Meaning of Life (MOL) 1 Philosophical Perspectives (Wikipedia Material) Read this part of the Wikipedia Material in your textbook, and follow the prompts in this presentation! SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND PERSPECTIVES Origin and Nature of Life and the Universe Ptolemy Spheres Foldable Portable Cup Natural Philosophy = TODAYS Science Science / Natural Science was separated from Philosophy on the basis that it gathers Empirical Knowledge (facts gathered through the 5 senses/ Sense Experience - EMPIRICISM) as opposed to Non-Empirical Knowledge (information gathered through Human Thinking/Reason alone without any specific proof or fact gathering through the use of sense of experience - RATIONALISM). By making this major assertion, modern-day scientists are contradicting themselves: they call their scientific inquiry rational yet because it is empirical in nature, it cannot be called rational according to the modern definition of Science, so their inquiry lacks totality / wholeness. If Scientists are just Empiricists, they are mere (just) Modelers, and if they are just Rationalists, they are mere Thinkers. However, if they are BOTH Empiricists and Rationalists at the SAME TIME, they are Creative Thinkers. Actually, Idealist Rationalists are more creative than Empiricist Rationalists because Thought creates Form and not the other way around. This is the separation between Tier 1 Natural Philosophy (Idealist-Rationalist / Idealist-Rationalist-Empiricist Scientists) hardly found in mainstream universities, and Tier 3 Science (Empiricist Scientists) found in almost all mainstream universities. 1) Scientific Inquiry and Perspectives: Psychological Significance and Value in Life 2) Origin & Nature of Biological Life 3) Origins & Ultimate Fate of the Universe 4) Scientific Questions about the Mind 5) Parapsychology Idealism vs. Rationalism vs. Empiricism Rationalism In epistemology => "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge, or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification". More formally, defined as a methodology or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive". Reality has an intrinsically logical structure, so rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. Certain rational principles exist in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. Such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence are unnecessary to ascertain truth in other words, "there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience". Because of this belief, empiricism is one of rationalism's greatest rivals. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism Empiricism Knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. One of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions. Empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences. ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empir icism ) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empir icism Idealism Reality, or reality as we can know it = mental, mentally constructed, or immaterial. Epistemologically =>manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense => emphasizes how human ideas especially beliefs and valuesshape society. As an ontological doctrine => all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism 1) Scientific Inquiry & Perspectives TOPIC EXAMPLES: 1) Science of Happiness ; 2) Death Anxiety Investigation of various aspects of Life & Reality Big Bang, Origin of Life, Evolution plus Study of the OBJECTIVE FACTORS which correlate with the SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE of Meaning and Happiness. Sociology examines Value at the Social Level and looks at Value Systems such as Terror Management Theory Human Meaning of Life is derived from a fundamental (basic & deep) Fear of Death, and Values are selected when they allow human beings to escape the Mental Reminder of Death. Meaning of Life predicts better Physical Health Outcomes British National Health Service Five-Step Plan for Mental Well-Being based on a Meaningful Life: 1) Community & Family Connection ; 2) Physical Exercise ; 3) Lifelong Learning (Mental Exercise) ; 4) Giving to others ; 5) Mindfulness of the world around oneself Psychological Significance and Value in Life Recently added material in the Meaning of Life scientific portion of Wikipedia 1) Positive Psychology study of empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction, full engagement in activities, making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths, and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self. 2) Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity. 3) Science of Morality the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures. 4) Experimental Philosophy & Neuroethics research collect data about human ethical decisions. 5) Neurotheology controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. 2) Origin & Nature of Biological Life The exact mechanism of Abiogenesis [the natural process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis)] are unknown.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis Notable theories - RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world theory (metabolism without genetics). Different life forms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution. Biologists generally agree that life forms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology - studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA. Questions about the True Nature of Life Electro-Magnetic Holo-Graphic Universe Wave vs. Particle Light or Wave-Particle Light (Photons) / Energy is electrical and magnetic / Waves and Particles are moved by both Electricity and Magnetism. The computer we use today is based on Biological Computers also known as (aka) Life Forms. Discarnate/Uncarnate/Incorporeal (not within a biological machine body literally meaning not in flesh) Life Forms vs. Incarnate/Corporeal (within or inside a biological