Medieval India Medieval India about the cover 1.Mount Abu, VlmalaVasahi,Sabha Mandap ceiling. A.D.1031. Solankiperlod 2.Fatehpur Sikri. Dlwan-l -Khas 3.Surya. Sun Temple.Konarak. Orissa 4.The Golden Temple Medieval India A TextbookforClassXI MEENAKSHIJAIN ~ I < ? I "~~ U AaIRmvrllfUTqR"" NATIONAL COUNCilOFEDUCATIONAL RESEARCHANOTRAINING Fi rstEdition NOI'I!ml1rr200'2 Ku,.,ika1924 1'0 7ST SU ISBN81 7450-171 1 f:'t ","O .. 'I\;I.Jnlru ... ',..UO ....OIl,"1""'".....'" (' .. ' ... m., ..... ,H.'...-nUtA1; ..I..... ,HlM"IT...,NI..........,_....,.... " ".'-''";'1>, ...,''''1',,.., '* ANe'"",IND".................................................................................................................. THEendof theNeolithicperiodsaw verydifferentkindofdevelopments indifferentareas.Wh ileinthe IndusandSaraswativalleysthere emerged,though slowly,afull-fledged c ivili zation,incentralIn di aand Deccan avery different kind of culture developed which, thoughusing metal, never reachedthe level of urbanisation. ThiswasknownasCha!colithic culture.Someof thesecultureswere contemporarywiththeHarappan ; ; ~.. I' , ..... .' .' culture and other were decidedly later than Harappan.These cultures s hared certaincommonfeatures.Theyare allcharacterisedbypaintedceramic, usuallyblack-an-red,aspecialised blade and flake industry of the silicious matcriallikechalcedony and chert, and copper andbronze tools,though on a restrictedscale.Theireconomywas basedons ubs is t en ceagriculture, stock-raising and hunting and fishing. Q " ~ Fig.7.1Important ChalcoUthic and Copper Hoard Sites ...................................................... . ..................... . .. .THECHALCOUTHICCUL.lURESOFINDIA SomeimportantChalcolithic cultures are: Ahar culture0.2800-1500B.C Kayatha culture0.2450-1700B.C. Malwaculturec.1900-1400B.C. Savalda culturec.2300-2000B.C. Jonve cui turec.1500 -900 B.C. Prabhas culturec.2000-1400B.C. Rangpurculturec.1700-1400B.G. The most distinguishing feature of theseChaJcolithicculturesistheir distinctpainted pottery.The Kayatha cultureischaract.erizedbyasturdy red-slippedware painted withdesigns in chocolate colour,ared painted buff wareandacombedwarebearing incisedpatterns.TheAharpeople made adistinctiveblack-and-red ware decoratedwithwhitedesigns.The Malwa ware israther coarse in fabric, but has athick buff surface over which designs are made either in red or black. ThePrabhasandRangpur waresare bothderivedfromtheHarappan,but have aglossy surface due to which they arealsocalledLustrousRedWare. Jorwe ware too is painted black-on-red but has amatt surfacetreated with a wash.Someof themost well-known potteryformsaredishes-on-stand, spoutedvases,stemmedcups, pedestalled bowls, big storage jars, and spoutedbasins andbowls. Most of these Chalcolithic cultures flourishedinsemi -aridregionsof Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat and Maharashtra.Thesettlements of Kayathacultureareonlyafewin number,mostlylocatedonthe Chambal and its tributaries.They are 57 t ANCIENTINDIA .... . .. .. .. ...... ......... .. relatively small in size and the biggest! .; , . o . ~ maybenotovertwohectares.In contrasttosmallKayathaculture settlements those of Ahar Culture are big.At least three of them namely Ahar, BalathalandGilundareof several hectares.Stone, mud bricks, and mud wereusedfortheconstructionof housesandotherstructures. Excavations reveal that Balat helwas a well fortified settlemen t.The people of Malwaculturesettledmostlyonthe Nannadaand Its tributaries.Navdatou, EranandNagadaarethethreebes t knownsettlementsof Malwaculture. Navdatolimeasures almost 10 hectares and is one of the largestCha1colithk settJements in the country.ft hasbeen seenthatsomeofthesesiteswere fortified and Nagada had evena bastion ofmud-bricks.Eransimilarlyhad a fortificationW111withamoat. Unfortunatelynotmorethanhalf a dozensettlementsof Prabhasculture are known.The Rangpurculture sites arelocatedmos tlyonGheloand Kalubhar rivers in GUjarat.The JOl'Vle settlements nre comparatively larger in number. More than 200 settlements are knownfromMaharashtra.Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaonare some of thebestknownsettlementsofthis cul ture.Thelargestoft h eseis Daimabad whichmeasured almost 20 hectares. TheChalcolithicpeoplebuilt rectangular and circular houses of mud wattle-and-daub.The circularhouses were mostly in clusters.These houses and huts had roofs of straw supported on bamboo and wooden rafters.Floors 58 Fig.7.3Reconstruction of all Excavated Chaloolit.hic Village-Ahar; Rajasthart were made oframmedclayandhuts wereusedfurstoragealso.People raised cattle as well ascult ivated both kharif and mbicrops in rotation.Wheat andbarleyweregrownintheareaof Malwa.Riceis reported tohavebeen foundfrom Inamgaon and Ahar.These people also cultivated jowar and bajra and so also kuUh,m g ~green peas, lentil and green and black grams. Almosta llt heseChalcolithic cultures flouri shedin the black cotton soilzone.This clearlyrepresentsan ecologicaladaptationdictatedby availabletechnology,knowledgeand means.Ananalogywithpresent-day agriculturalmethodsin these regions leadstothesuppositionthatweare dealingherewithasystemof dry farming,dependentonmoisture-retentive soils. TradeandCommerce Thereisevidencetoshowthatthe Chalco lithiccommunitiestradedand ....... .... . ... ...... THECHALCOLrrHlCCUL1URESOFI NOlA ~ exchangedmaterialswithothe r contemporarycommunities.Large(a) settlements like Ahar,Gilund. Nagada, Navdatoli ,Eran,Prabhas,Rangpur, Prakash,DaimabadandInamgaon wouldhaveservedasmajorcentres ~ ~ of tradeand exchange.It a ppears that Ahar people, settled close to the copper source,suppliedcoppertoolsand obj ectstoothercontemporary communitiesinMalwaandGujarat. ~ Ithasbeensu ggestedthatmostof(b) thecopperaxesfoundi nMalwa, JorweandPrabhasculturesbear someidentificationmarks, which are almostidentical,suggestingthat theymaybethetrademarksof the smiths who madethem.Conch shell forbanglesweretradedfromthe Saurashtra coast to various othcr parts of th eChalcolithicregions.Similarly, goldandivorymayhavecomefrom Tekkalkotta(Karnat aka)toJorwe people who in tum traded these to their contemporaries .Thesemiprecious ston esmayhavebeent r a dedto variouspartsfromRajpipla (Guj arat). Itis interesting to note that the Jorwe peoplet radedeventhepotteryto distantplaces,aslnamgaonpottery has been foun dat several sites located awayfromit.Thisremindsusof NorthernBlackPolishedWarebeing exported withthe trade fromtheplain Gangetic to far off regions,intheearly histori calperiod.Wheeledbullock carts,drawingsofwhichhavebeen foundonpots,wereusedforlong-distancetrade,besidestheriver transport. Fig.7.4 Objects of Religious Beliefs (a) Stylised BuU Figurines from KayatJuz, (b)Terraootta Objects from lruungaon R4!UgioU8 BeUer. Reli gionwasanas p ectwhich interlinked all the Chalcolithic cultures. The worship of mother goddess and the bull was in vogue.The bull cult seems tohavebeenpredominantinMalwa during the Ahar period . A large number ofthesebothnaturalisticaswellas s ~ y l i s e dlingashavebeenfoundfrom most of the sites.The naturalistic ones 59 t MetE'"INo"............. ........ ....... .... .... ................... ........................................... ..... .... .. may have served as votive offerings, but the small stylisedones mayhave been hung around the neck as the Lingayats dotoday. TheMother Goddess is depicted on ahuge s torage jar of Malwaculture in an appliquedesign.Sheisflanked by awoman on the rightand acrocodile ontheleft,bythesideofwhichis representedtheshrine.Likewisethe fiddle-shapedfigurinesresemblingsriuatsa,thesymbolof Laks hmi,theGoddessofwealthin historicalperiodrepresentamother Goddess. In apainted design on apot, adeity is shown with dishevelled hair, recalling the Rudra of later period. A painting on ajar foundfromDaimabad;showsa deity surrounded by animals and birds s uchastigersandpeacocks.Some scholarscompar eit withthe'Siva Pashupali'depictedonasealfrom Mohanjodaro. Twofigurinesfromi namgaon, belonging tolateJonveculture,have beenidentifiedaswho isworshippedfors u ccessbefore embarking on an undertaking. Several headless figurinesfoundat Inamgaon h avebeencompa redwithGoddess Visirao ftheMahabharata.Fire-worshipseemstohavebeenavery widespreadphenomenonamongthe Chalcolithicpeople.Fire-altarshave beenfoundfromalargenumberof Chalcolithic sites during the course of excavations. Theoccurenceof potsandother funer ary objectsfoundalong withthe burials of theMalwa and Jorwe people indicate tha tpeople had abelief in life after death. 60 The Chalcolithic cultures flourished duringthethirdmillenniuma nd secondmillenniumB.C.Alarge numberofsettlementslikeKayatha, Prabhas. Ahar,Balathal, Prakash and Nevasawere deserted, to be reoccupied after four tosix centuries later.[t has beenpostulatedthatthesecultures declined due to decline in rainfall which madeith ardfortheagricul tura l communitiesto sus rain . Technology TheChalcoUthicfarmershadmade considerableprogressinceramicas weUas metal technology.The painted pottery was wellmade and well fired in kiln.Itwasfiredatatemperature between500-700C.Inmetaltools wefindaxes,chisels,bangles,beads, h ooks,etc.whichweremostlymade of copper.Thecopper wasobtained, perhaps,fromtheKhetriminesof Rajasthan,Goldornamentswere extremelyrareandhavebeenfound onlyintheJonvec ulture.Anear ornamenth asbeenfoundfr o m Prabhas also.The find of crucibles and pairs of tongs ofcopper at lnarngaon showst h eworkingofgolds miths. Chalcedonydrillswereu sedfor pe rforatingbeadsofsemiprecious stones.Limewaspreparedoutof Kankar and used for various purposes likepaintinghousesandliningthe storagebins.etc. Copper' HoardCulture Since thefrrstreporteddiscoveryof a copper harpoon fromBithur in Kanpur districtin1822,nearly onethousand copper objectshavebeenfoundfrom ............... . .. . ....... . ............................... . ................. . . .THECHALCOLrrHICCULTURES0' I NOlAt almost90localitiesinvariousparts ofIndia.Asthesecopperobjects havemostlybeenfoundinhoards, th eyareknownasCopperHoards. ThelargesthoardfromGungeria (MadhyaPradesh)comprises424 piecesofcopperobjectsand102 thinsheetsof silver.Themaintypes of objectsarevariouskindsof celts, harpoons ,antennaeswords,rings andanthropomorphs.Wefindthat harpoons,antennaeswordsand anthropomorphs are basically confmed to Uttar Pradesh while various kinds of celts,ringsandotherobjectsare foundfromsuch diverse geographical -1 . . , 0 , '" I

Fig.7.5Copper HoardObjects 1. Anthropomarph,2-3.Antennae Swords, 4-5,7 Harpoons,6,Ring,8-11,Celts, Bar Celts areas as Rajasthan,Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Maharashtra.Scientificanalysisof thesecopperobjectsshowthatthey weremadeinopen or closedmoulds. Thesearegenerallymadeofpure copper,althoughveryinsignificant quantities of alloyshave beennoticed in some. The source of metal for these copperhoardsappearstotheKhetri copper mines as well as hillyregions of Almora District in UttaranchaL TheCopperHoardsinclude weapons and tools as wellas objects of worship.The harpoons andantennae swords are likely to have been used as weapons,whilevariousldndsof celts and a'l(es may have been used as tools. Bar celts appear to have been used for miningores.Theanthropomorphs, weighingquiteafewkilosand measuring upto 45 cm.inlength and 43 cm. in width, were possibly objects of worship. Even today all over northern Indiatinyanthropomorphsofthe sizeof4-10cm.areworshippedas Shanideuata. It is difficult to say as to who were the authors of these Copper Hoards. In the Gangetic plains afewpieces of these copper hoardshave been found a.ssociatedwithOchreColoured Pottery(OCP),discussedbelow. C)CPCulture Almost contemporary tothe later half oftheMatureHarappancivilization, there flourished aculture in the upper Gangetic plains whichisidentifiedby theuse of pottery with bright red slip 61 ft ANCIENTINO'"............................................................................ . "'\I ( ffi 1W 5={'4 ~ \ ) Q] and painted in black. This pottery has beenfoundalloverupperGangetic plains. During the course of excavation in the region it has been found that the sites yielding this pottery have suffered from extensivefloods.Many scholars thinkthattheentireupperGangetic plainswasforsomelengthoftime submergedunderwater.TheOCP people used copper tools and cultivated. rice, barley, gram and khaseri. The OCP shares many shapes with the Harappan ware. Duringthecourseof excavations, CopperHoardobjectswerefoundin association with DCP deposit at Saipai, inDistrict Etah.Also,fromalmost all the places in Ganga-Yamuna doab from where Copper Hoards have been found, 62 \; ) m \1J E- [t' 1 ([) Fig.7.6Ochre Coloured Pottery the OCP i1asalso beenfound.Dueto this,somescholarsthinkthatthe Copper Hoards are associated with DCP people,indaah.Buttheircultural associationinBiha r ,Bengaland Orissaisnotclear.Asmentionedin previoussectiononChalcolithic cultures,someofth ecopperh oard types,mainlycelts,havebeenfound associatedwithCh alcolithicpeople also. Besides, there are some other sites oftheupperGangavalleylike Bahadarabad,Nasirpur(Hard war) Rajpur - Parsu(Meerut)Bisauli (Badaun) a nd Baheria (Shahjahanpur) fromwhere copper hoardswere found earlieralsoyieldedOCPsherdsin subsequent explorations. ...............................................................................1 ) ~ E ~ CHALCOLITHICCUL1tJRESOFI NDIA?l' Exercises 1.Explainthefollowing: Chalcolithic,OCP,Anthropomorphs,CopperHoards. 2.Writeshortnoteson: (i)Chalcolithictechnology (ii)lmportantChalcolithiccultures (iii)Copper Hoards 3.HowistheChalcolithicculturedifferentfromtheNeolithicculture? 4.Describethereligiousbeliefsof Chalcolithicpeople. Locateontheoutlinemapof Indiasomeimportant Chalcolithic sites. Draw on your sketch book some vesselslike glass,cups and vase. 63 ",";I " CHAPTER8 THEHARAPPANCIVILIZATION ATthetimeof partitior, "f Indiain1947,barely40 settlementsbelongingtothiscivilizationwere known.carriedoutduringthelast50 yearsh2vE'alteredtheplCturecompletely. THEHarappancivilizationwas discoveredin1920-21following theexcavationsbyRD.Banerjeeat MohenjodaroandbyD.R.Saliniat Harappa.Since at that time the remains of the civilization were found only in the AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN o200I\OOKM L L ~ . ~. .1.1_--'-'_.L---" ...............THEH ARAPeANCIVILIZATIONt Indus valley,it came to be known also as the Induscivilization.A culture may also be named after the site from where it came to be knownforthe first time. Since, it was at Harappathat the relics of this civilization were firstnoticed, it , / No A Fig.8.1The Extent of the Harappan Civilization andits Important Sites 65 t ANCIENTINOlA.......................................... isalsoknownastheHarappan civilization.Atthe time of partitionof Indiain1947,barely40settlements belongingtothiscivilizationwere known.Researches carried out during thelast50yearshavealteredthe picturecompletely.Nowabout1400 settlementsbelongingtothe different phases of this culture are known from partsof India.I ntermsof political boundaries of today, of these 1400 sites nearly 925 settlements are in India and 475inPakistan.Thisancient civilizationofIndia,likeanyother, cannot properly be studied on the basis arits present daypolitical boundaries. Thegeographicaldistributionshould be its basis. The 1400 settlements, discovered so fararedistributedoveravelYwide geographical area.Its known e.x"tenl in thewestisuptoSutkagendorin Baluchistan;AlamgirpurinMeerut District(UttarPradesh)intheeast; Daimabad(AhmadnagarDistrict, Maharashtra)insouth;andManda (AkhnoorDistrict.Jammuand Kashmir)inthenorth,coveringan areaoralmost1600km.east-west and1400km.north-south.Thetotal geographi cala reaoverwhichthis civilizationflourishedismore than 20 times ort.he area of Egyptian aJld more than12times or the areaor Egyptian andMesopotamiancivilizations combined.Itcoversan area or about 12,50,000 sq.Ipn.These settlements are mostly located on river banks. WhenwelookatUlewstribution pattern of these settlements in terms or rivers,wefindthat(i)only40 settlementsarelocatedontheIndus 66 and its tributaries and(ii)asmany as 1,100 (80%) settlements arelocated on the vast plainbetweentheIndusand theGanga,comprisingmainlythe Saraswatiriversystemwhichisdry today,and(iii)about 250settlements are found in India beyond the Saraswati riversystemanumberor themin Gujarat, and arew in Maharashtra. Itisclearrromtheabove distribution pattern or settlements that the focusof Harappan civilizationwas nottheIndusbutt heSaraswati river and itstributaries whichflowed between the Indus and the Ganga.It is becauseorthisreasonthatsome scholarscal litIndus-Saraswati c ivilization.andfewprerertbe nomenclature Saraswati civilization. Mostofthe1400settlements belongingtothisc ivilizationcanbe classifiedas small villages(whichwoe upto10 hectares).afew larger towns and small cities (10 to 50 hectares) .Some orthe settlements like Mohenjodaro (+ 250 hectares),Harappa(+ 150hectares). Ganawariwala(+80hectares)and Rakhigarhi(+80hectares),Kalibangan (+100hectares).andOholavira(+100 hectares)caneasilybec lassedas largecities.Thefirstfiveareinland centreslocatedapproximatelyatan equidistancein azigzagpatternthat covers Indus and Saraswati river plain. ThelasttwoareIocat.edinRannof Kachchha. Eachofthesecitieswere surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers and forest that were inhabited by scatteredrarmingandpastoral communitiesandbandsorhUnters food-gatherers. .......................................... ... .............................................THEHARAPPANCIVILIZATIONt Majorexcavationsundertakenat thesitesofMohenjodaro,Harappa Kalibangan,Lathal ,Surkotada, Dholaviraetc. have given us afair idea aboutthevariousaspectsliketown planning, economy. technology,religion etc. ofWs civilization. TownPlanning Theoveralllayoutofthelndus-Saraswati cities is djstinguished by the orientationof streetsandbuildings, according tothe cardinal directions -east-west, andnorth-south.The idea of settlement planning didnot appear suddenly with theftrst large cities but was already well established in earlier periodashasbeenrevealedfromthe excavationsatKatDiji,Kalibangan, Harappa, Rahman Dhen, Nausharo etc. Thebasic layout at all these settlements (a) MOHENJODARO: ClTADELAND LOWER TOWN was established along agridthat was defined by large streets running north-south and east-west and fortification all around. Earlier it was thought that all cities were having astandard divisioninto a highwestern citadel and alower town tothe east reflecting the division of the citiesintorulersandtheservice communities,withthecraft s workshopslocatedinthelowercity. Butthisinterpretationisnotcorrect because large public buildings, market areas,large and smallprivate houses as wellas crafts workshops have been fOl.mdin all areas. Eachcitycomprisedaseriesof walledsectors or mounds, orientedin differentdirection.Mohenjodaro, HarappaandKalibanganhaveahigh rectangularmoundonthewestand (b) Fllg.B.2 Outlay Pian o/a Harappan City ra) Mohenjodaro (b) Kaiibangan 67 ANClENTINOLA........... ......... .... .... . ..................... . ......... . extensivemound tothenorth,south andtheeast.But atthesiteslike Dholavira and Banavali there was only asinglewalledmoundinternally divided into three or four walled sectors. TheexcavationsattJ1eHarappan city siteslikeMohenjodaro.Harappa, Kalibangan, Surkotada show that there werelargegateways atvarious entry pointsof the city.These gatewaysare seen even in the inner fortification areas also.AtDholavira alarge inscription, possibly afallensignboard, was found close tothe main gateway. The letters oftheinscriptionarethelargest example of writing ever discovered from any Harappan city, is made from white gypsum paste inlay set intoawooden plank.Tensymbolseachmeasuring approximately37 cm.highand25to 27 cm.wideproclaimed somename or title. Mounted above the gateway the signboardwould have been visible from along distance. MateriA11IuaedinBUJ1d.iUII'5 Thehousesbuiltbypeopleusually show considerable variation in the raw materialsusedandthestyleof construcLion.Themostcommon building materials in the alluvial plains, wheremostsettlementsarelocated, were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks, woodandreeds.However,inrocky foothillsandontheIslandsof Kutch andinSaurashtra,wherestoneis commonlyavailable,dressedstone replaced bricks. The average size of brick usedforhouseswas 7 LI:.x 15x30 em. but for the construction of fortification walls the size of the brick was of bigger "....... , ... . 68 SIZeviz.lOx20x40em.Bothsizesof bricks have identical proportions1:2:4. that the width is double the thickness and the length four limes, the thickness. Thedoorswindowsweremadeof woodandmats.Thefloorsof houses were generally hard-pac ked earth that was often plastered. Bathing areas and drains were made with baked bricks or stone.Someroomswerepaved with bricks or frredterracottacakes.Very fewactualrooffragmentshavebeen recovered.Theywereprobablymade ofwoodenbeamscoveredwithreeds andpackedclay.Inrareinstances timberalsoseemstohaveformeda semi-structuralframeorlacingfor brickwork. Type. of BuUdinCI Excavationshaveuncoveredmany typesof housesandpublicbuildings atbothlargeandsmallsettlements. Most of the architecture can be grouped intothreecategories,withsome variations:(i)private houses,{iiIlarge houses surroundedbysmaller units, and (iii)large publicstructures. Considerable variation is seen in the sizeof dwellings.whichrangefrom singleroomedtenementstohouses withcourtyardshavingupto dozenroomsofvaryingsizes. Doorways and windowsrarely opened out into the main street. but faced s ide lanes.Theviewintothehousewas blockedbyawalloraroomaround the front door.This was done to protect theactivitiesinthe central courtyard fromtheviewofpassers-by.This patternisstillmaintainedin . .... .. .... ...Till':HARAPPANCIVlUZATION/-t"adl tlo n Oo Jhousesth rnughoutthe Tndr Oang('tlcplains. Mnnyhouseswen..:n lleasttwo :;; tm Ird anddomescholu."':;;tlnnklhat som!'ofthehousesmayhavebeen ti1rf'Cs toriedwere commonly fou ud in the fOC'ms\Imost every house hudah."li hnmm,andill somecases there1:- CVldf":ceof bathrooms onthe firstfloor. 1b edoorswere- madewith woodenframes and abrick socket set inthethresholdservedas doorPl\ot. Some of I he doorsseemtohavebeen paint edandpossiblycarvedwilh simpleornamentationThewindows were small a.tfirst and "econd srorie-s. The adjacent houses were separated by anarrows paceQf-noman'sland". Almostallthebighouseshadawell withintheir courtyard.Deepgrooves on the bricks at the top edge of the well Fig.8.3 AnelView oJExcavated Ciradel Area of Mohenjodaro showthatropeswereusedtoliftthe \ .... aterup.probablywithleatheror woodenbuckets. Building. In several cities some large and distinct structureshavebeenfound .Their narurtOisseenintheirplan Fig.8.4 The Great Bath ofMohenjodaro and in thetr construction. Here we shall confineourselvesonlytoafew structures. Perhapsthemostremarkabl e featureofthecitadelmoundat MohenjodaroistheGreatBath.This finelybuiltbrickstructuremeasures 12mby7m,andisnearly3mdeep fmmthesurroundingpavement.It is approached at either endbyflights of steps.Thefloorofthebathwas constructed of sawn bricks set on edge ingypsummortar,withalayerof bitumensandwichedbetweenthe umer and outer brick Ilyers.Water was evidently suppHedby31well in an adjacent room, and an outlt!t fromone comer of the bath Jedto ahigh corbelled drain disgorging (Inthe west s ide of the mound.Surroupdingthebathwere 69 ANCIENTINDIA............ . .................. . ............................................................... . .................. . porticosandsetsofrooms,whilea s tairway led to an upper storey.It has beengenerallyagreedthatthisbath waslinkedwithsomesortofritual bathing whichhas been very common inIndianliferightfromtheancient timestill today. Immediatelytothewestofthe Greal Bath at Mohenjodaroisagroup of27blocksofbri ckworkcriss-crossedbynarrowlanes.Overallit measures50 m. east-westand27 m. north-south.Somewhatsimilar structureshavebeenfounda t Harappa,Kalibangana ndLothal. These structureshavebeenidentified asgr anarieswhichwereusedfor storing grains. To the south of granaries atHarappalayworkingplatforms consisting of the rows of circular brick platforms.Duringthecourseof excavation,impressionofalarge wooden mortar was foundplaced in the centreofoneof thesecircularbrick plat forms.Suchwoodenmortarsare usedinmanypartsoftheworldto remove the husk fromthe grain. Animportantstructureisthe dockyardfound at Lothal .It is alarge structure measuring 223 m.inlength , 35rn .inwidthand8m .indepth, providedwithaninlet channel(12.30 m.wide)intheeasternwallanda spillway.Theinletchannelwas connected to ariver.By its side is a 240 m.long and 21. 6mwide wharf.Most scholarshave identifiedthis structure as adockyardwhere shipsandboats cameforloadingandunloadingof goods.Inview of the fact that alarge number of seals havebeen foundin a warehouseclosetothedockyard, scholars think that Lothal was amajor trad ingcentreoftheHarappan civilization. Fig.8. 5Dockyard at Lothal 70 ...... ....................................................... ................ .............. ..'J)"HAIW'PANC>VIUZAT>ON; Streets andDrains Welllaid-outstreetsandsidelanes equippedwithdrainsarethemost outstanding features of the I-Jarappan civilization. ThetownswereweU plannedand the s treetscut each other on the right angles.Even the width of these streets were in aset ratio.lfthe narrowest lane was one unit in width, the other streets weretwice,thrice andso oninwidth. Further, the civic sense of people in this civilizationwassuchthat duringthe hey-dayofthecivilization,no encroachment on the streets was to be seen. According to scholars, such town-planningwasnotseeneveninthe nineteenth century London and Paris. Even smaller towns and villages had impressivedrainagesyst ems.This indicates that people had agreat civic sense of sanitation and care for health andhygiene.Smalldrainsmadeof burntbrickswereconnectedwith bathingplatformsandlatrinesof privatehousesjoinedthemedium-sized drains inthe side streets.These drainsranintolargersewersinthe mainstreets whichwere coveredwith bricksordressedstoneblocks . Corbelled-arch drains havealsobeen found. One of them is almost 6ft.deep which functioned as main drain taking al l the waste water out of the town.At regular intervals along the main sewage drains were rectangular sump pits for coll ectingwasteandthesewere regularly cleaned. Crafts andIndustries AlthoughtheHarappancivilizationis referredto as abronze age civilization, mostlyunalloyed copper was used for m anufacturingartefacts,andonly rarely tin wasalloyed in copper to make bronze.Tools and weapons were simple in foml. They included nat-axes, chisels, arrowhead,spearheads,knives,saws, razors ,andfi s h -hooks.Peoplealso made copper and bronzevessels. They made small pla tes andweights ofiead, andgoldandsilve rjewelleryof considerable sophistication. TheHarappanscontinuedtouse knivesof chertbladesa lso.Someof thesechertbladesarethefinest examples known from any early cu1rure. Agreatskillandexpertiseisseenin preciousandsemi-preciousston e beads and weights.Long barrel shaped cornelian beads (upto10cm. long)are tine fmest examples of craftsmanship. Steatitewasusedformakinga varietyofobjectslikeseals,beads, bracelets, buttons, vessels. etc. but its use in making faience (aformof glass) ispruticularlynoteworthy.Int his material beads, amulets, seal ingsand even animal models have been found. IntheHarappan civilization,gold objectsoccurintheformofbeads, pendants,amulets,brooches,ann Fig. 8.6 Ornaments 7 'l t AHaENTI NDIA....... ..... ...................................................................................................... . other smallornaments.The Harappan goldisof light colourincticatinghigh s ilvercontent.Onthebasis of alloys, ithasbeensuggestedthatgoldmay have come from Kamataka. Silver was relativelymorecommontbangold which is indicated by the occurrence of anumber of largevesselsandother objects. MatureHarappanpoltery representsablendoftheceramic tradition of the pre-Harappan culture of bothwestof theIndusregionas wellasoftheSaraswatiarea.The pottery technology was quite advanced. Most of the pots were wheel-made.Big storage jars werea lsoproduced.Pots were beautifully painted in black on the brightredsurfacewithgeometric designs,plants,animals.andafew paintingsseemt.odepict scenes[rom stoties. Morethan2500sealshavebeen found. 'l1lese are made of steabtc.They mostly depict asingle animal- unicorn bull,elephant,rhinocerosetc.- but s omealsodepicttrees,semi -human andhumanfigurines ,insomecases participating in a ceremony. Shellworkingwasa nother nourishingindustry. settlementsc loseto Artisans, thesea manufactureds hellornamentslike pendants,rings.bracelets,inlays, beadsetc.,besideobjectsasbowls, ladlesandgamesmen. TradeAndCommerce IntheHarappancivilization,the elaboratesocialstructureandthe standardof livingmusthavebeen 72 achieved by ahighly developed system ofcommun icationandstrong economy. tn this, intensive agricultural productiona n dlarge-scaletrade playedsignificantroles .Inthe beginning.trademusthavebeen internal ,i.e.betweenonezoneand anotller,andlater externaltrade also developed.Agriculturalproduce. industrialrawmaterial,likecopper ores,stone,semipreciousshells,etc. were traded.Besides the raw material, finishedproducts of metals(potsand pans, weapon, etc.). precious and semi-preciousstones(beads,pendants, amuletsetc.)ornamentsof goldand silver were also traded to various areas. Copper may havebeen procuredfrom Khetri mines ofRajasilian, chert blades