managing across culture 1

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Motivation Across Cultures

The specific objectives of this chapter are:

1. DEFINE motivation, and explain it as a psychological process.

2. EXAMINE the hierarchy-of-needs, two-factor, and achievement motivation theories, and assess their value to international human resource management.

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3. DISCUSS how an understanding of employee satisfaction can be useful in human resource management throughout the world.

4. EXAMINE the value of process theories in motivating employees worldwide.

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5. RELATE the importance of job design, work centrality, and rewards to understanding how to motivate employees in an international context.


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Motivation

A psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives.

The Nature of Motivation

The Basic Motivation ProcessThe Basic Motivation Process

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Adapted from Figure Figure 12–1: The Basic Motivation Process

Unsatisfied need

Drive toward goal to satisfy need

Attainment of goal (need

satisfaction)

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The Universalist Assumption

The first assumption is that the motivation process is universal, that all people are motivated to pursue goals they value—what the work-motivation theorists call goals with “high valence” or “preference”

The process is universal

Culture influences the specific content and goals pursued

Motivation differs across cultures

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The Assumption of Content and Process

Content Theories of Motivation

Theories that explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior.

Process Theories of Motivation

Theories that explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted.

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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory

The Maslow Theory

Maslow’s theory rests on a number of basic assumptions: Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-

level needs become motivators A need that is satisfied no longer serves as a

motivator There are more ways to satisfy higher-level than there

are ways to satisfy lower-level needs

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Self-ActualizationNeeds

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological NeedsBasic physical needs for water, food, clothing, and shelter.

Desires for security, stability, and the absence of pain.

Desires to interact and affiliate with others and to feel wanted by others.

Needs for power and status.

Desires to reach one’s full potential, to become every thing one is capable of becoming as a human being.

Maslow’s Need HierarchyMaslow’s Need Hierarchy


Adapted from Figure 12–2: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Self-ActualizationNeeds

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

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International Findings on Maslow’s Theory

With some minor modification researchers examined the need satisfaction and need importance of the four highest-level needs in the Maslow hierarch

Esteem needs were divided into two groups:

Esteem – including needs for self-esteem and prestige

Autonomy – including desires for authority and opportunities for independent thought and action

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International Findings on Maslow’s Theory The Haire study indicated all these needs were important to the

respondents across cultures

International managers (not rank-and-file employees) indicated the upper-level needs were of particular importance to them

Findings for select country clusters (Latin Europe, United States/United Kingdom, and Nordic Europe) indicated autonomy and self-actualization were the most important and least satisfied needs for the respondents

Another study of managers in eight East Asian countries found that autonomy and self-actualization in most cases also ranked high

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International Findings on Maslow’s Theory

Some researchers have suggested modifying Maslow’s “Western-oriented” hierarchy by reranking the needs

Asian cultures emphasize the needs of society

Chinese hierarchy of needs might have four levels ranked from lowest to highest:

Belonging (social)

Physiological

Safety

Self-actualization (in the service of society)

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Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countriesfrom a Large Variety of Countries

Adapted from Table 12–1: Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countries

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Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countriesfrom a Large Variety of Countries

Adapted from Table 12–1: Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countries

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International Findings on Maslow’s Theory Hofstede’s research indicates:

Self-actualization and esteem needs rank highest for professionals and managers Security, earnings, benefits, and physical working conditions are most important to

low-level, unskilled workers Job categories and levels may have a dramatic effect on motivation and may well offset

cultural considerations MNCs should focus most heavily on giving physical rewards to lower-level personnel

and on creating a climate where there is challenge, autonomy, the ability to use one’s skills, and cooperation for middle- and upper-level personnel.

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Table 12–2: The Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy

Four Most Important Goals Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational GroupRanked by Occupational Group

Adapted from Table 12–2: Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy

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Table 12–2: The Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy

Four Most Important Goals Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational GroupRanked by Occupational Group

Adapted from Table 12–2: Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy

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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

The Herzberg Theory

Two-Factor Theory of MotivationA theory that identifies two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction:

MotivatorsJob-content factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself

Hygiene FactorsJob-context variables such as salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory


Adapted from Table 12–3: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Salary

Technical supervision

Company policies and administration

Interpersonal relations

Working conditions

Achievement

Recognition

Responsibility

Advancement

The work itself

Hygiene Factors Motivators

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Adapted from Table 12–4: The Relationship Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