machine body literally meaning in flesh) Life Forms. WHO created the Biological Computer/Machine ? Lets go back to Essence and Existence. Who is the Father? Who is the Mother? Who is the Child? Life is not just a combination of material metabolic and reproductive processes. Life is Energy all- encompassing, self-generating, expanding and eternal that has cycles of birthing Discarnate Beings (Emanations), which in turn create their own Vessels (Biological Computers/Machines) of Incarnate Existence through Thoughts (light waves) and Vibrations (sound waves). HOW are these Biological Computers/Machines propagated? DNA is the template of Incarnate Existence. It carries all the programs of Incarnate Existence including the Holographic information that makes existence seem solid. Thats why so-called Reality is an Illusion. But this is not entirely true. There is a Reality, but it is not what we think it is. Biological Computers evolve through DNA expansion of energy. Once enough energy is embodied within the present DNA strands, more strands need to be created. This creation expands the different levels of the body of the Incarnate Being. Simply put, both Essence and Existence are made up of Electro-Magnetic Waves of Energy (Light and Sound). Consciousness is Electro- Magnetic as well. 3) Origins & Ultimate Fate of the Universe Big Bang Theory (Birth) (also a crass sexual joke by those who know the Truth) Big Freeze / Big Rip / Big Crunch Theory (Death) Theoretical Cosmology - studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the big bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own big bang resulting from the formation of a black hole in another parent universe. Multiverse theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes. Questions about the True Nature and Origin of the Uni-Verse In the beginning there was nothing: just silence (no sound wave of any kind) just darkness (no wave- particle of light of any kind) just stillness (no movement of energy, or kinetic energy of any kind) This NOTHING was SOMETHING It was the Potential Energy of the Mother The Yin. Then the word was spoken. What is this word? Words are sounds or sound waves, so the first sound was made by WHOM? The Father spoke the Word, and everything moved. Before the word was spoken, though, there was a Thought a wave-particle of energy or Photonic Light. Where did this Thought come from? It came from Nothing. This Nothing was the Yin, Potential Energy or the Mother. So, the Mother gave birth to the Father, the Thought, or Kinetic Energy. Once the Thought formed, the Word came out and this Word was the Child. God is all three the Mother, the Father and the Child at the same time. Once this happened, God expanded its consciousness and divided it as well into many Discarnate Essences, which in turn, became Incarnate Biological Computers/Vessels of Incarnate Beings. The so-called inanimate objects such as stars, planets, water and mountains are the Creation of the Child part of the Creator/God, which are animate in themselves because they are infused with the Energy of the Creator. Nothing is without the Life/Energy/Consciousness of the Creator. Kundalini Awakening Process Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CluQrWFloc gives a lot of information on this concept from a very similar perspective.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CluQrWFloc The Trinity and the Duality of Creation 4) Scientific Questions about the Mind Cognitive Science, Neuroscience (e.g. the Neuroscience of Free Will), Philosophy of Mind, and some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists => study the nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself, which are widely debated subjects in science. The explanatory gap = the hard problem of consciousness and the question of free will Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches (eg. Multiple Drafts Model) hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism. Andrei Linde => consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects. Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements", often encompassing a number of extra dimensions. Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience. Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism. 5) Parapsychology Back to Natural Philosophy? Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being". Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but apparently successful results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects. Wikipedia is a mainstream medium of information, so it encourages mainstream scientific method, which in itself is full of holes. Its not surprising that successful results would be ridiculed and ignored. If you do your own private research into the real genius scientists, you will be amazed to find out that those who understood Science as Natural Philosophy were indeed the ones who understood the Truth of the Reality of Existence. Once again, I am placing great importance on Metaphysics and Epistemology as the Basis for Natural Philosophy. If you understand these very well, you will also understand Axiology (Value Theory), and how to live your Life according to both the deterministic and free-will parts of existence apparently paradoxical if juxtaposed / set side by side. What are philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life? They are ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans. To Understand the meaning of this explanation, you must understand what ideals and abstractions mean. WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES Ancient Greek Philosophy Source: Important Socratic quotes Source: Platonism PLATO Socrates pupil/student (look at the word pupil, which actually has two meanings in English) Idealism belief in the existence of Universals Theory of Forms Universals do not physically exist like objects, but as heavenly forms The Republic: in a dialog, the character Socrates describes the Form of the Good Platonic