M A S S A C H U S E T T S

United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.

A G U I D E

Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and WildlifeUniversity of Massachusetts Extension

Scott Jackson and Peter Mirick

Snakes

United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 andJune 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. UMass Extension and the Massachusetts Divisionof Fisheries and Wildlife offer equal opportunity in programs and employment. NR-0128: 5M: 11/01

AcknowledgmentsThanks to Alan Richmond, UMassMuseum of Zoology

University of MassachusettsExtension

Massachusetts Divisionof Fisheries and Wildlife

INTRODUCTION

Many people are afraid of snakes, even peoplewith a well-developed awareness of the environ-ment and the natural world. This is unfortunate:the average snake that turns up in a backyard oron a pond shore (or even in a cellar) should notbe regarded as any more frightening than a chip-munk. We hope that this publication will dispelsome of the fear of snakes... a fear rooted in a lackof accurate information. We think that mostpeople, once equipped with a little knowledgeand understanding of these beautiful, interestingand inoffensive animals, will find that there isnothing left to fear.

History of SnakesSnakes are the most modern of reptiles, firstappearing in the fossil record during the time ofthe dinosaurs. It is thought that they evolved fromground dwelling or burrowing lizards that ex-ploited the survival advantages to be found in acylindrical, legless body. They gave up externalears and developed clear scales to shield theirever-open eyes from dust and damage. Theyevolved elongated internal organs, specializedmuscles and resilient, scaled skins of varied patternand color that provided camouflage and somelimited protection from predators and the ele-ments. They also evolved a host of instinctivebehaviors that enabled them to find and catchprey, hide from predators, reproduce and survivein a great variety of climates. Tunnelling beneathdirt and sand, swimming in the seas, climbing inthe crowns of trees and crawling on the land,snakes became integral components of variedecosystems throughout the world. Some evolved

infrared heat sensors to find prey in the darknessof night or burrow. Some developed venoms (andthe apparatus to deliver them) of such exquisitecomplexity and design that — unlike most bio-chemical substances — they cannot yet be manu-factured through biotechnology or genetic engi-neering. In short, snakes are incredibly successful,unique and remarkable animals, well deserving ofour respect and admiration.

Why, then, do so many people burden them-selves with an irrational, senseless fear of snakesand an unwarranted prejudice toward them? Theanswer lies in the power and longevity of myth.

For centuries, snakes have figured prominentlyin the religions, customs and folklore of peoplethroughout the world. To early humans, snakesmust have possessed seemingly magical, almostsupernatural attributes. They had the ability tomove without legs over and through all types ofterrain, vegetation and water. They had the abilityto find, capture and eat prey without the aid ofappendages, as well as to periodically shed an oldskin and the ravages of time to reveal a new,brightly hued mantle. They could arise in the spring,resurrected from the ice of winter, and, in a fewcases, could cause sickness or death with a singlebite. A science fiction writer could scarcely ask fora better model, so it is not surprising that snakesgave rise to all manner of tall tales and myths.

The fear of snakes is an old, deeply entrenchedform of prejudice, born of ignorance and perpetu-ated through superstition and myth. It is time thatwe stop judging these fascinating reptiles on thebasis of folklore and ignorance.

MYTHOLOGY

Some cultures held snakes in high esteem aspowerful religious symbols. Quetzalcoatl, themythical “plumed serpent,” was worshipped as the“Master of Life” by ancient Aztecs of CentralAmerica. Some African cultures worshipped rockpythons and considered the killing of one to be a

Cows, monkeys and dogs are revered by somecultures yet consumed as food by others. So, too,snakes are respected in some parts of the worldand despised in others. The way that people feelabout snakes is heavily influenced by culturalbeliefs and mythology.

1

serious crime. In Australia, the Aborigines associ-ated a giant rainbow serpent with the creationof life.

Other cultures have associatedsnakes with medicinal powers orrebirth. In India, cobras wereregarded as reincarnationsof important peoplecalled Nagas. Ourmodern medicalsymbol of twosnakes wrappedaround a staff, or‘caduceus,’ comes

2

Stories about New England water snakes eight andten feet long are simply not true. Northern watersnakes rarely exceed three and a half feet inlength, with the largest stretching only four and ahalf feet. While the black rat snake, our largestnative snake, can reach lengths of just over eightfeet, most New England snakes are less than threefeet long.

Venomous Snakes. The regularity with whichpeople kill a snake first and ask questions latermight lead you to believe that the world is overrunwith venomous snakes. In fact, venomous snakesonly make up about 10 percent of snake speciesworldwide, and in Massachusetts only two of thestate’s fourteen species of snakes are venomous(timber rattlesnake and northern copperhead).Both are rare, reclusive and generally confined toisolated areas.

Folk Tales. Folk talesabout snakes are handeddown from generation togeneration and includesuch things as snakes thatcharm prey, swallow their

young for protection, poisonpeople with their breath, roll

like hoops, and suck milk fromcows. These folk tales could be

just interesting and amusing storiesexcept that many people still believe

them. As we learn more about the truenature of snakes, we can begin to baseour perceptions of them on fact ratherthan fiction.

from ancientGreek mythology.

According to theGreeks, the mythical figure

Aesculapius discovered medicine by watching asone snake used herbs to bring another snake backto life.

Judeo-Christian culture has been less kind tosnakes. Tales of the Garden of Eden and theserpent’s role in “man’s fall from grace” havecontributed to a negative image of snakes inwestern culture. In Appalachia, some Christianshandle venomous snakes as part of ritual ceremo-nies, relying on faith to protect them from bites.Among Catholics, Saint Patrick is credited withridding Ireland of snakes, a featcelebrated by many as a goodthing.

Deep rooted culturalbiases may be responsible, inpart, for widespread fear anddisdain for snakes. However,modern myths, from folk tales toplain old misinformation, alsocontribute to their negative image.

Modern MythsSize. Snakes are almost always de-scribed as larger than they really are.

MYTH: HOOP SNAKES

Myth: When frightened, hoop snakes will bite theirtails and roll downhill like a wagon wheel.

Reality: Anatomically, snakes are not wellequipped for rolling and there are no reliableaccounts of this ever occurring. The hoop snakemyth may have been associated originally withmud snakes found in the southern United States.Mud snakes will occasionally lie in a loose coilshaped like a hoop, but they slither away fromdanger like other snakes.

3

REALITY

In Massachusetts we have fourteenspecies of native snakes. Most ofthem, even as adults, are lessthan three feet long, andseveral are generally lessthan a foot in length. None ofthem are aggressive, although— like most animals — they willdefend themselves if threatened,injured or captured. Even then,the defensive maneuvers of severalspecies are nothing more offensivethan releasing foul-smelling analsecretions. Other species attempt tofrighten or intimidate potential enemiesthrough bluff: flattening their heads, puffing uptheir bodies, rattling their tails or hissing. In selfdefense, some will indeed bite, but except in thecase of our two extremely rare, venomous species,the resulting wounds are superficial. Our nonven-omous snakes all possess short, thin, very sharpteeth that leave clean, shallow wounds (rarelyrequiring even a bandage), and which — unlikethe bites of mammals — carry no threat of disease.The important thing to remember is that unless youattempt to harm or capture a snake, it is almostimpossible to get bitten. You have a better chanceof being struck by lightning.

ReproductionDepending on the species, snakes may be egg-layers or give birth to live young. They generallymate in the spring, shortly after leaving whateverhollow, burrow or rock crevice has sheltered themthrough winter hibernation. Egg-layers usuallydeposit their clutches (groups of eggs) in dirt,beneath stones or logs, or in piles of decayingwood or vegetation during late spring or earlysummer. Most snakes hatch or are born in latesummer. Whether deposited as eggs or droppedas fully formed miniature adults, snakes are ontheir own from the start. Our snakes do not takeany responsibility for the care and protection oftheir young. Most snakes mature at one or twoyears of age, and individuals may live up totwenty years in the wild.

MYTH: SWALLOWING YOUNG

Myth: When confronted with danger, mothersnakes swallow their young, spitting them out lateronce danger has passed.

Reality: Parental care is not very well developedin snakes and there is no evidence that mothersnakes protect their young in this way. The mythmay result from the fact that some snakes eatyoung snakes of their own species or of otherspecies, though usually not their own brood.

HabitatOur native snakes occupy a

wide range of habitats, including:fields, forests, wetlands, ponds, lakes, streams,rocky hillsides, farmland, vacant lots and residentialneighborhoods. Within those habitats, snakes maytravel along the ground, swim, climb trees andbushes, and venture below ground. Although somesnakes do burrow, most “snake holes” are pro-duced by chipmunks, mice, shrews and other smallmammals. Many snakes utilize these burrows forfood, shelter and egg laying sites, but most speciesdon’t dig holes.

“Cold-blooded”Although it is said that snakes are “cold-blooded,”it is more accurate to say that they are unable toregulate their body temperatures by generatingheat. During the active season they are rarely cold

and are surprisingly good at regulating theirtemperatures through behavior. Snakes can warmthemselves by basking in the sun, lying underrocks or boards that are in the sun, or by lyingon rocks and pavement that hold the heat afterdark. When the air temperature is too hot, theyseek shelter in small mammal burrows, underrocks and occasionally in cool cellars.

A Link in the Food ChainSnakes are important componentsof natural ecosystems. Commonin many types of habitat,they affect the “balanceof nature” as bothpredators andprey.

it down, others through ambush, and, althoughit is not known for certain, most species prob-ably scavenge dead prey as well. Some specieskill their prey through venomous bites, others byconstriction, still others by simply overpoweringand then swallowing their prey. Lacking anychewing teeth, all snakes swallow their mealswhole. Depending on the size of the meal andthe temperature of their resting habitat, ournative snakes may eat as often as several times aday or as rarely as once a month.

Snakes and their eggs are in turn eaten by fish,amphibians, other snakes, birds and predatorymammals such as skunks, raccoons and opossums.Birds are their most serious predators — and not

just hawks and owls. Songbirds consumegreat numbers of small snakes and

it is not unusual to see the tail ofa young garter snake dangling

from the overstuffed gulletof a nestling robin!

All snakes are predators. Depending on sizeand species, they may feed on invertebrates suchas slugs, worms and insects, or on fish, amphib-ians, snakes, birds, bird eggs and small mammals.Species such as the milk snake and black rat snakeconsume great numbers of rodents, and theirpresence around barns is of great benefit to farm-ers. In particular, the milk snake regularly entersburrows and will consume young mice and ratsright in the nests. Garter, redbelly and brownsnakes frequently consume garden pests such asslugs and certain soft-bodied insects.

Snakes find their prey by sight and scent, andsometimes temperature. Except for burrowingspecies, snakes have excellent short-range vision.Their sense of smell is extraordinary, thanks to aharmless, constantly flicking forked tongue thatcarries scent particles to a specialized sensoryorgan (‘Jacobson’s organ’) on the roof of themouth. Some species catch their prey by hunting

Myth: Snakes have the ability to charm prey,especially birds, so they cannot flee.

Reality: There is no evidence that snakes charmtheir prey. Small animals may become “frozenwith fear” when confronted by snakes but theyare not charmed. Birds may flutter about in frontof a snake in an attempt to lure it away from theirnests; occasionally a bird may actually be capturedby the snake, giving the impression that it wascharmed. The fact that snakes never blink mayalso have played a role in this myth’s origin.

MYTH: CHARMING SNAKES

4

MORE ABOUT SNAKES

Common SnakesWhile it is unlikely you will ever find a venomoussnake in Massachusetts, odds are good that if youspend any time outdoors you will eventuallyencounter one or more species of harmless snakes.Five common snakes account for the majority ofsightings in Massachusetts.

Undoubtedly, the most commonly encounteredsnake is the garter snake. This prolific, adaptablespecies thrives in suburban habitats and oftenutilizes the shelter provided by shrubbery, mulch,stonewalls and cracked masonry around houses.Active by day, it is often observed in the morning,warming itself on stairs and sidewalks exposed tothe sun.

prolific species and can be found in virtually allpond, river and wetland habitats throughout thestate. Water snakes are often reported by home-owners who find them in the spring as theydisperse from hibernation sites. Though largeindividuals may look quite sinister with theirtriangular heads and heavy bodies, these stockyeaters of fish and frogs are harmless and shouldnot be confused with the venomous cottonmouth“water moccasins” of the southeastern states.