fromRohrihillsofSindh,carnelian beadsfromGujaratandSindh,lead fromsou thIndia.lapis-lazulifrom KashmirandAfghanistan,turquoise andjadefromcentralAsiaorIran, amethyst from Maharashtra , and agale, chalcedony.andcarnelianfrom Saurashtra. Theoccurrenceofma t ure Harappansealsandotherartefacts incontemporaryMesopotamian civilization.andsomeofthe Mesopotainian aJld Egyptian objects in Harappancivilization,andthe evidence of Mesopotamian documents, establishthattheHarappansh ad tradingrelationship with that land. Weights and MeuW'Q. Thetrade,bothlong asweUas short distance,impliesaregulationof exchange and of weights and measures. ......... ...... ... . ......... ..................................... . .......THEH AR.mANC,V,LIZATIONt Harappan weights and measures were c ubicalandsphericalinshapeand weremade of chert, jasper and agate. The wejghtsproceedinaseries,first doubling,from1,2,4,8,to64,then going' to160;andfromthenonin decimal multiplesof sixteen, 320, 640, ]600, 6400(1600x4),8000(1600x5) and]28, 000(i .e.16000x8). InterestingLy, the tradition of16 or its multiples continued in India till1950s. Sixteenchhatank madeaser;and] 6 annas madeone rupee. The measures oflengthwasbaseduponafootof 37.6cm. and a cubitof5L8 to 53. 6em. TransportandTravel Representation sof shipsandboats a refoundonsomesealsa ndas graffitianpottery[romHarappaand Mohenjodaro.Atcrr8cottamodelof a fa) Bullock cart (b) Boat depICted on seaL.. Fig,8.7Modes o!1'ransport shiporaboat ,withstick-impressed socketforthemastandeyeholesfor fIxing oars has been foundfromLothal . Theboatsdepictedonsealsand potteryresembletheones usedtoday in Sindh and Punjab areas. Travel and transportwerecarriedonthrough s hipsandboats.Fortheoverland transportbullock-cartsandpack animals likebull,camel,ass etc. were used. The"terracotta models of bullock-cartandcarttracksfoundonroads Iromvarioussitesindicatethatcarts Llsedinthosedayswereinsizeand s,hapepracticaJlylikethepresent day ones. Il&Jiculture The granaries at some Harappan cities clearlysuggestthatcerealswere producedin such large quantities that notonly wereaUthe immediate needs Fig.8.B l'he PloughField Excavaled at Kalibangan ofl'ople duly met wi th, butthere was also enough reserve to faceany future e mergency. Theprincipal cereals seemto have been wheatandbarley.Rice,though known,wasafavouredgrain.Six varietiesofmilletsincludingragi, 73 ANCIENTI NDIA.... ............................ . . . .......................................................................... ...... . kodon,sanwa,a...ndjowarwere cultivated,asalsopeasandbeans. Remainsofricehavebeenfound mainlyfromGujaratandHaryana areas.Otherc ropsincludedates, varietiesoflegumes,sesameand mustard.Fragmentsof cottoncloth foundat Mohenjodaro and other sites s howthatcottonwasalsogrown. Cotton has been found at Mehrgarh at least2000yearsbeforethemature phaseof theCivilization.Thisisthe oldest evidence of cotton in the world. Agriculture was generally practised alongtheriverbanksmost of which werefloodedduringthe summer and monsoons.Theflooddepositedevery year freshalluvialsilt which ishighly productiveandforwhichnomajor furrowingandcertainlynomanures andirrigationarerequired.The cultivated field excavated at Kalibangan (periodI)showscrisscrossfurrow-marksindicating thattwocrops were grown simultaneously. This method is followedeventodayintheRajasthan. Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Fortillingfields.woodenplough withacopper 0: 'woodenploughshare wasused.l'erracottamodelsof theploughJavebeenfoundat Mohenjodaro jBanawali. Harvesting of cropswouldhavebeendonewith copper sickles as well as stone blades hafted in wood. The range of animals domesticated by the Harapp3..Ilpeople is quite large. Bonesofseveralanimalshavebeen found in excavations. Skeletal remains includesheep,goat ,bull ,buffalo, camel, pig, dog and cat, which 74 were all domesticated.A large number of animalh avebeendepictedonthe seals.Theseincl udesheep,goat, humpedbull,buffalo,elephant,etc. Bones of wild animals like spotted deer. sambhar deer,hog deer,wildpig,etc. arealsofOWldwhichevidenUywere hunted for food.Several types of birds as we.Uas fishes were also huntedfor food. Thebonesof camelshavebeen foundinlargenumber fromvarious sitesbut theanimal isnotdepicted onseals.Bones of horseshavebeen reportedfromLothal,Surkotada, Kalibanganandseveralothersites. Terracotta figurines of the horse have beenfoundat Nausharo and Lothal. Butnounambiguousd epictionof thisanimal onsealhasso farbeen found. Arts A large variety of objectssuch as seals, stonestatues,terracotta,etc.are superb examples of art activities. The most outstanding pieces are a yogi from Mohenjodaro andtwo small figurines fromHarappa.Bronzesarerare,the mostfamousbeingasmal lfema le statueofabout11.5cm.inheight identifiedasdancinggirl,from Mohenjodaro.Significantly,thishas beenmadebythe lost wa.xmethod of casting.Daimabadbronzeanimals workmanship most probably belong to Harappanperiod.Theredsandstone torsofoundatHarappaismadeof detachable limbs and head and the grey stonetorsoperhapss hows adancing figure.Boththesearesorealistic ... ................................ . ............THEHARAPPANCIVILIZATION thathadtheynotbeenfoundin archaeological excavations none would believethattheybelongtothe Harappanperiod. Harappan people produced alarge number of terracotta figurineswhich werehandmade. The figurines include humans,animals,birds,monkeys, Fig.8.9 Specimen of Artfrom Harappan Civilization (a)BroTlze statue 'Dancing Girl' (b) Termcotta Bulls (e)Terracotta Female Figurine (d)Head of aYogi (e) Painted Jar dogs, sheep and cattle. Figurines of both humped and humpless bulls are found. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.Butthemosta rti stic depictionsarethefiguresof humped bull.Otheranimalsareelephants, tigers,r hinoceros,ram,etc.Humans me also occasionally depicted. 