Meaning of Life: To attain/achieve the highest form of Knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive/get utility/usefulness and value/worth. Important Platonic Quotes Connect the three parts of the Soul and three classes of Society from Platos Republic with the correct Hindu energetic chakras. Which chakra (or chakras) makes up the Appetite part of the Soul / Producers (Farmers & Craftsmen)? Which main chakra is connected to the Spirited part of the Soul / Auxiliaries (Warriors)? The word courage contains core or coeur (French Heart) meaning Essence/Heart/Centre. What is the relationship between a Warrior/Defender and Courage? Which main chakra (or chakras) is associated with the Rational part of the Soul / Guardians (Rulers)? What does the word guardian mean? What does a Ruler do literally? Interestingly enough, in Romanian gard (guard in English) means fence. The ruler is a measuring device. So, by extension, what do Rulers and Guardians do? Why do you think they do this? What would happen if the Rulers and Guardians were not wise? What is the capacity of YOUR Vessel (Human Body)? Source: Aristotelianism ARISTOTLE one of Platos apprentices Ethical Knowledge = not certain knowledge such as Metaphysics and Epistemology, but general knowledge General Knowledge is not theoretical, but practical knowledge, so one must study and practice in order to become literally good as in virtuous instead of just good at something or doing something If one wants to become virtuous, one could not simply study what virtue is, but one would have to be virtuous by doing virtuous activities Aristotelian Meaning of Life: To achieve/get eudaemonia (translated as happiness, well-being, flourishing, and excellence) with the Goal of the Highest Good where every Action and Choice of Action is thought to have some Good as its object. (Nicomachean Ethics 1.1) Happiness = (Good Life + Successful Living) Highest Good (Nicomachean Ethics 1.4) Important Aristotelian Quotes Cynicism ANTISTHENES Socrates pupil Main Themes of Cynicism: 1) Living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature 2) Happiness depends upon being Self-Sufficient and a Master of ones Mental Attitude 3) Suffering = consequence of False Judgments of Value cause negative emotions and a concomitant (at the same time/simultaneous) vicious (Vice is the opposite of Virtue) character 4) Cynical Life rejects conventional Desires for Wealth, Power, Health (think deeply what this means especially about the issues of terminal illnesses that involve the willful desire for artificial/synthetic (opposite of natural) means of healing such as organ transplantation or any artificial/synthetic life prolongation systems at any cost) and Fame by being Free of the Possessions acquired by pursuing the conventional. Cynical Meaning of Life: To achieve Happiness via Rigorous Training towards Virtue by living in a way NATURAL to human beings. The World equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is VALUABLE and what is WORTHLESS according to the customs and conventions of society. Ponder the connections between Cynicism and the Philosophy of the Sufficiency Economy. Important Cynical Quotes Cyrenaicism = Hedonism ARISTIPPUS of Cyrene Socrates pupil Emphasized only one side of Socrates teachings: 1) Happiness is one of the ends of Moral Action 2) Pleasure is the Supreme Good Bodily Gratification (pleasure through the 5 senses) is more intense than Mental Pleasure Immediate (right now) Gratification is preferable to Delayed (later) Gratification Denial of Gratification = Unpleasant Unhappiness Hedonistic Meaning of Life: To achieve Happiness through Immediate Pleasure specifically through Body Gratification (5 senses). Important Hedonistic Quotes Epicureanism EPICURUS Platonist Pamphilus of Samos pupil Greatest good => seeking modest pleasures and attaining/getting Tranquility (Peace) and Freedom from Fear (ataraxia) via/through Knowledge, Friendship, and Virtuous Temperate Living, and because of ones Knowledge of the workings of the world and the Limits of ones desires, Bodily Pain (aponia) will then become absent / disppear. Enjoyment of simple pleasures = quasi-ascetic abstentation from sex and the appetites (desires). Epicurean Meaning of Life: To achieve Happiness in its highest form through Freedom from Pain (aponia) and Freedom from Fear (ataraxia). To reject Immortality and Mysticism because even though there is a Soul, it is as mortal as the Body. There is no AfterLife, so there is no need to fear Death. Important Epicurean Quotes Stoicism ZENO OF CITIUM Crates of Thebes pupil Prime directives = virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration. To be free from anger, envy, and jealousy" is important in ones personal relations. Stoic Ethical Foundation: "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature. Living according to reason and virtue = being in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos, or reason, an essential value of all people. Stoic Meaning of Life: To achieve "freedom from suffering" through apatheia (Gr: ), that is, being objective and having "clear judgment", not indifference (indifferent is the modern meaning of the Greek word apathetic ) Important Stoic Quotes WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES Enlightenment (18 th Century) Philosophy The Enlightenment and the Colonial Era BEFORE Enlightenment Devotion and subservience to God/Creator/Source Universal ideals of Love and Compassion Meaning of life focused on the relationship between Humankind and God/Creator/Source Meaningful existence = Universal Order AFTER Enlightenment Notions of inalienable rights and the potentialities of reason Civic notions of Freedom, Equality and Citizenship Meaning of life focused more on the relationship between Individuals and their Society Meaningful existence = Social Order Classical Liberalism Classical Liberalism = set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism => humans are beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Individual liberty = the most important goal because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected. There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts. Classical Liberalist Meaning of Life = 3 Main Ideas 1) Human beings have inalienable natural rights (individual liberty and the right to keep wealth generated by ones work). 