, he would randomly select a sample of the syllables. randomly select a sample of the syllables.

To get a feel for how Ebbinhaus tested himself, To get a feel for how Ebbinhaus tested himself, rapidly read aloud, eight times over, the rapidly read aloud, eight times over, the following list. following list.

JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ,JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ, VUM, PID KEL, WAV, TUV, ZOF, GEK, HIW.VUM, PID KEL, WAV, TUV, ZOF, GEK, HIW.

Now pull out a piece of paper and a pen, Now pull out a piece of paper and a pen, and lets see how many you can and lets see how many you can remember.remember.

After learning such a list, Ebbinghaus could After learning such a list, Ebbinghaus could recall few of the syllables the following day. But recall few of the syllables the following day. But were they entirely forgotten? As it turned out the were they entirely forgotten? As it turned out the more frequently he repeated the list aloud on more frequently he repeated the list aloud on day 1, the few repetitions he required to relearn day 1, the few repetitions he required to relearn the list on day 2. Here, then, was a simple the list on day 2. Here, then, was a simple beginning principle: beginning principle: The amount remembered The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning.depends on the time spent learning. Even Even after we learn material, additional rehearsal after we learn material, additional rehearsal (overlearning) increases retention.(overlearning) increases retention.

Rehearsal will not encode all information equally well. Rehearsal will not encode all information equally well. Sometimes merely repeating information, such as the Sometimes merely repeating information, such as the new phone number we are about to dial, is not enough to new phone number we are about to dial, is not enough to store it for later recall. How then do we process store it for later recall. How then do we process information into long-term memory? Processing our information into long-term memory? Processing our sensory input is like sorting though the day’s mail: We sensory input is like sorting though the day’s mail: We instantly discard some items and open, read, and retain instantly discard some items and open, read, and retain others. We process information n three key ways – others. We process information n three key ways –

by encoding meaning, by encoding meaning, by visualizing the information and by visualizing the information and by mentally organizing it.by mentally organizing it.

Quiz Time:

Thinking back to our original list, how many of the words can you remember?

- On YOUR OWN, write down the as many of the words as you can remember.

Memory Test: 2Memory Test: 2 Memorize the following list of words: There will Memorize the following list of words: There will

be a quiz at the end to see how many you can be a quiz at the end to see how many you can remember:remember:

fishgeneratorduckShakespearearound pridethenchairfoxyou

pondbicyclebecause

pencilpumpkin

vacation

garbagesaltwordother

Which of the words did you remember?Which of the words did you remember?

Did you notice anything about the Did you notice anything about the positions of the words that you noticed? positions of the words that you noticed? Eg. First words, last words etc…?Eg. First words, last words etc…?

Turn to page 424 to learn more about Turn to page 424 to learn more about memory.memory.