Membrane Potentials and

Action Potentials

Electrical potentials exist across the Electrical potentials exist across the membranes of virtually all cells of the membranes of virtually all cells of the body. In addition, some cells, such as body. In addition, some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells, are capable of nerve and muscle cells, are capable of generating rapidly changing generating rapidly changing electrochemical impulses at their electrochemical impulses at their membranes, and these impulses are membranes, and these impulses are used to transmit signals along the used to transmit signals along the nerve or muscle membranes. In still nerve or muscle membranes. In still other types of cells, such as glandular other types of cells, such as glandular cells, macrophages, and ciliated cells, cells, macrophages, and ciliated cells, local changes in membrane potentials local changes in membrane potentials also activate many of the cells’ also activate many of the cells’ functions.functions.

Membrane potential (MP) - a transmembrane potential difference that exists between the inner and outer surfaces of the plasma membrane.

Resting potential (RP) - a membrane potential of excitable cells that are at rest. In other words, RP - a special case of membrane potential. 

Measuring the Membrane Measuring the Membrane PotentialPotential

The membrane in this instance is permeable to The membrane in this instance is permeable to the potassium ions but not to any other ions. the potassium ions but not to any other ions. Because of the large potassium concentration Because of the large potassium concentration gradient from inside toward outside, there is a gradient from inside toward outside, there is a strong tendency for extra numbers of strong tendency for extra numbers of potassium ions to diffuse outward through the potassium ions to diffuse outward through the membrane. As they do so, they carry positive membrane. As they do so, they carry positive electrical charges to the outside, thus creating electrical charges to the outside, thus creating electropositivity outside the membrane and electropositivity outside the membrane and electronegativity inside because of negative electronegativity inside because of negative anions that remain behind and do not diffuse anions that remain behind and do not diffuse outward with the potassiumoutward with the potassium..

Within a millisecond or so, the Within a millisecond or so, the potential difference between the inside potential difference between the inside and outside, called the and outside, called the diffusion potential, , becomes great enough to becomes great enough to block further net potassium diffusion block further net potassium diffusion to the exterior, despite the high to the exterior, despite the high potassium ion concentration gradient. potassium ion concentration gradient. In the normal mammalian nerve fiber, In the normal mammalian nerve fiber, the potential difference required is the potential difference required is about 94 millivolts, with negativity about 94 millivolts, with negativity inside the fiber membrane.inside the fiber membrane.

The diffusion potential level across a The diffusion potential level across a membrane that xactly opposes the net membrane that xactly opposes the net diffusion of a particular ion ethrough the diffusion of a particular ion ethrough the membrane is called the membrane is called the Nernst potential Nernst potential for for that ionthat ion..

When a membrane is permeable to several differentWhen a membrane is permeable to several different ions, the diffusion potential that develops depends on three ions, the diffusion potential that develops depends on three factors: factors:

(1) the polarity of the electrical chargeof each ion, (1) the polarity of the electrical chargeof each ion,

(2) the permeability of the membrane ((2) the permeability of the membrane (PP) to each ion, ) to each ion,

(3) the concentrations ((3) the concentrations (CC) of the respective ions on the ) of the respective ions on the inside (inside (ii) and outside () and outside (oo) of the membrane. ) of the membrane.

Thus, the following formula, called the Thus, the following formula, called the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation, , gives the calculated membrane potential on gives the calculated membrane potential on the the inside inside of the membrane when two univalent positive ions, of the membrane when two univalent positive ions, sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), and one univalent sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), and one univalent negative ion, chloride (Cl–), are involved.negative ion, chloride (Cl–), are involved.

The main physical characteristics of the RP

1Polarity. On the inner surface of the membrane resting potential is electronegative in respect of "zero" of the Earth. In other words, the outer surface of the membrane is charged positively, and internal - negatively.

2Sustainability of magnitude. Value of the RP for a particular structures (nerve fiber, muscle cells, neurons) are constant.

3Absolute value. RP has the following meanings: nerve fibers - -90 mV, skeletal muscle fibers - -90 mV, smooth muscle - -50-60 mV, neurons of the central nervous system - -40-60 mV.

Under the influence of some factors the absolute value of RP is subject to change. There are two types of changes the value of the RP - depolarization and hyperpolarization

Ionic mechanisms for the origin of resting potential

Origin of the Normal RestingOrigin of the Normal RestingMembrane PotentialMembrane Potential

Contribution of the Potassium Diffusion Potential. Assume that the only movement of ions through the membrane is diffusion of potassium ions, as demonstrated by the open channels between the potassium symbols (K+) inside and outside the membrane. Because of the high ratio of potassium ions inside to outside, 35:1, the Nernstpotential corresponding to this ratio is –94 mV because the logarithm of 35 is 1.54, and this times –61 mV is –94 mV. Therefore, if potassium ions were the only factor causing the resting potential, the resting potential inside the fiber would be equal to –94 mV.

Contribution of Sodium Diffusion Through the Nerve Membrane.

Contribution of the Na+-K+ Pump

The Na+-K+ pump is shown to provide an additional contribution to the resting potential. There is continuous pumping of three sodium ions to the outside for each two potassium ions pumped to the inside of the membrane. The fact that more sodium ions are being pumped to the outside than potassium to the inside causes continual loss of positive charges from inside the membrane; this creates an additional degree of negativity (about –4 millivolts additional) on the inside beyond that which can be accounted for bydiffusion alone. Therefore, the net membrane potential with all these factors operative at the same time is about –90 mV.

Action potentials are rapid changes in the membrane potential that spread rapidly along the nerve fiber membrane.

The main physical characteristics of AP

1. Polarity of the AP

2. Оvershoot

3.The amplitude of the AP

4 . Duration of the AP

5. Wavelength of the AP

6. Speed distribution of the AP

The main physiological characteristics of the AP

  

1 Obeys the law of "all or nothing." This means that: • AP occurs when the stimulus, the power which is no less than certain thresholds; • Physical characteristics of the AP (amplitude, duration, shape) does not depend on the power of stimulus.

2 Ability to autospread along the cell membrane without damping, ie without changing their physical characteristics.

3 AP accompanied with refractory.

4 AP is no capable to summation.

Resting Stage. This is the resting membrane potential before the action potential begins. The membrane is said to be “polarized” during this stage because of the –90 millivolts negative membrane potential that is present.

Depolarization Stage. At this time, the membrane suddenly becomes very permeable to sodium ions, allowing tremendous numbers of positively charged sodium ions to diffuse to the interior of the axon. The normal “polarized” state of –90 millivolts is immediately neutralized by the inflowing positively charged sodium ions, with the potential rising rapidly in the positive direction. This is called depolarization.

Repolarization Stage. Within a few 10,000ths of a second after the membrane becomes highly permeable to sodium ions, the sodium channels begin to close and the potassium channels open more than normal. Then, rapid diffusion of potassium ions to the exterior re-establishes the normal negative resting membrane potential. This is called repolarization of the membrane.

Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel