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Land Use Policy 43 (2015) 129137

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Land Use Policy

j o ur na l ho me page: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / landusepol

anaging Chinas pastoral lands: Current problems and futurerospects

imin Hua , Victor R. Squires1

angeland Ecology and Resources Group, College of Rangeland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 17 July 2014eceived in revised form 5 November 2014ccepted 10 November 2014

eywords:astoral landnimal husbandryand degradation

a b s t r a c t

China has the second largest area of pastoral land in the world, and these lands and their peoples play avery beneficial role in the global environment. Because of Chinas huge population, rate of social reform,and economic development, the pastoral ecosystems are at a critical turning point. There is a conflictbetween national benefit and the land users (mainly herders) benefit. This paper introduces the scaleof pastoral land, the history of its management institutions, past and current projects and programs,as well as the current framework of policy and law as relevant to land management. The challengesfor pastoral management in terms of institutions, administration, technology and their shifting role inregional economies of scale are also analyzed. Opportunities for sustainable development in Chinas pas-egulationsolicy

toral lands are presented. Finally, this paper highlights the available approaches for enhancing livelihoodsand conserving pastoral land, including establishment of law and policy framework at the national level,redefining use rights for community management, promoting Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM)as a basis for natural resource utilization, preserving and respecting cultural aspects of pastoral peoples,and shifting the focus from GDP generation to environmental protection.

2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.ntroduction

he nature and extent of rangeland and rangeland degradation inhina

China has 400 million hectares of pastoral land, which is the sec-nd largest area of pastoral land in the world. Chinas pastoral landsre situated in the drier and higher regions of north and north-westhina. They cover approximately 40% of the country and are mostlynhabited by peoples of various ethnic minorities (Squires et al.,009, 2010). The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and National Devel-pment Reform Committee (NDRC) have classified 266 countiess pastoral or agro-pastoral counties, of which 120 counties areure pastoral counties with 190 million hectares of rangeland in sixastoral provinces (Longworth and Williamson, 1993) (Fig. 1). The

gro-pastoral counties are located in the transition zone betweenraditional cropping regions and pastoral regions (Chen et al., 2004;hao et al., 2006).

Corresponding author at: No. 1 Yingmen Village, Anning District, Lanzhou 70030,ansu, China. Tel.: +86 3993115549.

E-mail address: hua-lm@263.net (L. Hua).1 Current Address: 31 Yeronga Ave, Unit 4 Kensington Park, 5068, Australia.el.: +61 400104775.

ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.11.004264-8377/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.China has been suffering from some of the worlds worst landdegradation (LD) problems since late-1960 (Ci and Yang, 2010;Zhou and Tan, 2011). The degraded area has increased by 15% eachdecade from the 1960s to the mid-2000s (Wang and Han, 2000).A survey completed in 2006 revealed that 90% of both temperatetypical steppe and temperate desert steppe were degraded, and insome areas the situation has worsened since then. In eight types ofgrassland, four grassland types (including the temperate meadowgrassland, mainly located in eastern Inner Mongolia), the coldalpine meadow and steppe, mainly located on the Qinghai-TibetPlateau, and the lowland meadow (intra-zonal vegetation) exhibitmoderate degradation. Other grasslands are suffering degradationat different levels, in particular the temperate typical steppe, thesecond largest area of grassland in China (Table 1). At present, thepastoral land degradation in China reduces rangeland resources(Heshmati and Squires, 2013), deepens rural poverty and poten-tially destabilizes ethnic minority areas, and reduces biodiversity(Nelson, 2006).

Why is the degradation of pastoral land so serious in China?The official reasons for this were given as: (i) the problem of over-grazing, although according to the MOA (2013), overgrazing has

declined from 33% in 2007 to 16.8% in 2013 in key pastoral lands.Livestock inventories have increased dramatically because of (ii)irrational development, industrial pollution and plagues of insectsand rodents, and (iii) frequent illegal collection of medicinal and

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.11.004http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02648377http://www.elsevier.com/locate/landusepolhttp://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.11.004&domain=pdfmailto:hua-lm@263.netdx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.11.004

130 L. Hua, V.R. Squires / Land Use Policy 43 (2015) 129137

Table 1Percentage of land type in different degradation states (Lu et al., 2006) (unit:%).

Type of grassland Number ofsamples

No degradation Lightdegradation

Moderatedegradation

Heavydegradation

Extremely heavydegradation

Lowland meadow 483 21.6 8.7 54.2 15.5 0Cold alpine meadow 792 14.8 9.5 43.9 31.8 0Cold alpine steppe 681 30.8 5.3 22.5 41.4 0Temperate meadow grassland 1059 83.0 8.8 3.1 5.1 0Temperate typical steppe 615 9.8 10.7 Temperate desert steppe 1095 9.6 15.1 Temperate desert 1623 13.3 28.7

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a family business. Due to lack of regulations and lax supervision,over-exploitation and overstocking on pastoral lands became verysevere, which led to probably the worst pastoral land degradationin history (Dalintai, 2008).ig. 1. Extensive pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in China occur in the north andorth-western portions of China within six provinces.

ther plants. However, climate change and human behavior alsorobably play a big role in this degradation. Erratic rainfall androlonged droughts as a result of climate change increases the vul-erability of the population in pastoral areas. Some scientists thinkhat policies and legislation also are factors that cause land degra-ation (Yangzong, 2006; Dalintai and Gaowa, 2010). The largestopulation in the world inevitably puts more pressure on the pas-oral lands with rising demand for goods and services (water, redeat, and medicinal plants) and land for industrial and infras-

ructural development such as highways, railways, power stations,ransmission lines, etc. (Squires et al., 2010; Squires, 2012)

evelopment of a legal and institutional framework for pastoraland management

efore 1949Before the founding of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) in

949, pastoral areas were owned by tribes and temples. These areasere grazed and shared by members of the tribes. The tribal headsontrolled pasture management and leased the land to herders.he grazing management during this period was nomadic grazingased on migrations and seasonal availability of forage and water.razing was governed by religious or tribal rules, therefore over-xploitation was generally avoided. The rules prevented herdersrom overgrazing the land and protected wildlife such as Tibetanntelope, wild ass and wild camels. Because of a low populationressure and slow economic development during this period, pas-oral lands were generally in good condition.

arly years of PRC (19491958)In the early years of the PRC, livestock was divided and the

anagement of a group of animals and the allocated pastoral land

as assigned to individual herdsmen to manage, although thewnership of livestock and pasture was still vested in the tribe.he scattered inhabitants and the low level of investment was aajor limiting factor to the production and development of the26.8 37.6 15.143.0 25.7 6.635.1 20.5 2.4

grazing industries in the pastoral regions. The local governmentsencouraged the herders to establish cooperatives, and collabora-tion became possible. Gradually, the herders set up small groups,cooperatives and advanced cooperatives in which the scale of oper-ation became larger, and cooperation became more feasible. Thelivestock and pastures were still owned by the State, but the coop-eratives had the right to use the pastoral lands and manage thelivestock enterprise. The herders who did not join the coopera-tives could only use residual pastoral land outside the control ofthe groups.

Peoples communes (19581978)In 1958, local governments in pastoral regions established

peoples communes (a collective economic organization) asrequired by the State government. The aim of the peoples com-mune, was to promote agricultural production through strongcooperation. All herders joined the peoples commune, and all prop-erty that used to be owned by herders, tribes and temples wastransferred to State ownership. The peoples commune had theright to manage the pastoral lands and livestock, and profits madefrom the land were collected by the peoples commune and partiallyredistributed to individual householders. During this period, thepeoples commune and production groups managed the pastoralland, and grazing was based on seasonal conditions and availabil-ity of forage and water. These lands were generally rotationallygrazed, and joining and lambing/calving were coordinated acrosslarge herds/flocks. The production model during this period wasprobably better for the pastoral lands compared to other periods inChinas history, although the commune system provided no incen-tive for people to work hard and make profits.

Householder pastoral land contract system (19782009)In 1978, the Third Meeting of the Eleventh Central Commit-

tee of the Chinese Peoples Congress was held, which adoptedthe householder contract system in rural China. The system wasimplemented progressively in the pastoral regions. In the early1980s, all livestock owned by collectives or peoples communeswas redistributed to individual householders. By 2009, the areaof pastoral lands with contracts was approximately 70% of thetotal national pastoral lands available for use in 2009.2 During thisperiod, the herders owned both the right to use the pastoral landand livestock, and animal production from pastures was basically2 Liu Jiawen, Deputy Director of the Grassland Monitoring and AdministrationCenter under the Ministry of Agriculture http://www.china.com.cn/tech/zhuanti/wyh/2008-07/03/content 15925203.htm.

http://www.china.com.cn/tech/zhuanti/wyh/2008-07/03/content_15925203.htmhttp://www.china.com.cn/tech/zhuanti/wyh/2008-07/03/content_15925203.htm

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L. Hua, V.R. Squires / Land

fter 2009Since the enactment of the Grassland3 Law in 2002, the State

ouncil developed a series of policies on pastoral land protectionnd development of the grazing industries in all pastoral regions.arge-scale ecological protection projects for the pastoral land wereunded by the central and local government and implementedcross pastoral regions. New policies and rules on appropriate graz-ng management such as balanced pastoral and-livestock systemsnd rest of pastures were implemented. As a consequence, pastoralands being restored, and the efficiency of livestock production hasmproved on the Tibetan Plateau and other regions. However, otherhallenges such as global warming, economic downturn and foodnsecurity, also influence pasture and grazing management in pas-oral regions. There is an urgent need to develop adaptive grazinganagement strategies (Shang et al., 2014).

ational projects aimed at addressing the problems of pastoraland degradation

Changes to land tenure arrangements, land management andastoral land use rights since 1949 clearly have allowed massivencreases in livestock populations in pastoral regions of northernnd western China. Government has responded by developing laws,olicies and national programs to arrest the rate of land degradationnd, where possible, reverse it. Three major National projects forhe pastoral land conservation and development were established

The first major national project was the Conversion of Crop-and to Forest and Grassland Program (CCFGP) launched in 2000ommonly called Grain for Green or Sloping Land Conversionrogram (Long, 2014; Komareka et al., 2014). The investment ofhe project was about 48.5 billion US dollars during 20002012http://www.chinaco op.gov.cn/HTML/2014/04/08/92619.html).he project involved the return of marginal cultivated land (mainlylopes) to a more stable land use involving forestry (includingruit trees, and fuel wood plantations), shrubland and artificialrasslands (sown pastures). The policy involved paying land userouseholds, who hold the appropriate lease, in cash or throughupply of grain commensurate with the income or grain productionhat is foregone. This project is coordinated by the State Forestdministration and the local Forest Bureaus in cooperation withther government bureaus such as the National Development andeform Commission (NDRC), Ministry of Finance, National Grainsureau, etc. This program has been analyzed in depth in a numberf studies (Uchida et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2007; Bennett et al.,008; Persson et al., 2013; Deng et al., 2014). The sub-programReturn Cropland to Grass is most pronounced in pastoral areas andas been included in aspects of the China Western Developmentrogram (Yeh, 2005). The second major national project/programas Returning Grazing to Grassland, which started in 2000. The

nvestment of the project was about 2.9 billion US dollars from000 to 2013 (MOA, 2013). Five different ministries and commis-ions were involved in the program including the State Councilsevelop the West Office, the NDRC in the Ministry of Finance,nd the National Grains Bureau. This is the principal programhat commands most attention and resources in pastoral lands.he broad aim of the program was to rest pastures to allow themo recover naturally as opposed to the ecological constructionpproach favored in the 19801990s (Squires et al., 2010). This waschieved through imposition of grazing bans, grazing restrictions

nd through use of rest-rotation grazing made possible by fencing.he program was extensive, covering many lands pastoral in manyrovinces. Apart from the compensation paid to households for

3 Grassland is a Chinese term for rangeland. It includes true grasslands, meadows,teppes and even shrublands.olicy 43 (2015) 129137 131

the grazing restrictions, significant resources also were given togovernment agencies to construct or promote fencing, pastureimprovement and more intensive livestock production systemsinvolving pen feeding, fodder conservation etc. Details of theReduce Grazing Return Grassland Program, including paymentschedule and other operational details are contained in Brownet al. (2008).

The third national program was the Rangeland Ecological Com-pensation Program. The program was started in 2011 with 1.2billion US dollars in eight pastoral provinces. In 2012, the programwas extended to 266 pastoral counties and agro-pastoral countiesunder the support of 2.5 billion dollars US. From 2013, the fund ofthe program increased to 2.9 billion dollars US. The program mainlyprovided subsidies to herders who complied with grazing bans andmade progress toward a livestock-forage balance. Subsidized highquality forage seeds as well as other production materials, such asdiesel, and fodders were also provided. The objective of the policyaimed to restore pastoral lands, change the livestock productionpattern and increase herders incomes.

Challenges for pastoral land management

Law and policy

The pastoral areas of China present a variety of problems thatare both different and similar to those found in other areas. Resolv-ing them will be difficult and will require policies sensitive tospatial and climatic variability. Because the ecological constraintsare different from those found in other parts of China, new cross-disciplinary paradigms that account for interactions between localcommunities, the natural resource base, markets and the socio-political environment are necessary (Brown et al., 2008; Squireset al., 2009, 2010).

In China, there are three developing phases of enacting law.From 1978 to 1982, China was recovering from the Cultural Rev-olution, and the National Peoples Congress (NPC) made the firstEnvironmental Protection Law in 1979. From 1982 to 1997, theNPC amended the Constitution that involved the clauses relat-ing to environment protection and natural resource management(forestry, grassland, land management, etc.). Between 1997 and2008 the NPC has strengthened the lawmaking and amended theenvironmental laws, in accordance with the changing relationshipsbetween nature and society (Sun, 2008). At present, there are eightlaws related to grassland management, conservation and develop-ment at the national level (Table 2). These laws were made by theNPC and were implemented by different ministries beginning latein the 20th century with updates as required. Although, the lawsplay a very important role in the protection of pastoral lands, theselaws have been managed by different sectoral ministries withoutmuch coordination. The MOA administers Grassland Law and Agri-cultural Law, and the State Forest Bureau administers Forestry Lawand Prevention and Control of Desertification Law. The situation hasresulted in administrative confusion because of overlap or gaps inthe authority to manage land and control land degradation. Reg-ulatory conflict and administrative confusion is arguably a majorreason of accelerated rangeland degradation.

Besides the law and regulations, there are policies that alsoplay very important roles in the management of pastoral land. Thepolicy in China is complex some policies were made by the StateCouncil, such as Guideline on Grassland Protection and Construc-tion formulated by the State Council in 2002 and Guideline onPromoting Rapid Development in the Pastoral Area in 2011. These

provided policy guidelines for disbursement of national funds thatwere aimed at conservation and development of pastoral lands.Key national policies are Returning Grazing to Grassland Program,Grassland Ecological Subsidies Program; Nomadic Population

http://www.chinaco op.gov.cn/HTML/2014/04/08/92619.html

132 L. Hua, V.R. Squires / Land Use Policy 43 (2015) 129137

Table 2Overview of laws related to pastoral land management, conservation and development in China.

Laws Brief Administration

Land Administration Law (Adopted in1986, Amended in 1988, 1998, 2004)

This law controls the allocation of pastoral land resources to industry andagriculture (agriculture, rangeland, forestry and reserves). The GeneralPlanning Guideline of National Land Use is the major guideline for land useand purpose regulation.

Ministry of Land and Resources

Forestry Law (Adopted in 1984,Amended in 1998, 2009)

This law involves various regulations defining forestry resources and forestland. Forest land includes forested land, young forest, nurseries and landsuitable for afforestation according to local government plans at or above thecounty level. The County level forestry bureaus are responsible for classifyingthe main forest types: shelter (conservation), timber, economic, fuel wood andspecial purpose forest and submit them to the local government to beapproved and announced. A long-term forest management plan is prepared ateach level. This law requires that compensation be provided to householdsthat are deprived of forestry resources.

State Forestry Bureau

Grassland Law (Adopted in 1985,Amended in 2002, 2013)

The law defines grassland as grassland, hills and slopes covered with grass,natural grassland (rangeland) and sown pastures. Some counties are inagricultural areas and the grassland is collective and has not been contractedto individual households (HHs) or group of HHs. Under local legislation somegrassland law is applied to brush (grassland and thin forest) so there ispotential for conflict between Bureaus at local levels.

Ministry of Agriculture

Agricultural Law (Adopted in 1993,Amended in 2003, 2013)

This law regulates agricultural activities and provides the legal basis forcontracting farmland to households, farmland protection and farmlandinfrastructure development. Agricultural land includes degraded andabandoned cropland.

Ministry of Agriculture

Water Law (Adopted in 1988,Amended in 2002)

This law provides the legal criteria for the regulation of the planning,utilization and protection of surface, underground and aerial water resources.

Ministry of Water Resources

Water and Soil Conservation Law(Adopted in 1991, Amended in 2010)

This law is formulated for the purpose of the prevention and control of soilerosion, the protection and rational utilization of water and soil resources, themitigation of disasters of flood, drought and sandstorm, the improvement ofecological environment and the development of production.

Ministry of Water Resources

Prevention and Control ofDesertification Law (Adopted in

This Law was enacted to prevent land desertification, rehabilitate desertifiedland, maintain eco-safety, and promote sustainable economic and social

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dapted from Du and Hannam (2011) and Zhang (1998).

ettlement Program, etc. The total investment was about 7 millionollars US from 2000 to 2012; the average annual growth rate inxpenditure was above 11%.The Householder Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) plays a

ey role in the management of pastoral land in China. It involves notnly land management (including allocation of user rights but alsoesponsibilities of HH to provide a given quota of a commodity). TheCRS was extended to the pastoral area from the 1980s onward ashe fundamental tool for rangeland management in China (Wangt al., 2010). A key part of the policy was to assign use-rights tondividual households from land that was formerly communallysed. The policy tried to solve the problem of common-use grazingn rangeland. Views differ about HCRS in China (Williams, 1996b;ichard et al., 2006). The HCRS proved successful in agriculturalands in south and east China and was applied nationally withoutny adjustment to the variable and vulnerable climatic zones thatharacterize the pastoral zone. The HCRS has led to a highly frag-ented and chaotic production and marketing system (Brown et al.,008). The household responsibility system for pastoralists haseen criticized as exacerbating, rather than alleviating, problemsf overgrazing in Inner Mongolia (Thwaites et al., 1998; Williams,996a; Taylor, 2006; Li and Huntsinger, 2011) and Ningxia (Ho,000). In part, this led to the creation of a small-householder pro-uction system that is believed to be a key flaw in the HCRS system,s applied to pastoral areas.

xtension lack of linkage between science and management

The problems of implementation of policy spill over into the

roblem of extension work at the county level (Hu et al., 2009). Inost agro-pastoral counties and pastoral counties, the Grasslandupervision Station and Grassland Technical Extension Worksta-ion are the same department (Luo, 2004). The same thinly spreadand poorly equipped officers have been given two responsibilities.As the law requires, there is supervision and monitoring. However,there is also an expectation that these officers will play a role asextension personnel bringing new ideas and organizing trainingof land users. There are serious problems with the extension servicein China. Part of it has already been explained but more serious isthe disconnect between science and practice. Most of the researchconducted on matters that relate to pastoral areas is not focussedon the management of the pastoral lands. Much of it is esoteric andsome, that might be useful, is done on experimental stations or inlaboratories but the results are never communicated to land users.

As land users age and realities of the market economy becomerooted, there an increasing need to provide training to land users.Most herders are skilled in animal husbandry, but lack the skills andknowledge required to set up and run a pasture users group, or setup a cooperative to ensure the benefit of bulk supply purchases(fuel, veterinary supplies, grain, etc.) and getting an up-to-datemarket analysis of commodity prices (meat, cashmere, and milk).The practical issues of rest and rotation grazing, spring deferment,ration formulation for pen-fed animals, fodder conservation (silagemaking, etc.), better (warm) housing for over-wintering livestock,etc. can be the subject of Farmer Schools. Instead, training is oftenabout the merits of better (bigger) breeds and about how to growmore fodder crops to support the official view that animal hus-bandry needs to be scientific and modernised.

Research priorities: need for a problem-oriented researchapproachThe Universities and research institutes have failed to pur-sue problem-oriented research in favor of basic research thatis laboratory-based and often confined to molecular biology, andtissue-culture experiments that yield a research paper in a short

Use Policy 43 (2015) 129137 133

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Fig. 2. The roles of extension agents (figure in white), researchers (in black) and thetarget (squares) can be viewed in different ways. In (a) the focus is on the end user asa recipient of information and advice derived from research on a system componentand delivered by the extension agent; in (b) there is a recognition that the pastoralsystem needs to be better understood but the researcher is outside of the system;and in (c) the role of the land user as a co-researcher is recognized and the researchL. Hua, V.R. Squires / Land

ime and foster the promotion prospects of the researcher. Eveneld-based research is more concerned about sown pastures (oftennder irrigation) and fodder crops. From 1999 to 2005, the paperselated to sown pastures accounted for 50.8% of the total publishedapers in nine dominant grassland journals (Hou, 2009). Long-termesearch on the interactions between livestock and the forage basen which they depend has been ignored. There is a poor under-tanding of the ecology of key pastoral land types and the impactf grazing animals on plants and soils.In the main universities of grassland science, such as Gansu

gricultural University, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Innerongolian Agricultural University, etc., grassland science and ani-al science and husbandry are in separate colleges. The so-calledrassland Colleges within the universities have done little of valueor the pastoral zone and the land users there. A major failing ishe lack of a systems approach. There is a willful disregard of themportance of trying to understand the importance of the grazing,rowsing animals as part of a pastoral system. Relegating animal-elated matters to animal science Faculty and focussing only on thelants is a mistake. A new development is the emergence of pastoralolleges at some progressive universities. A feature of these newolleges is the willingness to incorporate economics and sociologynto the mix. The goal of the colleges is to understand the pastoralystem and get away from the reductionist approach that has char-cterized research and teaching at most universities across China.n urgent need exists to implement curriculum reform within agri-ultural universities to provide a competency-based program soraduates develop skills rather than recall reams of information.

starting point is to assess the destination of graduates and seeho employs them and in what capacity. Then to seek from thosemployers a list of competencies that they see as desirable/essentialor the job. This information can serve as a basis for amending theourses offered.

As mentioned above, a shortage of competent staff exists inhe offices of various bureaus in local government. There is anpportunity here to combine curriculum reform with a nationalrogram to train a new type of graduate whose skill set is appropri-te to the needed task in county and prefecture bureaus. Part of thekill set could be in extension methods. Action research4 involv-ng the land users provides a good entry point for the extensiongent because the research is problem-oriented. Which problemso research should involve the end-user from the beginning. Theand user (a co-researcher) can act as an extension agent by passingn knowledge acquired through informal meetings at the marketr at social occasions (Fig. 2).

op down approach for pastoral land management

China has always relied on a top-down approach for governanceDobson, 2012). The top-down approach filters through the variousayers of government with each layer modifying the directives touit local conditions. A problem faced by local administrators ishat often the policy directives that come from the Central Gov-rnment are guidelines with an indication of the outcome that isxpected. Regulations are added at various stages in the trickle-own process through the various layers in the hierarchy. The speedf implementing the directives and the enthusiasm for complyingith them may hinge on whether the officers promotion dependsn successful completion and on whether they conflict with the

arget of increasing GDP on which the administration is judgedsee earlier discussion about the roll out of the Return Grazingand to Grassland Project). The speed of implementation varies

4 The purpose of action research is to solve a particular problem and to produceuidelines for best practice.and extension personnel (gray) become part of a continuum within the system andboth become agents of change. The recognition that the land user is a co-researcher(c) is growing in developed countries. Chinas model seems to be more like panel (a).

with province. For example, provisions of the amended GrasslandLaw 2002 were implemented in Inner Mongolia long before theywere implemented in Gansu and Xinjiang. Even more than 10 yearslater, some counties have not yet complied with all provisions ofthe Grassland Law 2002. Moreover, there is a conflict concerningpastoral land management between the governments and herders.With the implementation of HCRS, the individual householder nowmakes decisions about which livestock species to keep (sheep, goatsfor cashmere, cattle, horses, or yaks) how many and how to feedthem over winter. Many other decisions about when and where tograze, and how to comply with the regulations pertaining to graz-ing restrictions/bans are left to the herders. The top-down approachignores or severely restricts the benefits that herders could obtainfrom pastoral lands and in many cases accelerates the rate of landdegradation as less grazing land is available to support burgeoninglivestock numbers.

Weak administration in the Ministry of Agriculture

The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) was put in charge of the onlynational project to conserve pastoral lands, but it was also chargedwith increasing the flow of agricultural commodities, including ani-mal products (meat, wool, milk, cashmere, leather, etc.). The MOAset production targets and, even at the local bureau level, the sameagency was responsible for increasing output (usually achieved byraising more animals) and ostensibly for implementing measuresthat are aimed at reducing livestock inventories. Within the MOA,the group that oversees pastoral lands is small and not really com-petent to devise programs suited to the diverse and heterogeneousconditions that exist in the 400 million hectares of pastoral lands

in northern and north-western China that stretch 4000 km acrosssix provinces. The lack of depth in the administration (through thevarious branches of the Animal Husbandry Bureaus) is a real con-straint. MOA staffs are not able to fully understand the ecology,

134 L. Hua, V.R. Squires / Land Use Policy 43 (2015) 129137

Table 3The output of beef and sheep from various regions of China.

Province Cattle (104 head) Sheep (104 head) Pastureland area (104 ha)

1986 1996 2006 1986 1996 2006

Inner Mongolia 42.6 88.0 227.7 646.4 1406.5 4513.0 7880ShanDong 32.3 213.2 436.6 558.3 1497.1 3026.2 163HeNan 53.9 427.7 547 342.5 1889.1 2105.3 442GanSu 21.9 60.3 126.5 150.4 398.1 889.9 1790

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ata source: MOA, New China Agriculture 60 Year, Statistical Material, 2009.

ociology and economics of the systems they are trying to manage.he lack of resources and trained personnel devoted to pastoralands is reflected by the relatively small proportion of livestockroducts exported from pastoral regions. By far the most meat,ilk, etc. comes from provinces to the east and south of the pastoral

egions where the climate is more conducive to supplying a contin-ous supply of feed for the animals year round and where wintersre less harsh. The current policy is to try to transform the ani-al husbandry practices in the more extensive pastoral zone suchs on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and parts of Gansu and Xinjiangnd convert the land users into settled farmers, practicing scien-ific animal husbandry (Cui et al., 2009). The wisest use of theseast pastoral lands is to allow the self-propelled, self-reproducing,nd self-maintaining animals of traditional herders to continue torovide self-sufficient householders to continue their way of lifeithout restriction (Miller, 2002) or to adopt a compromise suchs that proposed by Shang et al. (2014) where semi-settled herdersan take advantage of the spatial-temporal variation in forage andater availability.

hange of meat production base in pastoral areas

During 19501980, the pastoral area in China (Inner Mongolia,injiang, Gansu, etc.) was the main production region for beef andutton (Longworth and Williamson, 1993). However, the maineef and mutton production area is now located in central ChinaHenan and Shandong Provinces). Notwithstanding that Henan andhandong have the smallest area of pastureland. Animal husbandryevelopment in Henan and Shandong takes full advantage of sownorage and fodder crops and abundant crop residues. Despite themall area of pastureland5 in cropping areas, the contribution ofnimal husbandry to GDP is greater there than in the vast pas-oral areas (Table 3). Because the contribution of animal husbandryo GDP in pastoral areas is limited, the government should focusn protecting ecological goods and services from pastoral lands,uch as water, timber, and medicinal plants and on preserving theultural heritage of land users.

pportunities for sustainable development in Chinasastoral lands

lean and green market niche

As mentioned above the pastoral areas are not currently theajor sources of meat and milk. Much of the animal produce in pas-

oral areas is for home consumption because many of the land usersollow a subsistence regime. However, there is scope for develop-

ng a niche market for clean, green and organic products to meet arowing demand. This market already exists and buyers from east-rn China purchase sheep and goats from the Hexi Corridor in Gansu

5 Pastureland includes both rangelands and sown pastures. The latter are verymportant in Henan and Shandong.1550.7 3081.9 5726

Province and from eastern Xinjiang for shipment by train to mar-kets (and processors) in Shanghai and other large east coast cities.Consumers there are prepared to pay a high price for clean, greenproduce (including meat) that is produced without chemicals. Con-sumers also show a preference for carcasses that have less wastefulfat. For example, in Hami County, east coast buyers now prefer thin-tailed sheep that suit consumer preferences in Shanghai wherepeople are more diet conscious. However, fat-tailed sheep are pre-ferred by local hotels and restaurants in Xinjiang. Through herdercooperatives and better marketing, the clean-green animal prod-ucts could command a premium price for both sellers and re-sellers.Many livestock purchased by east coast buyers are purchased assmall lots from herders on pastoral lands. The sellers have littleup-to-date information on market prices and are often exploitedby the buyers. Better coordination of sellers and sharing of priceinformation could lead to higher prices all round. There also is anopportunity for some value-adding locally. Herders who mainlyrely on upland pastures could do the breeding of animals whileothers in the lowlands (where fodder is available) could operatesmall-scale feedlots. This value adding would help to raise house-holders incomes and reduce grazing pressure on pasturelands, andreduce the feed requirement for the overwintering herds/flocksby disposing of surplus animals before winter. By promoting thepractice of early weaning, the fecundity of the breeding femalescan also be improved (Squires et al., 2010). The added benefit isthat the pressure on summer pastures can be reduced because thelambs and calves, etc. do not need to make the long trek, and feweranimals would need to be fed on these summer pastures and enroute (Michalk and Hua, 2010).

Improve environmental awareness

The growing concerns of people in China about threats to natu-ral heritage, biodiversity and the link between poor environmentalmanagement and disasters such as dust and sand storms (DSS),floods and landslides, are spilling over into pastoral areas. Alreadymassive efforts are being undertaken to prevent and control DSSand floods. Many of these efforts are in pastoral areas where theheadwaters of many rivers are located. Prohibitions on forest clear-ance, cultivation and grazing bans are part of this effort. The raisingof the awareness through mass media and campaigns to implementlaws and regulations are becoming more common. Peoples supportfor remedial measures has become stronger as governments at alllevels are beginning to have greater transparency in their policiesand actions.

Another important development is the expansion of environ-mental education within the school system (Zhao et al., 2010;Hua et al., 2013). Environmental education has changed the mind-set of people and has been developed over many years and inmany countries. Environmental education programs train stu-

dents to influence whole families, educate classmates and helpmanage communities. The result of work with children in eightcounties within Gansus pastoral areas showed that environmen-tal education had a positive impact on students attitudes toward

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nvironmental protection. Parents and other adults have becomenvolved through their children. The environmental education con-ept, technical content, and delivery mode have been praised byany local technical training agencies in Gansu Province for theirffectiveness in changing the mind-set of local land users (Hua et al.,013).

hat can be done to enhance livelihoods, conserveiodiversity and protect land?

stablish a law and policy framework at national level thatncludes reform of pastoral land administration

The present system based on HCRS does not work well for pas-oral households. A fatal flaw is that all land was allocated afterecollectivization based on family size and number of livestockwned at that time. In addition, exemptions to the one child pol-cy allowed some ethnic minority groups to have multiple children.ften these minority groups were most dependent on the com-unal pasturelands that their ancestors had grazed for centuries.s the children of the original households matured the allocatedand inevitably was split into smaller units, which meant moreressure on resources (forage, water, fuelwood, etc.) to supporthe new families and maintain the original ones. There is no landarket, and HCRS are not easily traded or transferred. For many,

he 30-year lease limit is approaching. Great uncertainty existsbout the future land tenure arrangements. With the burgeon-ng populations, degrading resource base and rising expectationsmong the people to share in Chinas prosperity, the pressure onhe land is reaching a threshold. In other countries where such landubdivision has created problems (because of inheritance laws)stablishing a land market could allow consolidation of marginalnd sub-marginal operations. This could be aided by programs suchs the Sunshine Project which trains rural people to acquire newkills such as truck driving, hairdressing, mechanical skills, etc. Thisffers an opportunity of a new life and reduces the pressure on theand. The Central government, as part of its 12th Five Year Plan,nvisaged that more than 90 million people will become urbanizedy 2020.

edefine use rights

For those who remain in pastoral areas, reform of pastoral land-se rights is also required. The mobility of livestock and opportunityo follow grass and water, which characterized the herders past life,as destroyed by the allocation of set pieces of land over which aouseholder had control. Even where fencing was done to demar-ate individual householders land, there were many problemsapart from trespass grazing) because of the lack of heterogene-ty in the allocated land and mobility restrictions. This has led to aovement in Inner Mongolia to remove the fences and for cooper-ting householders to pool their resources on their allocated landnd practice a modified rotational grazing system, which is a betteratch for forage and water availability that had prevailed for cen-

uries. Government has sanctioned some of these developmentsnd now recognizes the legitimacy of the Allied Householders6

pproach. A comparison of three methods of utilization of pastoral

ands was made in Gansu Province where an Allied Householdersystem involving 134 householders was compared to the commu-al grazing practiced by another group of 186 householders and

6 The term Allied Householder means that voluntary agreements are formedetween pasture users (often related by kinship) to pool their pasture and wateresources and operate in a way that is less restrictive on livestock and which providesn opportunity to maximize heterogeneity in the landscape.olicy 43 (2015) 129137 135

where 198 householders were participants in the national projectReturn Grazing to Grassland After five years the income levels ofthe Allied Householder group were higher (despite a reduction inlivestock numbers), and the condition of the pastures was better(Hua et al., in press).

Promote Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM) as a basis fornatural resource utilization

The Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM) approach is astrategy for the integrated management of land, water and livingresources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in anequitable way. The application of the IEM approach would help toachieve a balance between ensuring livelihoods, conserving biodi-versity and protecting the land. It is a holistic approach to addresslinkages between ecosystem functions (such as carbon uptake andstorage, climate stabilization, watershed protection and continu-ity in supply of medicinal products) and human social, economicand production systems (Hua, 2009). IEM recognizes that peopleand the natural resources on which they depend, directly or indi-rectly, are inextricably linked. Rather than treating each resourcein isolation, this approach offers the option of treating all ele-ments of ecosystems together to obtain multiple ecological andsocio-economic benefits. The IEM approach overcomes the lackof coordination referred to in Section 3 and integrated considerthe nomadic people, rangeland and animal husbandry together.The approach respects the nomadic culture and local knowledge,which means that IEM restores and optimizes the traditional graz-ing system instead of building a new one in the pastoral lands.By definition, IEM requires taking all components of an ecosys-tem into account and considering the social, economic and naturalenvironments. In practice, IEM refers to a set of principles, oper-ational guidelines and instructions (Jiang, 2009). The adoption ofIEM has been successful in China, especially in the forestry sec-tor with the implementation of the PRC-GEF Partnership on LandDegradation in Dryland Ecosystemsthat was established in 2004 toalleviate poverty, control land degradation, and develop ways torehabilitate dryland ecosystems in north and north western China.Each of the provinces/regions in the pastoral zone has developedits own IEM strategy (Zhang, 2009).

Preserve and respect cultural aspects of pastoral peoples

A serious problem in some parts of the pastoral zone of Chinais dramatic loss of cultural identity (Yan et al., 2005). Outsidepressures for modernization and the introduction of new policiesfrequently undervalued and even ignored existing cultural systems.In some cases, the policies required that pastoral land users settledown. This happened to Mongolians in Inner Mongolia, Kazaks inXinjiang and Tibetans in Tibet. The motive for this was so that thesepeople could adopt modern scientific means of animal husbandryand be better able to access services provided by the government(health, education and social security). Attempts to achieve thisobjective resulted in serious ecological degradation and exten-sive social and economic disruption (Williams, 2002, 2006; Miller,2002; Sheehy et al., 2006; Taylor, 2012). Partly this pressure againsttraditional life styles was due to ideological prejudices against pas-toralism and political preference for sedentary crop-based systems.Loss of cultural identity is a particularly acute problem in westernChina. Growing evidence is showing that many traditional pastoralsystems were highly rational and much more sophisticated and

productive than previously thought. However, it might be too latefor many of them to change. HCRS and allocation of use rights arein place, but with modifications could provide a satisfactory out-come for all (Shang et al., 2014). People must be seen as part of the

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astoral system and there is a critical need to work with and for theeople (Squires, 2009).

hift the balance from GDP generation to environmentalrotection (land stewardship)

China is a developing country, and GDP growth has been at high level for a number of years. The land users and the peo-le who administer them are under pressure to increase revenues.ost herders think that having more livestock is the path to greater

evenues. Many realize that the resource base is degrading, butecause of the flaws in the land tenure system and the low level ofecurity of tenure under the HCRS and use rights, there is no incen-ive to conserve. For some herders whose traditions have alwaysad a great element of land stewardship this situation is regretableZhang et al., 2007; Zhang, 2006; Miller, 2002; Taylor, 2012). Thepportunity to instil (or revive) the sense of land stewardship mighte re-established if the law and policy are reformed (see above) andhe level of awareness of environmental degradation increases.

As was pointed out earlier, administrators at all levels of gov-rnment are evaluated on their ability to meet GDP targets. Theyay knowingly pursue a policy in full knowledge that it will gen-rate GDP (and thus ensure their promotion) rather than provideustainable use. The Central Government has come to recognize theontradiction and has stated that the performance of environmen-ally friendly activities will be an important consideration in theirvaluation for promotion. This is a necessary first step in a longrocess.In addition, Farmer Field Schools (FFS) organized by local land

sers for the benefit of other land users likely will play a vitalole in the future. On the basis of the well-tried method of eachne teach that proved so successful in the bare-foot doctor pro-rams in China during the early days after the PRC was founded,he FFS can be a vital tool because FFS and local research commit-ees are complementary platforms for integrated decision-makingor sustainable land use. FFS can help fill the current gap in exten-ion services and if there is involvement by the cooperating HH inn action research program (Fig. 2), the effectiveness of both setsf activities can be improved. Because of the nation-wide urban-zation campaign, the younger and better educated people fromastoral lands have moved, or will move, to urban areas at a time ofapid change (economically, socially and culturally). The remainingerders are often older and less educated. They will face more diffi-ult challenges and require training and support to manage pastoralands not only for their own livelihoods, but also on behalf of thentire nation. Land stewardship training is an essential part of thisovement to conserve the national heritage (Squires, 2012).

llow market mechanisms to have greater influence, removericing distortions

Theorizing will not do much unless land users have incentiveso change (Waldron et al., 2010). Thus a series of concrete rec-mmendations should be considered as China refines its futureastoral land strategy. Understanding the relationships betweenactors is of particular value in addressing multi-dimensional pas-oral land and associated livelihood problems. Distortions in thearkets that prevent the sellers of commodities from getting a

air price should be removed. Government policy should not keeprices artificially low so that urban dwellers will not complain.arketing information and closer communication with suppliersbout current commodity prices and trends should be improved.

n some bilateral projects livestock auctions, sale yards and associ-ted facilities have been established. Similarly, shearing sheds forroper harvest of wool and cashmere have been established. Thesend other measures that improve the terms of trade for land usersolicy 43 (2015) 129137

from pastoral regions will help to increase HH income and, in turn,allow for greater opportunities for adopting a more conservativestocking policy, which would lead to the arrest and reversal of landdegradation in pastoral zones of China.

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