The “blacksnake” or black racer is a long,slender “sight-hunter” known for its speed andagility. (Its top speed is actually only 3.6 miles perhour.) It is usually encountered in rural habitats ofmixed brush, field and forest. Although this alert,inquisitive reptile often raises its head up to ob-serve approaching people or other disturbances(and may even follow people for short distances tosatisfy its curiosity) it quickly turns tail and flashesaway at the slightest hint of danger.

“The Great Pretender”Though relatively rare, a chance encounter with ahognose snake is always memorable. This harm-less “great pretender” puts on such a fearsomedisplay when alarmed that it actually looks andsounds far more dangerous than either of ourvenomous snakes! Sometimes called the “puffadder,” this habitual eater of toads will inflate itsbody, hiss loudly, lunge about ferociously andspread a surprising cobra-like hood. Despite thisimpressive appearance, it almost never bites.

5

MYTH: SUCKING MILK

Myth: Milk snakes are so named because of theirability to suck milk directly from the udders of cows.

Reality: Although milk snakes are commonaround barns that house cows, they completelylack the anatomy necessary to suck milk (oranything else for that matter). Barns are attractiveto milk snakes because they provide abundantfood in the form of small rats and mice.

The milk snake makes use of many of thesame habitats as the garter snake and will some-times enter buildings in search of mice, its favoredprey. Though quite common, its secretive natureand nocturnal habits make it less likely to beencountered than the garter snake. Occasionally, itcan be seen sunning itself on spring and earlysummer mornings.

A small, common, secretive species, the ring-neck snake is rarely found in the open. Thisinoffensive, pretty snake with the bright bandaround its neck is sometimes encountered in dampor dirt-floored basements that offer ample food inthe form of salamanders and insects.

Frequently encountered by fishermen andboaters, the water snake is one of our most

MYTH: POISONOUS BREATH

Myth: Puff adders (hognose snakes) mix poison withtheir breath and can kill a person at a distance oftwenty-five feet.

Reality: Although the bite of a hognose snake canproduce swelling and a burning sensation, thesesnakes rarely bite people and are not consideredvenomous. When confronted, they do puff them-selves up and hiss, but their breath is harmless.

6

MYTH: COTTONMOUTHS IN NEW ENGLAND

Myth: Swimmers in New England are advised towatch out for venomous cottonmouths, also knownas water moccasins.

Reality: Simply put, there are no water mocca-sins in New England. The cottonmouth, or watermoccasin, is a venomous snake of the southeast-ern United States that occurs no farther norththan the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia. Manypeople mistake nonvenomous water snakes forwater moccasins.

If this incredible bluff fails to drive off theoffender, the hognose will writhe about,vomit, roll over on its back and let itstongue loll out. In short, it puts onthe appearance of a thoroughlydead snake. If turned upright,the snake will immediatelyroll on its back again.

When thedanger is past, however, the hognose will cau-tiously raise its head, turn over, and be off aboutits business.

Venomous SnakesThere are only two venomous snakes inMassachusetts — the timber rattlesnake and thecopperhead. (Contrary to popular belief, there areno venomous “water moccasins” in the Bay State,only harmless water snakes.) Statewide, popula-tions of our two endangered venomous snakes arebelieved to number no more than a few hundredindividuals. Due to a host of problems, thesepopulations are probably still declining despiterigorous efforts to protect them. Our “rattlers” arenow known to exist at only a dozen or so widelyscattered sites in mountainous regions of the state;the distribution of copperheads is even morerestricted. As a result, most of Massachusetts iscompletely devoid of venomous serpents.

The chance of receiving a venomous snake biteis further reduced by the fact that both species areshy and reclusive. Like all snakes, they will bitepeople only in self defense. If you do not willfullyseek out and attempt to confront these species, thechances of being bitten by either are negligible.The toxicity of their venoms tends to be highly

overrated; only one person has ever died ofsnakebite in Massachusetts, and that was

more than 200 years ago.

Always keep in mind thatmany harmless snakesresemble venomous snakesin pattern and behavior.Milk snakes, water snakes,

hognose snakes and otherbanded or blotched species are

frequently mistaken for copper-heads. Milk snakes, black racers and

black rat snakes are often misidentifiedas rattlesnakes because they vibrate their

tails rapidly when alarmed. The over-whelming majority of reports of en-counters with venomous snakes inNew England are nothing more thancases of mistaken identity.

Identification is the KeySnakes encountered around the

home are almost certainly harmless and nonven-omous. With just a little effort you can confirm thiswith an identification. It is a simple matter to learnto recognize our five common snakes at a glance.More secretive and rarer species can be easilyidentified through use of the identification guideprovided (pages 16-19). It is a curious fact thatwhen we have the ability to put a name to some-thing and understand its motivations, it tends tolose the power to frighten us.

Snakes PhobiasSome people have such an overwhelming, irration-al fear of snakes that the phobia may restrict theirlifestyles. This fear — known as ophidiophobia —may cause such people to avoid all areas wherethere is the slightest chance that a serpent couldbe encountered. Some cannot enjoy gardening ortheir own backyards, let alone a hike in the coun-try or a summer dip in the local pond. Manyvictims of this phobia cannot view a movie orphotograph of a snake without experiencing acuteanxiety, and could not bear to read this publica-tion. If you know such a person, let them knowthat effective treatment is available. Tell them tocontact their doctor or local medical clinic for areferral and get back to enjoying the outdoors!

Snakes In and Aroundthe HomeDespite the harmless and beneficialnature of snakes, there are still somepeople who, for whatever reasons,want to discourage them frominhabiting their yards. Through-out the warm months — andparticularly in the springwhen the mating seasonand the need to baskcauses snakes to be moreobvious than usual — weget calls from peoplewanting to get snakesaway from their homes. As with most things in life,the solution requires tradeoffs which should bethoughtfully weighed against the dubious inconve-nience of having a snake or two around the yard.

While the adaptability and perseverance of ourcommon snakes makes them extremely difficult toeliminate entirely, removing potential shelter cansignificantly reduce the number of snakes in anarea. Shelter for snakes is almost anything close tothe ground that they can enter or get beneath toavoid predators and extreme temperatures. Boardson the ground, log and leaf piles, cracks andcrevices in foundations, rock walls, ground-

7

SNAKES AND PEOPLE

➤ (SNAKES AND PEOPLE continued on page 15)

hugging shrubbery, dense patches of vegetationand narrow spaces beneath decks and outbuildingsare all popular forms of cover. The number ofsnakes around a home can be reduced by sealingor removing some or all of these shelters, but usecommon sense. A nearly snake-free yard wouldhave a wide, close-cut lawn extending right to atightly sealed foundation: no flower gardens, norocks, no shrubbery. Unless you really want tosurround yourself with a boring, uninviting land-scape, it is much easier to live with an occasionalsnake in the yard.

A snake in the house is another matter. Whilemilk snakes may live undiscovered in rock founda-tions for generations and the pretty little “ring-necks” may survive comfortably amid the debris ofa dirt-floored crawl-space, most snakes — espe-cially garter snakes — end up in houses by acci-dent. They cannot live in such habitats for long.

Most are victims of falls and a poor sense ofdirection. They usually turn up in the spring,having hibernated in the foundation and emergedon the wrong side of the wall.

A snake in the house — especially in thetypically jumbled cellar — is not an easy animal tolocate. If it’s any consolation, the snake will prob-ably avoid living areas. If you can find it, check tobe certain that it is a harmless snake, grab it with apair of work gloves, and let it go outside. If the

MASSACHUSETTS SNAKES

small animals, garter snakes’ primary prey are earthwormsand amphibians. Their saliva appears to be toxic toamphibians and other small animals and a bite mayproduce swelling or a burning rash in some people.Although garter snakes may or may not bite if handled,most individuals secrete a foul-smelling fluid from analglands when alarmed. Occasionally, garter snakes maketheir way into basements, a situation that appears to bemost common in spring and autumn.

Common Garter SnakeThamnophis sirtalis (18-26", up to 48")

environment they maybecome dormant until conditions

improve. Ribbon snakes arecomfortable both in and out of water

and are adept swimmers. They may befound basking on logs, hummocks or

muskrat lodges, and escape rapidly into densecover or open water if threatened. Ribbon snakes rarely

bite if handled, but they do secrete a foul musk from theiranal glands when alarmed.

stripe pattern

8

* The word 'keeled' indicates that on most scales on the snake’s body, there is a ridge running the length of each scale. A snake withkeeled scales has a rougher look and feel than a smooth scaled snake.

stripe pattern

Generally, you can recognize this mostcommon of all New England snakes by its patternof yellow stripes on a black or brown background.Although the pattern is variable, it usually consists of anarrow stripe down the middle of the back and a broadstripe on each side. Between the center and each sidestripe are two rows of alternating black spots. A dark lineseparating the yellow side stripe from the belly is notparticularly bold as it is in the ribbon snake. Backgroundcolor is usually brown or black, but may be somewhatgreen or reddish. Stripes may be tan, yellow or orange. Agarter snake will occasionally appear more checkeredthan striped. The scales are keeled* and the belly isyellow or pale green.

Garter snakes generally mate after emerging fromhibernation in March or April. Females give birth to 12-40young anytime from July through October.

Garter snakes occupy a variety of habitats includingpond and stream edges, wetlands, forests, fields, rockyhillsides and residential areas. They are often observed asthey bask on rocks, wood piles, stone walls, hedges andswimming pool decks. Although they feed on a variety of

Eastern Ribbon SnakeThamnophis sauritus (18-26", up to 38")

The ribbon snake is a very slender, stripedsnake, similar in appearance to the garter snake butwith a much longer tail. Tail length for the ribbonsnake generally accounts for one third or more of totalbody length. It is boldly patterned with three yellowstripes on a reddish-brown background. A distinct darkband separates each side stripe from the belly. Theribbon snake has keeled scales and a belly that is paleyellow or pale green.

Ribbon snakes generally mate in the spring(April-May), after emerging from hibernation,and females give birth to 10-12 young inJuly or August.

The preferred habitats of ribbon snakes arewetlands and the edges of ponds and streams.Amphibians, especially frogs, are their preferredfood, although fish and insects are also taken. Given theirpreference for wet habitats, ribbon snakes tend to be mostactive during the spring. If summer weather dries up their

Named for a yellow band around the neck, the ringnecksnake is relatively easy to identify when encountered. Itsback is either slate gray, black or brown with smoothscales giving it a satin-like appearance. A complete yellow

ring just behind thehead, along with smoothscales, distinguishes itfrom redbelly or juvenilebrown snakes. The belly

smooth scales

9

Ringneck SnakeDiadophis punctatus (10-15", up to 27")

is bright yellow or rarely orange, and may occasionallybear a few small black spots.

Mating takes place in spring or fall, with 3-4 eggs (upto ten) laid in June or early July. Eggs are about 1" longand are deposited together under rocks or other cover, inrotting logs and stumps, mulch piles or small mammal

burrows. Hatchlings emerge in August or September.

Ringneck snakes prefer moist woodlands astheir habitat. This is also habitat for an important

prey item, redback salamanders. Although salamandersmake up the bulk of their diet, ringnecks will also feed onearthworms, insects and, on occasion, fish. As relativelysmall snakes, they rarely bask in the open and are gener-ally found under cover (rocks, logs, boards, debris) duringthe day. Like the salamanders on which they prey, ring-necks are usually nocturnal. They are most active in springand fall and are rarely seen during summer. Among all theNew England snakes, ringnecks are most likely to end upin someone’s basement. Ringneck snakes rarely bite, butmay release a foul musk when handled.

Although woodlandsare preferred habitats,redbelly snakes are alsofound in fields, bogsand wet meadows, aswell as along the

borders of marshes,swamps, ponds and

streams. They are small andsecretive snakes and spend

most of their time hidingunder rocks, logs, boards or

debris, or within rotted stumps.Slugs make up the bulk of their

diet, with earthworms, sow bugs,soft-bodied insects and small frogs

also taken. Redbellys are active duringthe daytime in spring and fall, but restrict

their activities to twilight and nighttimeduring the summer. When handled,

redbelly snakes may curl their upper lipsand show their teeth; however, they rarely bite.

If sufficiently disturbed they will release musk fromanal glands.

Mating mayoccur in spring,summer or fall, butmost matings prob-ably take place inspring after redbellysemerge from hiber-

nation in April. Their young are born alive, typicallyfrom late July through early September, with 4-9snakes to a brood.

Redbelly SnakeStoreria occipitomaculata (8-10", up to 16")

Both the common and scientificnames for this small snake refer tocharacteristics that help identify it.‘Occipitomaculata’ refers to threelight spots located just behind thehead. Redbelly generally describesthe color of the underside, al-though the color can vary fromyellow (rarely), to orange to red.The overall color of this snake is alsovariable, and it can be brown,bronze, slate gray or, rarely,black. Occasionally the three spotsbehind the head may be fused into aring. The redbelly has keeled scales,distinguishing it from the smooth-scaled ringneck snake.

keeled scales

10

keeled scales

Status: “Threatened.” Illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess.

True to its name, the brown snake is darkbrown to grayish brown in color. It generallyhas a broad light stripe bordered by dark spotsdown the back. The belly is pink or buffcolored, sometimes with rows of small blackspots. As a juvenile it has a light ring aroundthe neck. However, unlike the ringneck snake,the brown snake has keeled scales.

Brown snakes emerge from hibernationafter the ground thaws in the spring. Theytypically mate in spring or early summer, and8-20 young are born alive from mid-July throughAugust. Although they are generally forced intohibernation by November, brown snakes may emergebriefly during periods of warm winter weather.

Found in a variety of wild habitats such as wetlands,grasslands and forests, brown snakes are most oftenencountered in urban or residential areas. It is not uncom-mon to find several (or many) brown snakes under debrisin vacant lots, parks and cemeteries. Earthworms and slugsare their preferred foods; however, they will also take sowbugs, insects, spiders, small fish and small frogs. They are

active during the daytime inspring and fall, but are primarily

nocturnal during the summer. Brown snakesrarely bite but, like most snakes, will release musk fromtheir anal glands when alarmed.

Brown SnakeStoreria dekayi (9-13", up to 20")

This small burrowing snake shares a superficial resem-blance to an earthworm. The worm snake is an unpat-terned brown snake with a pink belly, pointed head andsmall eyes. Smooth scales give it a shiny, iridescentquality, and readily distinguish it from brown and redbellysnakes that have keeled scales.

Worm snakes appear to mate in the fall.Females store the sperm over winter and useit to fertilize eggs in the spring or earlysummer. Eggs are deposited underrocks or inside mulch piles, rottinglogs or stumps. A typical clutchconsists of 2-5 small eggs. Eggs laid in June and early Julygenerally hatch in August and September.

In Massachusetts, worm snakes have been found onlyin the southern Connecticut Valley where they prefer areaswith sandy soil. Moist woodlands with either sandy orrocky soils provide the best habitat. They feed almostexclusively on earthworms, although other small slenderprey such as salamanders, fly larvae and slugs are occasion-ally taken. Rarely seen in the open, worm snakes may be

found under rocks and logs, but are often underground.Worm snakes are intolerant of dry conditions and oftendisappear from areas that have been cleared of vegetation.During the summer, they burrow deep into the ground orseek shelter under rocks or in rotting stumps or logs, andremain inactive until conditions improve. In hand, wormsnakes will use their heads and hard pointed tails to probe,as if burrowing, for an escape route. They rarely bite but doproduce a pungent odor from their anal glands.

Worm SnakeCarphophis amoenus (7-11", up to 13")

smooth scales

11

Status: “Endangered.” Illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess.

juvenile

juvenile

The racer is the onlylarge, black snake inNew England withsmooth scales. Its chin,throat and jaw are white or gray and the belly is gener-ally dark (gray, bluish, or black) from the throat back.Smooth scales give this snake a silky or satin-likeappearance. A juvenile racer is gray with large brown,black or reddish blotches down the back, small spotsalong the sides and large dark eyes. The pattern fadeswith age, disappearing when the snake reaches 25-30inches in length.

Racers mate in the spring, and females deposit 10-12eggs in small mammal burrows, under rocks or logs, or in

mulch piles or rotting logs. Eggs laid inJune or July normally hatch in Augustand September.

Black racers are common snakesthat utilize a variety of habitats includ-ing rocky ledges, pastures, overgrown

fields, dry or moist woodlands and the edgesof wetlands. Small

mammals, othersnakes and insects are

preferred food items,although racers take a

wide variety of prey.They will even feed onyoung of their ownspecies. Active primarily during the day, racers are com-monly seen as they bask on shrubs, rocks, ledges androads, and are tolerant of summer temperatures thatwould drive other snakes to seek shelter. Aptly named,racers are very fast and typically flee from danger. However,once cornered they put up a vigorous fight, biting hard andoften. Rattling their tails among dry leaves, racers can soundconvincingly like rattlesnakes. If captured they are difficult tohandle and will writhe, defecate and spray musk in anattempt to escape.

smooth scales

Black RacerColuber constrictor (36-60", up to 73")

A juvenile rat snake is gray with light spots runningdown the middle of the back, and has white eyes. Thispattern darkens with age and is generally undetectableonce the snake reaches a length of three feet.

Mating generally takes place in the spring, with 10-14eggs laid in June or July. Eggs deposited beneath rocksor in manure piles, rotting vegetation, stumps or logs

generally hatch in August and September.

Exceedingly rare in Massachusetts, black rat snakes havebeen found only in the Connecticut Valley and southernWorcester County, where they occupy rocky ledges andforested hillsides. Mammals, birds and bird eggs make up thebulk of their diet and rat snakes will readily climb trees toraid bird and squirrelnests. Young ratsnakes feed on frogsand other small prey.Black rat snakesreadily bask in theopen during springand fall. Although they are not particularly aggressive, theymay bite, defecate or spray musk when handled. Tail rattlingmay lead some people to mistake them for rattlesnakes.

Our largest snake, the black rat snake can reach a length ofeight feet, but is usually much smaller. The adult snake isblack with a white or creamy yellow chin and throat. Incontrast to the black racer, the belly of a rat snake is amixture of light and dark, giving a somewhat mottledappearance. Light areas are often apparent between scales,and the scales on the back are weakly keeled.

keeled scales

Black Rat SnakeElaphe obsoleta (42-72", up to 101")

12

smooth scales

Illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess.

Smooth Green SnakeOpheodrys vernalis (12-20", up to 26")

Unpatterned and green above, white to pale yellowbelow, the smooth green snake is difficult to confusewith any other snake in Massachusetts. Young snakes aredark olive or blue-gray in color and could be confusedwith young black racers except that racers have a mottledpattern when young. The smooth green snake has scalesthat are not keeled.

Green snakes emerge in April or May and mate in thelate spring or summer. Eggs are laid from June to Septem-ber, perhaps in two clutches of 4-6 eggs. Females probablyincubate the eggs inside their bodies before depositingthem in rodent burrows, sawdust piles, mounds of rottingvegetation or rotting logs. As a result, the eggs hatch 4-23days after they are laid, a short period of time relative toother snakes.

Areas that support a ground cover of thick greenvegetation are the preferred habitats of green snakes.Fields, wet meadows, bogs, marsh edges and open wood-lands provide the kind of concealment cover required bythese small snakes. Active during the day, green snakes

feed on a variety of arthropods (crickets,grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles, spiders, centipedes andmillipedes). Green snakes rarely bite when handled andwhen they do, rarely break the skin. If handled roughlyenough they will, like other snakes, exude a foul substancefrom their anal glands.

A thick-bodiedsnake with an upturned

snout, the hognose snake is extremely variable in appear-ance. Generally a well-patterned snake, its backgroundcolor can be yellow, gray, pinkish brown, olive or black,patterned with large rectangular spots down the middle ofthe back alternating with dark spots on each side. Occa-sionally the pattern is obscured by overall dark coloration.

Individuals of thisspecies may appearall black.

Body scales arekeeled and theunderside of the tailis usually lighterthan the rest ofthe belly.

Eastern Hognose SnakeHeterodon platirhinos (20-33", up to 45")

Most matings take placein the spring. Females typically deposit 15-25

eggs in a depression under rocks or logs, in sandy soil,or in mulch piles. Eggs deposited in June and July hatch inAugust and September.

Sandy soils are an essential habitat characteristic forhognose snakes. These snakes can be found in sandywoodlands, fields, farmland and coastal areas. Toads aretheir preferred prey, although frogs, salamanders, smallmammals, birds and invertebrates are also taken. Hog-nose snakes appear to be immune to poisons producedby toads, and are equipped with large teeth in the backof their mouths, apparently to puncture inflated toads sothat they may be more easily swallowed. Many of theseharmless snakes are killed by people who are convincedthat they are venomous and dangerous. When confronted,the hognose snake will suck in air, spread the skinaround its head and neck like a cobra, hiss, and lunge asif to strike. Despite this rather convincing show, hognosesnakes almost never bite. They will often feign death ifprovoked enough.

Milk SnakeLampropeltis triangulum (24-36", up to 52")

13

smooth scales

insects. Primarily nocturnal,milk snakes can be found during

the day under rocks, logs, or other cover. Although theyare not very aggressive, milk snakes will bite and spraymusk if handled.

A boldly patterned snake, the milk snake has a light gray totan body covered with reddish-brown blotches bordered inblack. Larger blotches on the back alternate with smallerones on each side. The head is patterned, usually with alight colored “Y” or “V” within a reddish-brown patch.Smooth scales give this attractive snake a shiny orglossy appearance. The belly is patterned with anirregular checkerboard of black on white. Similarityof patterns causes some to confuse it with thecopperhead; however, the copperhead lacks anypattern on the head. Tail rattling may also leadsome to mistake it for a rattlesnake, although thetwo species look quite different.

Mating generally occurs in May, with femalesdepositing 3-24 eggs in June and July. Eggs aredeposited under rocks, boards or other debris, inrotting vegetation, stumps or logs, or small mammalburrows, and usually hatch in August and September.

Woodlands, fields, rocky hillsides and borders ofwetlands provide natural habitat for milk snakes. They arealso commonly found around houses, barns and outbuild-ings. Small mammals are the preferred prey of milk snakes,who are able to enter burrows and consume young in theirnests. Milk snakes routinely eat other snakes, and may alsotake birds and bird eggs, frogs, fish, earthworms, slugs and

This thick-bodied snake isquite variable in color and pattern.Background color ranges from light grayto dark brown. It is almost always patternedwith reddish-brown, brown or black crossbands nearthe head and alternating back and side blotches fartherdown the body. The pattern generally becomes lessnoticeable as the water snake grows larger, and oftenresults in a uniformly dark snake. Body scales arestrongly keeled and the belly is patterned with black ororange crescents.

Courtship and mating typically occur in Mayand June, and females give birth to 20-40 young inAugust and September.

True to their name, water snakes are found ina variety of wet habitats including lakes, ponds,rivers, streams and wetlands. They are excellentswimmers, both on the surface or submerged,and commonly forage along the water’s edge forprey. Fish, frogs, tadpoles and salamandersmake up the bulk of their diet, though they

will also take smallmammals, birds, insects, crayfish and other invertebrates.Water snakes are very common and can often be foundbasking on beaver dams and lodges, bridge abutments,banks and shrubs. In the spring, water snakes are com-monly reported by homeowners who find them in theirbackyards. When threatened, they rapidly retreat to water.If cornered, they do not hesitate to strike. Water snakescan almost always be counted on to bite, defecate andspray a particularly foul-smelling musk when handled.

keeled scales

Northern Water SnakeNerodia sipedon (24-42", up to 55")

14

Status: “Endangered.” Illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess.

CopperheadAgkistrodon contortrix (24-36", up to 53")

accountfor most ofthe preyitems taken,but birds, insectsand other snakes arealso important parts of their diets. When approached, theywill either move away quietly or lay motionless, relying oncamouflage to protect them. Occasionally, they will vibratetheir tails. Bites usually occur when people unknowinglystep on or touch unseen snakes. Despite the venomousnature of copperhead bites, they are rarely fatal. In Massa-chusetts, copperheads are so rare and reclusive that peoplealmost never encounter them.

The copperhead is a venomous snake with a broad tri-angular head, vertically elliptical pupils and a heat sensitivepit between each eye and nostril. The body is pinkish tograyish brown with brown or reddish-brown crossbandsthat are narrow on the back and widest on the sides.Small dark spots commonly occur between crossbands onthe back. The unpatterned head is dull orange, copper orrusty-red. Body scales are keeled and the belly is pink orlight brown with dark blotches along the sides. Whenyoung, a copperhead has a yellow-tipped tail.

Mating takes place in spring and fall and females givebirth to 4-8 young in August and September. Adultfemales usually give birth every two years.

Copperheads preferrocky, forested hillsidesand wetlands for habitat.Wet areas are particularlysought out in the hotsummer months. Smallmammals and frogs

Timber RattlesnakeCrotalus horridus (36-60", up to 74")

Status: “Endangered.” Illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess.

A robust, venomous snake, the timber rattler isequipped with a broad triangular head, vertical pupils andheat sensitive pits. The body color may be yellow, gray,dark brown or black, with dark, V-shaped crossbandsacross the back. The pattern may not be obvious if thebody is very dark. The head is usually unpatterned and iscovered with many small scales. A distinct rattle on theend of a darkly colored tail produces a buzzing soundwhen vibrated. When young, the rattlesnake has only asmall button on the tail. Body scales are strongly keeledand the light colored belly is flecked with dark spots.

Mating usually occurs insummer or fall. Females incubateeggs within their bodies by bask-ing, and give birth the followingyear to 6-10 young from mid-August through September. Femalerattlesnakes typically give birthevery two or three years.

Although rocky forested hill-sides with southern exposures areessential as winter habitat, rattle-

snakes prefer dense forests with a thick understory for

foraging. Theybask during the day and forage at night, when prey ismost abundant. Rattlesnakes prey on a variety of warm-blooded animals, including: mice, chipmunks and othersquirrels, rabbits, shrews, moles, weasels and birds.Occasionally, rattlesnakes will also feed on insects, am-phibians and other snakes. When threatened, they vibratetheir tails to produce a loud buzzing sound that is difficultto miss. They are not particularly aggressive and bites arerare. In Massachusetts, rattlesnakes are so rare that they arealmost never encountered by people.

➤ (SNAKES AND PEOPLE continued from page 7) tured snakes can be released unharmed with a littlehelp and an application of common cooking oil.

There are no safe, effective snake repellentscapable of keeping snakes away from yards orpools. However, if snakes are inhabiting small,confined areas — such as that crevice behind thefront steps — a few tablespoons of naphthalene(“moth balls”) may temporarily drive them out sothat the entrance can be sealed.

snake does not present itself, it may be lured outby the warmth of a heating pad or a sunlampshining on a damp towel (but beware of the firehazard!) It can also be trapped by placing “glueboards” (normally used for rodent control andavailable at hardware and agricultural stores)against walls in an area that the snake is likely tocross. Glue boards should be checked daily; cap-

PROTECTED SNAKES

as high as a $5,000 fine and/or imprisonment for180 days. In addition, anyone killing an endan-gered species may be required to make arestitution payment of $2,000 per animal. TheCommonwealth is very serious about protectingthe priceless natural heritage these animalsrepresent to present and future generations. If youobserve one of these rare snakes in Massachusetts,report it to the Natural Heritage and EndangeredSpecies Program, (508) 792-7270.

Common species may be hunted, trapped orcaptured up to a possession limit of two. This“loophole” was deliberately left open so thatbudding biologists and snake enthusiasts couldcapture and study a few of the animals if theywished. However, many snakes do not adapt wellto captivity. Curiosity can generally be satisfiedthrough a few days of observation, after which thesnake should be released in the same place it wasfound. It is illegal to transport and release (“translo-cate”) any wild animal in Massachusetts. Althoughit is not illegal to kill common snakes, there isgenerally no reason for anyone to do so.

All snakes receive some protection under theFisheries and Wildlife Laws and Regulations of thestate of Massachusetts. They are protected asimportant members of our native wildlife commu-nities and as valuable natural resources. None ofthem may be taken from the wild for purposes ofsale. To report any violations of our wildlife laws,call toll free: 1-800-632-8075.

Our rare snakes are stringently protected underthe laws and regulations already mentioned, aswell as under the Massachusetts EndangeredSpecies Act. Four species are involved: the wormsnake, black rat snake, copperhead and timberrattlesnake. None of these may be collected, killedor held in possession except under special permit.(Although it is not presently listed under theMassachusetts Endangered Species Act, the hog-nose snake is also specifically protected fromkilling, collection and possession.) The penaltiesfor killing, collecting, possessing or even harassingthese species — some of which have declineddramatically due to illegal collection — can range

PROTECTION OF SNAKES

Timber Rattlesnake • Copperhead • Eastern Hognose SnakeBlack Rat Snake • Worm Snake

It is illegal to harass, kill, collect or possess the followingsnakes in Massachusetts:

15

SNAKE IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

THEN IT IS A:IF THE SNAKE YOU WANT TO IDENTIFY IS A:

Smooth green snake,page 12

➤

SOLID OR PLAIN COLORED SNAKES

➤ Green snake with a light belly; uses a variety of habitats, usually withabundant ground cover; moderately common (12-20", up to 26")

➤ Small, dark gray to black snake with a complete yellow ring around the neck, yellow belly and smooth scales; occasionally found in basements; common (10-15", up to 27")

➤ Small brown snakes

➤ Shiny brown snake with smooth scales, pink belly, tapered head andtail, and small eyes; prefers sandy soil; rare; Southern Connecticut Valley(7-11", up to 13")

➤ Small brown snakes with keeled scales

• Grayish brown to dark brown snake with cream to pink bellyand rows of small dark spots on back and belly; common inresidential areas (9-13", up to 20")

• Gray or brown snake with orange or red (rarely yellow) bellyand three light spots aroundthe neck; usually found inmoist woodlands or nearwetlands; moderatelycommon (8-10", up to 16")

keeled scales smooth scales

Worm snake, page 10➤

Brown snake, page 10➤

Ringneck snake

16

Redbelly snake

(SOLID OR PLAIN COLORED SNAKES continued on next page)

Ringneck snake, page 9➤

Redbelly snake, page 9➤

SOLID OR PLAIN COLORED SNAKES.......................... PAGE 16-17

STRIPED SNAKES .............................................................. PAGE 18

CROSS-BANDED OR BLOTCHED SNAKES .................. PAGE 18-19

THEN IT IS A:

17

IF THE SNAKE YOU WANT TO IDENTIFY IS A:

Black racer, page 11

Timber rattlesnake, page 14 (also see cross-banded snakes)

Black rat snake, page 11

Eastern hognose snake,page 12 (also see cross-banded snakes)

(SOLID OR PLAIN COLORED SNAKES continued)

➤ Medium to large, black or dark brown snakes

➤ Thick-bodied black snake with a large, triangular head, vertical andelliptical pupils (eyes), a pit on each side of the head between the nostriland the eye and a distinct rattle on the end of the tail; cross-bandedpattern may be faint or absent; typically found on forested hillsides; rare,venomous (36-60", up to 74")

➤ Head small and oval with round pupils and no pits, nonvenomous

• Slender, silky black snake with smooth scales, dark belly andwhite chin; uses a variety of habitats; common (36-60", up to 73")

• Chunky black snake with keeled scales, mottled light and darkbelly and white or cream colored chin; typically found onforested hillsides; rare; Connecticut Valley (42-72", up to 101")

• Thick-bodied black snake with keeled scales and an upturnedsnout, that usually spreads its head and neck and hisses whenconfronted, resembling a cobra; cross-banded pattern may befaint or absent; prefers open, sandy areas; uncommon(20-33", up to 45")

➤

➤

➤

➤

Northern water snake,page 13 (also see cross-banded snakes)

➤

• Thick-bodied dark gray, dark brown or reddish brown snakewith strongly keeled scales and a light belly with orange orblack crescent shaped markings; cross-banded pattern may befaint or absent; typically found near water; common(24-42", up to 55")

Hognose snake

venomous

nonvenomous

venomous nonvenomous

THEN IT IS A:IF THE SNAKE YOU WANT TO IDENTIFY IS A:

➤ Slender snake with a long tail and brilliant stripes, distinct dark stripesseparate belly from yellow side stripes; often associated with wetlands;moderately common. (18-26", up to 38")

➤ Snake not particularly slender, with either distinct yellow stripes or amore checkered appearance and no bold dark stripes between belly andsides; uses a variety of habitats; very common (18-26", up to 48")

Eastern ribbon snake,page 8

➤

➤ Common garter snake,page 8

CROSS-BANDED OR BLOTCHED SNAKES

➤ Head large and triangular with a pit on each side between the nostriland eye, and vertical, elliptical pupils (eyes); keeled scales, venomous

➤ Pinkish to orange-brown snake with dark saddle or dumbbell shapedcrossbands that are narrow on the back and wider on the sides, and anunpatterned, copper to rust-red head; typically found on forestedhillsides; rare (24-36", up to 53")

➤ Thick-bodied gray, yellow or dark brown snake with dark V-shapedmarkings across the back and a distinct rattle on the end of the tail;cross-banded pattern may be faint or absent; typically found on forestedhillsides; rare (36-60", up to 74")

➤ Head small and oval with round pupils and no pits, nonvenomous (see next page)

(CROSSBANDED OR BLOTCHED SNAKES continued on next page)

Copperhead, page 14➤

ribbon snake garter snake

Timber rattlesnake,page 14 (also see solid orplain colored snakes)

➤

18

Stripe pattern (side)

STRIPED SNAKES

venomous

nonvenomous

venomous nonvenomous

THEN IT IS A:IF THE SNAKE YOU WANT TO IDENTIFY IS A:

(CROSS-BANDED OR BLOTCHED SNAKES continued)

Milk snake

Milk snake, page 13➤

Northern water snake,page 13 (also see solid orplain colored snakes)

➤

Black racer (juvenile),page 11 (also see solidor plain colored snakes)

➤

19

Black racer(juvenile)

➤ Head small and oval with round pupils and no pits

➤ Gray snake with red or reddish-brown blotchesbordered in black on the back and sides, smoothscales,and a black and white checkered belly; head is patterned,usually with a light V or Y-shaped mark; often foundaround houses and barns; common (24-36", up to 52")

➤ Thick-bodied gray or brown snake with burnt-orange or reddish-brown crossbands on the back, often alternating with squarish blotcheson the sides, strongly keeled scales and a light belly marked with pairedorange crescents; cross-banded pattern may be faint or absent; typicallyfound near water; common (24-42", up to 55")

➤ Thick-bodied, gray, yellow or black snake with rectangular darkblotches down the back alternating with dark spots on each side and anupturned snout that usuallyspreads its head and neck andhisses when confronted,resembling a cobra;cross-banded pattern may befaint or absent; prefers open,sandy areas; uncommon(20-33", up to 45")

➤ Small dark gray snake with lighter spots running down the back,keeled scales and white eye ring; typically found on forested hillsides;rare; Connecticut Valley orsouthern Worcester County(pattern disappears with age)

➤ Small gray snake with dark gray, brown or reddish blotches down themiddle of the back and smaller darkspots on the sides and belly,smooth scales, and large dark eyes;uses a variety of habitats (patterndisappears with age)

Black rat snake(juvenile), page 11(also see solid or plaincolored snakes)

➤

Eastern hognose snake,page 12 (also see solid orplain colored snakes)

➤Hognose snake

Black rat snake (juvenile)

20

FOR MORE INFORMATIONCall or Write:

Peter MirickMassachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

Field Headquarters, 1 Rabbit Hill RoadWestborough, MA 01581

(508) 792-7270

Scott JacksonUniversity of Massachusetts Extension

Department of Natural Resources ConservationHoldsworth Natural Resources Center

University of Massachusetts160 Holdsworth Way

Amherst, MA 01003-9285(413) 545-4743

Tom FrenchMassachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

251 Causeway St., Suite 400Boston, MA 02114-2152

(617) 626-1590

Snakes of Eastern North America by Carl H. Ernst and Roger W. Barbour. George MasonUniversity Press, Fairfax, Virginia. 1989.

A Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles by Thomas F. Tyning. Little, Brown & Company,Boston. 1990.

Field Guides

Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern/Central North America by Roger Conant and JosephT. Collins. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 1991.

Reptiles of North America by Hobart M. Smith and Edmund Brodie. Golden Press, NewYork. 1982.-

The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians by John L.Behler. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York. 1979.

Graphic Design: Jean BernotasIllustrations: Nancy HaverCopy Editing: Elizabeth Carr Adams