2) Human beings find meaning for their existence through labor and property. 3) Human beings use social contracts to create an environment that supports the effort for individual liberty and protecting ones inalienable natural rights. Important John Locke Quotes Important Jean-Jacques Rousseau Quotes Important Adam Smith Quotes Kantianism Kantianism = philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Deontological theory => there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek , deon, "obligation, duty") is the normative ethical position that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules.(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics All actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative. Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it. For example, one should not be held accountable for the negative consequences of a morally good act because one is not in full control of the outside physical world and the events that happen in it. Kantian Meaning of Life: To do ones duty all the time. Important Kantian Quotes WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES 19 th Century Philosophy Utilitarianism Utilitarianism: 1) origins can be traced back as far as Epicurus. 2) as a school of thought credited to Jeremy Bentham. Bentham found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure", then, from that moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. Utilitarian Meaning of Life: The greatest number of people must achieve the greatest happiness. Important Utilitarian Quotes Nihilism Nihilism = life is without objective meaning. Friedrich Nietzsches Nihilism = emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value - the process of "the devaluing of the highest values". Martin Heideggers Nihilism = being is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value. Both Nietzsche & Heidegger believed God is dead. Albert Camus Nihilism = people searching for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them is the absurdity of the human condition. People can strive to be heroic nihilists living with dignity in the face of absurdity (secular saintliness, fraternal solidarity, rebellion against the worlds indifference) thereby transcending the worlds indifference. Nihilistic Meaning of Life: There is NONE. Important Nihilistic Quotes WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES 20 th Century Philosophy 20 th Century Philosophy: Human Existence re- evaluated from two Perspectives Biological and Scientific Perspective Pragmatism Logical Positivism Meaning-Making: Personal & Individual- Driven Activity Existentialism Secular Humanism Pragmatism Originated in the late-19th-century U.S. with William James Concerns itself (mostly) with truth, positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. Theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of mankind should guide human intellectual inquiry. The practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James => truth could be made, but not sought. Pragmatic Meaning of Life: To discover the meaning of life only via experience, which gives a practical and useful understanding of life mainly for the needs of mankind. Important Pragmatic Quotes Theism Three main points held by Theists. 1) God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. 2) Humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. 3) If there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value and purpose, then life would be absurd. Theist Meaning of Life: God gives meaning to life. Philosophical theism is the belief that deities exist (or must exist) independent of the teaching or revelation of any particular religion. [1] It represents belief in a personal God entirely without doctrine. Some philosophical theists are persuaded of a god's existence by philosophical arguments, while others consider themselves to have a religious faith that need not be, or could not be, supported by rational argument.deitiesrevelationreligion [1]personal Godwithout doctrine Philosophical theism has parallels with the 18th century philosophical view called Deism. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_theism)Deismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_theism Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Kant were also Theists. Ironically to many Atheists (opposite of Theist), many famous scientific geniuses in Mathematics, Physics and Biology have realized through the process of Reasoning and Logic that there is a Creator an Architect of Existence. Important Theistic Quotes Existentialism Each man and each woman creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. Ethical Prime Directives: action, freedom, and decision, thus, Existentialism opposes Rationalism and Positivism. Anxiety and dread arise out of ones inability to use reason as a single source of meaning, and to use free will when it comes to death. Jean-Paul Sartres Existentialism: existence precedes (comes before) essence ; the essence of ones life arises only after one comes into existence. Soren Kierkegaards Existentialism: because life is full of absurdity and one must make ones own values in an indifferent world, one must make a leap of letting go. Arthur Schopenhauers Existentialism (he was a 19 th century philosopher who was not associated with the philosophy of Existentialism per se): one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism. Friedrich Nietzsches Existentialism (19 th century philosopher more associated with Nihilism): life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") is without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective. Important Existentialist Quotes Absurdism Soren Kierkegaard and Albert Camus The Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma: 1) Suicide (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option. 2) Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide". 3) Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Important Absurdist Quotes Secular Humanism Secular Humanism: Human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature, which is self-existing. Human knowledge => human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be. "Values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry" and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence. People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life. Humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity". Humanism aims to promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture. Subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance Humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life". Important Secular Humanistic Quotes Logical Positivism Logical Positivists ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?" and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?" Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life. The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for himself, others) as the life events resulting from his achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. This is a clear example of Analytic / Language Philosophy being used. The problem lies with the word meaning itself, and the understanding of the phrase meaning of life. If we assume Life is meaningless, then we need to think about why it is meaningless. If it is meaningful, we also need to think about why it is meaningful. Use the Socratic Dialectical Method to come to some sort of understanding. Logical Positivists only see the surface of what Life is, and not what is beyond the surface. Important Logical Positivistic Quotes Postmodernism & Naturalistic Pantheism Postmodernist thoughtbroadly speakingsees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework, and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. Naturalistic pantheism is a phrase referring to a kind of pantheism, and has been used in various ways. It has been used to identify God or divinity with concrete things, determinism, or the substance of the Universe. God, from these perspectives, is seen as the aggregate of all unified natural phenomena. The phrase has often been associated with the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza, although academics differ on how it is used. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism Meaning of Life: To care for and look after nature and the environment. Important Postmodernist Quotes Important Naturalistic Pantheistic Quotes EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES Mohism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism Mohism According to Mohist philosophers such as Mozi [Mo Tzu / Micius (Latinized)], what is the purpose of life? Purpose of life: universal impartial LOVE What is Impartial Caring? Impartial Caring: ones equal care for all other individuals regardless of the actual relationship to one According to the Mohists, what makes man a righteous being? A righteous being is one who expresses this indiscriminate caring. What was the target for attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools (Confucianism) and why? Advocacy of Impartiality was attacked because Love should be unconditional, but NOT indiscriminate. Should children hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers? Why or why not? What is love? What is your point of view about Love? Should it be impartial and indiscriminate, partial and discriminate, impartial and discriminate, or partial and discriminate? Partial, Conditional, Discriminate Love Partial = Unequal (one loves only some people in a partial way) Conditional = has conditions (reasons) attached to it (one loves someone because of specific reasons) Discriminate = distinctive (one loves a person differently compared with others and this love is dependent on some condition) Impartial, Unconditional, Indiscriminate Love Impartial = Equal (one loves all people equally) Unconditional = has no conditions (reasons) attached to it (one loves without any reason because love just is) Indiscriminate = indistinctive (one loves everyone and this love is equal and independent of conditions) Important Mohist Quotes Confucianism and Legalism What does Confucianism (Confuscius) recognize? It recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. How do Confucianists want to achieve virtue? Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, virtue is achieved through strong relationships and the minimization/decrease of the negative. What do you think Tu Wei Ming meant when he said we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence? What did the Legalists believe? They believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. What was valuable to the Legalists? Only practical knowledge was valuable especially as it related to the function and performance of the State. Someone who is a legalist follows legality or the law. Important Confucianist Quotes Important Daoist Quotes Important Legalist Quotes For a very good presentation on Chinese Legalism, watch Sompong Yusoontorns Presentation: Which philosophies do YOU resonate with? I decided to include all the philosophies that resonate with me. There are 12 of them. Of course there are a few that resonate MORE than the others, but each one resonates with me in some important way. Which philosophies do YOU resonate with? I refined my philosophical values to include 10 main philosophical perspectives. Which philosophies do YOU resonate with? I refined my views even further to include only 4 main philosophical perspectives. If I were to refine even more, I would say that I am an Idealist Rationalist Natural PanTheist.