75 t. ANe,"NTINDIA........... . ......................... ...... As forthe evidence of paintings We'" have it only onpottery.Unfortunately nowallpaintings,evenif therewere any, have SUrvlVed. Script ThelanguageofHarappansisat present still unknown and must remain sountiltheHarappanscriptisread. Thoughseveralattemptshavebeen madebutnonehasbeenconvincing andacceptabletoall.Somescholars connectittoDravidian languages and others toIndo-Aryan and Sanskrit. There arenearly 400 specimens of Harappansignsonsealsandother materials such as copper tablets, axes, andpottery.Mostof the inscriptions on seals are small, a group of few letters. :g.8.10 fa) Seal popularily known as Siua Pasupati(bJ and Ie)Other seals witll HaroppunScript 76 AfewbearonlyonesmglehignThe Harapp311script has 400 to500 signs and its isgetlcraUy agreed that it is 110t analphabeticf01mofwriting.Some scholarsopineth, .. " . . CHAPTER18 INDIAFROMTHEGUPTASTOHARSHA.. LUCEtheMaurya$ a fewcenturies eallier, the GUpt3s made. aperma(lentimpactonIndianhistoryby b.uilding up alarge o;oInpireMd by firmly establishing seveialtrendsef Indi,lD,cuLtUl;"ehadinthe:earlierperiods, .......nlua .oN " "'.I11 1)Il"a Ir,.u'II"

, JI!1\ J.AI... ,.....tt,.",ill ,." , '" , .ANCI ENTINDIA.. .. ... . . ...... . . ... . .. ..... .. . ... ..... . . ... . ........ .. . . . . . ........ ..... Emergenceof theGupt". As you have seen in the earlier chapter, north India intermittently came under therule of several foreignpeople. such as theYavaflQS(the name givento the Greeks,RomansandwestAs ians) Kushanas, Sakas, Parthians, etc. These peoplebegantosettleinnorth-west Indi afromthefi rs tcent u ryB.C. onwards. Mos t of Utese people came to lndia due to the turbulent condition in central As ia. They adapted themselves withIndianculture,andatthesame time, introduced some new elements in it.BetweenUtefirst centuryB.C.and third century A.D.the Satavahanasin the Deccan, the Kushanas in the north andtheSa.kas in the west emerged as thethreebigpoliticalpowers,and workedasastabi li singfactorin theseregions.Theempi resofthe Satavahanas and Kushanas came to an endinthe middleof thethird century A. D.andanewdynastyemergedin north India, known as the Guptas. Like the Mauryas afew centuries earlier, the Guptasmade apermanent impact on Indianhis torybybuildingupalarge empireandbyfirmlyestabli shi ng severaltrendsof Indian culturewhich hadbegunintheearlierperiods.The Guptakingsareknownnolonlyfor theirpoli ticalmight andstrengthbut also for great achievements in the fi eld of scicnce, art . culture and literature. AbouttheeW'lyGuptas wedonot knowmuchindetail.TheAllahabad pillarinscriptionofSa mudragupta ment ionsmallarajaSrig uptaand maharajaGha to tkac haa shi s ancestors.I tsing.whotravelled India from A.D.671 to 695refers to Srigupta asthebuilder of atemple a tGayafor the Chinese pilgrims, 500 years before his ti me. This king Sriguptahasbeen identifiedwiththefirst Guptaking of that name mentioned in the AJiahabad pillar inscription. The Pwnnasmention thattheearlyGuptascontrolledthe areaalongtheGanga, (fhemiddle Gangetic basin) , Prayag (Allaha bad and surrounding region),Saketa (Ayodhya region)andMagadha.Sriguptawas succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha who too isreferred to as rruPtaraja in Gupta records. InA. D.320Cha.ndraguptaI succeeded hi s fathe(.G&"atotkacha. lt is saidthat helaidthefoundation of the greatGuptaempire.ChandraguptaI marri edaLichchhaviprincess Kumaradevi . The Li chchhavis (to whom Gautama Buddha belongs) were an old andestablishedGanarajyaandquite powerful , still being respected in north India.Thisma rriagea ll ia nceof Chandragupta I was important for his political career as is proved by the coins ofChandraguptaIa ndKumaradevi type. These coinsportray thefi gures of Chandragupt.aandKumaradevi andmentionthenameofthe Lichchhavis.Samudragupta,sonof Chandragupta1 andKumaradevi,in theAllahaba dinscriptionproudly caJ ledhimselfLichchhauis-dauhitra 'sonof thedaught.erofLichchhavis' . Chandragupta J introduced anew era, theGuptaera ,s t a rtingwith hiscorona tioninA.D.320.Hewas ....... .........................I NOlAFROMTHEGUPTASTOHARSHA - .IRAtI/A\, Sl:.l --_. -..-,... THE GUPTA EMPIRE - - 1\>w'''-''''''GUPTASTOHARSHA -Fig.19.9Cave19 at Ajanta TheGuptaartistsandcraftsmen werenolesscapableinworkingwith metals. The famous iron pillar at Delhi, nearQutubMinar,isamarvelin metallurgicalskillandtechnology. The art of casting copper statues, coins, andcoppersealsetc,onalarge scale shows the handling of metal work at its best. A copper image of Buddha, about80feethighwaserectedat Nalanda in Bihar, and afine Sultanganj Buddha, 7% feet high, can still be seen inBirminghamMuseum.Coins werefinelystruckanddieswere carefullyengraved.Sealsattachedto copper-plates are also examples affine workmanship. l>aintlngs The tradition of paintings in India can betracedfromprehistoricrockart paintingfoundatBhimbetaka, Mirzapurandvariousothersites. Literary evidence also leavesno doubt that the art of painting was cultivated inIndiafromveryremotetimes.The paintings were used forthe decoration ofwalls.Thebestexamplesof paintings in IndiainAjanta and 8agh caves were done between the first and the seventhcentury A.D.At Ajanta of t he29cavestracesofpaintings can be seen in sixteen caves. In Ajanta t hesurfaceofthecaveswerefirst covered by amixture of clay. cowdung, Fig.19.10SheshashayeeVishnu, VishnutempleDeogmh fine pulverised traprock, and then athin coatingoffinewhiteplaster.The groundthuspreparedwascarefuUy smoothened and kept moistened.This produced a surlace on which the design wasfirstsketchedandthenpainted. 205 t ANCIENTI NOlA................................. .. ......................... Fig.19.11DurgaTempleat Aihole The usual colours used are white, red, brown,greenandblueinvarious shades.Thepicturesdepict figuresof Buddhaandvariousepisodesofhis presentandpastlivesi.e.,Jataka stories.Animals and vegetablesare is drawninprofusionforthesakeof ornamentalion.Thedesignsareas varied and graceful as they are fanciful. The painting on the rock-cut temple atKailasaandtheadjoiningcaves containpaintingsofasomewhat differenttypeandstylefromthoseof Ajanta and Bagh. The cave temple ofSittannavasal in Pudukottai (Madras) contains some fme paintings of the time of the Pa11ava king Mahendravarman.Theyareelegant and beautiful, andshow the degree of excellencewhichtheart had attained during Pallava era. 206 Fig.19.12Painting$in Ajanta Cave ........... .............. .SocIETY.ECONOMYANOCUen!REPROMTHEGUPTASTOHARsHAt ScienceandTechnology In the field of mathematics, astronomy andmedicine,Indiahadmuch advanced knowledge dwing this period in comparison to any other country in theworld.Thesedevelopmentsin scienceandtechnologyinIndiawere firstborrowedbyArabsandthenby the western world. InAncientIndia,mathematics andastronomyo riginateda nd developedinVedictimesit self.In mathematics,Aryabhatawrotethe bookAryabhattiya.inKusumpura (Pataliputra) when he was 23 years old. Aryabhattiya is divided into four parts. Asregardsgeometry,Aryabhata considersamong other topics, an area of atriangle,the theorem on s imilarity of triangles,thearea of circle andU1e theoremrelatingtorectangles contained by the segments. One of the most important features of Aryabhata's mathematical system is hisuniquesystemofnotation.Itis basedonthedeci malplace-value system,unknowntootherancient people,but now in use throughout the civilizedworld.Theotherfamous mathematician was Brahmagupta who wroteBrahmsiddhanta inc.A.D.628 Hi sotherwellknownworkwas Khandakhadyaprobably composed in A.D.665.Hedevelopedrulesfor operating withnegativequalitiesand withzero.HebegantoapplyAlgebra to astronomical problems. Astronomy Astronomy and Astrology are included inancientIndjainatennknownas Juotisa. Varahamihira, who flourished in.thecourtof Chandragupta 11,has pl-eservedinhisPanchasiddhantika, written in A.D. 505, the accounts oHive astronomicalworkswhi chwere evidentlyregarded as authority inhis owntime.Thesefiveworksor slddhantas areknownasPaitamaha, RomakaJ PaulisaJ Vasishthaand Surya.TheSuryasiddhantaisthe most important and complete work on the astronomy of the period. In the field of astrology, we are also muchindebted toVarahamihira.Hehas,inhis encyclopaedicworkBrihatsamhita, preservedaconsiderableamountof ancient knowledge on the subject. His Brihatsamhita,besides being the most importanttextbookonnatural astrology,isaveritablecompendium ofAncientIndianlearninginthe fieldofscience.Varahamihira'sson, Prithuyashastoowasanardent studentof astronomy,I;lndwrote,in aboutA.D.600,aworkcalled Harashatpanchashika. Asinmathematics,sotooin astronomy,Aryabhatawasan outstanding scholar of the Gupta age. Hismostoriginalcontributionwas however, that the eclipses were not the workofRahu,asbelievedbysome a.strologers, but caused by the shadow oftheearthfallingonthemoon, therefore,assertingthemovementor earth on its own axis around the sun, aswasknowninVedictimes. AIyabhata wasthe firsttoutilizesign functions in astronomy. He discovered EUlaccurateformulatomeasurethe decrease or increase inthe duration of two consecutive days. 207 ~ ~ANCIENTINDIA..... Medicine Ayurueda, the name of Indian medical sciences,literallymeansscien ceof longevity.Its origin dates back to Vedic times.Oversevenhundredhymnsin theVedas particularly in Atharoaveda refertothetopicsconnectedwith Ayurveda.Thegreatwriterofthis periodisVagabhata,whoranksonly next to Charaka and Susnlta. The two famousworksoftheperiodare Astanga-sangrahaandtheAstanga-hirdaya-samhitaassignedtotwo different authors by the same name Le., Vagabhata. There were also treatises on the diseases of animals. The best known isHastyayuroeda.It deals elaborately with the diseases peculiar to elephants. A similar treatise on the horse known asAsvasastra waswrittenbysage Salihotra. Metallurgy Another science which developed along with medicine is chemistry. Nagarjuna, the great Mahayanist, is reputed to have distinguishedhimself also in chemistry. Besides medicine, chemistry must have substantially helped in the development of metallurgy. The Mehrauli iron pillar remains aliving monument that shows theprogressinmetallurgyachieved 1500 years ago by Indians. This is 7.32 meters highwith adiameter of 40 cm at thebaseto30 cm.at thetopand 208 Fig.19.13Iron Pillar at Mehrauli weigh about 6tonnes. It has withstood allthevagariesof naturesuchas rams,heat and coldforover allthese 1500 years without rusting. SOC''''''.ECONOMYANOCULTUREFROMTHEGUPTASTOHARSHA* Exercises 1 .Explainthefollowing: bhukti,Vishaya,Adhisthanadhikarana,bhakti,Nayanaras,Aluars, Sresthi,Sarthavaha,Kulika,Niganul,Avatars. 2.DescribetheadministrativesystemduringtheGuptaperiod. 3.Describethecity administration during theGuptaperiod.Inwhataspect diditdifferfromtheadministrativesystemof theMauryanperiod? 4.Describetheliterarytrendsof theperiodwithspecialreferencetoworks compliedduringthisperiodbothin TamilandSanskrit. 5.WriteabouttheChinesetravellerswhocametoIndiaduringthisperiod. 6.DescribethedevelopmentsinBuddhismandJainismduringthisperiod. 7 .Describetheevolutionof VaishnavismandSaivism. 8 .Writeabou ttheeconomicconditionsduringthisperiodwithspecial referenoetotradeandcommerce. 9.Writeabout thedevelopment inthefieldof art,archi tectureandpainting duri ngthisperiod. 10.Describetheachievementsinthefieldofscience,mathematicsand metallurgy. Makeaprojectontheartandarchitectureof theperiod. Readany Iilerary workof theperiod. On an outlinemap of India show the important cities of the period. VisitthemuseumsandcoHectpicturesofdifferentcoi n sand sculpturesandidentifythem. 209 ." " .. CHAP'l'ER20 "'",I }I,_MW" ..,nwr. ttl" ...T:>""U. tl._a.> lM ""u ''In'''' IT!'".. ,Ii"ilLW""'''''U ut ., INDIAAFTERHARSHA 111It.141' ...,M", .. :IOII , '"T,J:n"-,.",, 'ell n,n """ .... ...'>'1",''4i(Ol>lVU,n,\WIH"-ln_"..... .. _,," .. ,J(rrw1.>,1'1'TIl'".,!L"I.D!.U1........ ,.... Itt"'\!U '"'1'11'n"f1.1r.'