mb0034 research methodology

Sikkim Manipal University

Q.1. Explain the different types of research.

Answer:

Research may be classified crudely according to its major instant or the methods. According to

the intent, research may be classified as:

1. Pure Research:

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, e.g.

Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s contribution, etc. It is also know

as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.

It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either

discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied

research. It offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a

practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the

best solution.

2. Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is

thus problem-oriented and action directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,

marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase

experience of customers. Through the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find

solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of

theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or

conceptual clarity. It may integrate previously existing theories.

3. Exploratory Research

It is also know as formularize research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about

which the research has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-

determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research

may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or to

make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to

determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of

Research Methodology


exploratory studies. “At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the

situations; at the second, the discovery of relationship between variables.

4. Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest types of

research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various

characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a

classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to

the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical

observation. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and

interpretation. The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life

outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for

planning social action program.

5. Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering

what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the

causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering

and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior

knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given

population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of

variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

6. Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic

programmers implemented or for assessing the impact of development projects on the

development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and

quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its success. It is concerned with

causal relationship and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change

over time.

7. Active Research



It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programmed

lunched for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps:

diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programmed,

initiation of organizational change, implementation of participation and communication

process, and post experimental evaluation.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Answer:

Horton and hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research

1. Verifiable evidence:

That is factual observation with other observers can see and check.

2. Accuracy:

That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or

describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions

either by exaggeration or fantasizing.

3. Precision:

That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids

colorful literature and vague meanings.

4. Systematization:

That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and

organized way so that the conclusions drawn the reliable. Data based on casual

recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgment and conclusions.

5. Objectivity:

That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by

the observer’s values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see

and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.

6. Recording:



That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is fallible,

all data collected are recorded.

7. Controlling conditions:

That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what that

happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific

experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant.

8. Training investigators:

That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to

look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data collection.

Q.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis.

Answer:

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or

not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is; whether the

null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to

all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection

and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated

below:

1. Making a formal Statement:

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho ). This means that

hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For

instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing

capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 toms, in that case he can state his

hypothesis as under:

Null hypothesis Ho : u= 10 tons

Alternative hypothesis Ha : u > 10 tons

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must ne accomplished with due

care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also



indicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater

than, we use along tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller” then

we use a two-tailed test.

2. Selecting a significant level:

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should

have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.

The factors that affect the level of significance are:

The magnitude of the differences between sample:

The size of the sample

The variability of measurements within sample

Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional hypothesis is

one which predicts the direction of the difference between , say, means). In brief, the

level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of

enquiry.

3. Deciding the Distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to

determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The chaise generally remains between

distributions are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context to

estimation.

4. Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value:

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from

the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other

words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

5. Calculation of the Probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely

as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.

6. Comparing the probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified

value for α , the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller then α



value in case of one tailed test ( and α/2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject null

hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then

accept then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we run a risk of (at most

level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho , then we run

some risk of committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

Committing type II

Error



Q.4. Write a note on experimental design.

Answer:

Experimental Design:

1. The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many

experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experimental units

instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experimental is increased. For

example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we

may divide the filed into two parts and grows one variety in one part and the other variety in

the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis.

But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the

filed into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the

remaining parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by

comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire

experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication

dose not present any difficulty, but computationally it dose. However, it should be remembered

that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to

increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.

2. The principle of randomization:

It provides protection, which we conduct, an experiment, against the effect of extraneous

factors by randomization. In order words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan

the ‘experiment in the way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be

combined under the general heading of “chance”’. For instance if we grow one verity of rice say

in the first half of the parts of a filed and the other verity is grown in the other half, then it is

just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other

half. If this is so, our result would not be realistic. I such a situation, we may assign the variety

of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling



technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects

of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.

3. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factors, the

known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and

this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence

eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a

manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance in which the total variability of the

data is divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and

experimental error. In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide

the filed into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided

into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to

these parts of block. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors

fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-

way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the

variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.

Q.5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

Answer:

John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows.

I. The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is the case drawn

out from its total context for the purpose do study must be considered a member of the

particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must

be done with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their shared way

of life.

II. The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is , the action of the

individual cases must be viewed as a series of actions to social stimuli or situation. In

other, words the social meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.



III. The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized.

That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in

shaping his behavior must never be overlooked.

IV. The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be

clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological

organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.

V. The continuous related charter of experience for childhood through adulthood must be

stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-

relationships between three person’s various experiences.

VI. Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the

important criteria for the life history is that a person’s life must be shown as unfolding

itself in the context of and party owing to specific social sitatutions.

VII. The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual

framework; this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

Q.6.What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

Answer:

Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random sampling.

it provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each population element. It is used when

generalization is the objective of study , and a greater degree of accuracy of estimation of

population parameters is required. The cost and time required is high hence the benefit derived

from it should justify the costs.

The following are the types of probability sampling:

i. Simple Random sampling: This sampling technique gives each element an equal and

independent chance of being selected. An equal chance means equal probability of

selection. An independent chance means that the draw of one element will not

affect the chances of other elements being selected. The procedure of drawing a

simple random sample consists of enumeration of all elements in the population.



1. Preparation of List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial order 1.2, B, and so

on, and

2. Drawing sample numbers by using (a) lottery method, (b) a table of random

numbers or (c)a computer.

Suitability: This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous population.

Advantages: The advantage of this is that is one of the easiest methods, all the

elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected, simple to

understand, does not require prior knowledge of the true composition of the

population.

Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non- availability of population, does

not ensure proportionate representation and it may be expensive in time and

money. The amount of sampling error associated with any sample drawn can easily

be computed. But it is greater than that in other probability samples of the same

size, because it is less precise than other methods.

ii. Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or probability

sampling. In this method, the population is sub- divided into homogenous groups or

strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. E.g university students may

be divided on the basis of displine, and each displine group may again be divided

into juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a sample’s

statistical efficiency, providing different methods to different strata. The stratified

random sampling is appropriate for a large heterogeneous population. Stratification

process involves three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number

of strata and strata sample sizes.

-End of Assignment-


mb0034 research methodology

Documents