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The Herzberg Theory

The two-factor theory holds that motivators and hygiene factors relate to employee satisfaction – a more complex relationship than the traditional view that employees are either satisfied or dissatisfied

If hygiene factors are not taken care of or are deficient there will be dissatisfaction

There may be no dissatisfaction if hygiene factors are taken care of – there may be no satisfaction also

Only when motivators are present will there be satisfaction

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Views of Satisfaction/DissatisfactionViews of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction


Adapted from Figure 12–3: Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction

Traditional View

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

Two-Factor View

(Hygiene Factors)

(Motivators)

Absent(Dissatisfaction)

Present(No Dissatisfaction)

Absent(No Satisfaction)

Present(Satisfaction)

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Two categories of International findings relate to the two-factor theory: One type of study consists of replications of Herzberg’s research in a

particular country

Do managers in country X give answers similar to those in Herzberg’s original studies?

The others are cross-cultural studies focusing on job satisfaction

What factors cause job satisfaction and how do these responses differ from country to country?

International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory

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A number of research efforts have been undertaken to replicate the two-factor theory – they tend to support Herzberg’s findings

George Hines surveyed of 218 middle managers and 196 salaried employees in New Zealand using ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction – he concluded “the Herzberg model appears to have validity across occupational levels”

A similar study was conducted among 178 Greek managers – this study found that overall Herzberg’s two-factor theory of job satisfaction generally held true


Two-Factor Replications

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Motivators tend to be more important to job satisfaction than hygiene factors

MBA candidates from four countries ranked hygiene factors at the bottom and motivators at the top while Singapore students (of a different cultural cluster than the other three groups) gave similar responses Job-satisfaction-related factors may not always be culturally bounded

Lower- and middle-management personnel attending management development courses in Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and Japan ranked the importance of 15 job-related outcomes and how satisfied they were with each Job content may be more important than job context


Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies

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Job-Context Factors

In work motivation, those factors controlled by the organization, such as conditions, hours, earnings, security, benefits, and promotions.

Job-Content Factors

In work motivation, those factors internally controlled, such as responsibility, achievement, and the work itself.


Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies

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Motivation Factors in ZambiaMotivation Factors in Zambia


Adapted from Figure 12–4: Motivation Factors in Zambia

HighDissatisfaction

HighSatisfaction

NeutralPoint

-2.00 -1.00 +1.00+2.00 Average Standard Score of Frequency of Mention of Items

Growth Opportunity

Work Nature

Material and Physical Provisions

Relations with Others

Fairness in Organizational Practices

Personal Problems

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JOI Results in Four Cross-Cultural GroupsJOI Results in Four Cross-Cultural Groups

Adapted from Table 12–5: The Results of Administering the Job Orientation Inventory to Four Cross-Cultural Groups

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Achievement Motivation Theory

Characteristic profile of high achievers:

They like situations in which they take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.

Tend to be moderate risk-takers rather than high or low risk-takers.

Want concrete feedback on their performance.

Often tend to be loners, and not team players.

The Background of Achievement Motivation Theory

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A high nAch can be learned. Ways to develop high-achievement needs:

Obtain feedback on performance and use the information to channel efforts into areas where success will likely be attained

Emulate people who have been successful achievers; Develop an internal desire for success and challenges Daydream in positive terms by picturing oneself as

successful in the pursuit of important objectives

The Background of Achievement Motivation Theory

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Polish industrialists were high achievers scoring 6.58 (U.S. managers’ scored an average of 6.74) Managers in countries as diverse as the United States and those of

the former Soviet bloc in Central Europe have high needs for achievement

Later studies did not find a high need for achievement in Central European countries Average high-achievement score for Czech industrial managers

was 3.32 (considerably lower than U.S. managers)

International Findings on Achievement Motivation Theory

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Selected Countries on the Uncertainty-AvoidanceSelected Countries on the Uncertainty-Avoidanceand Masculinity Scalesand Masculinity Scales

Masculinity index

5 23 41 59 77 95

Un

cert

ain

ty a

void

ance

ind

ex

1116212732374348535964697580859196

101107110

Weak uncertainty avoidanceFeminine

Norway

FinlandOthers

Weak uncertainty avoidanceMasculine

Great BritainIndia

USASouth Africa

CanadaOthers

Strong uncertainty avoidanceFeminine

FranceBrazil

Costa RicaSpain

South KoreaOthers Strong

uncertainty avoidanceMasculine

Japan

AustriaGermany

MexicoOthers

Adapted from Figure 12–5: Selected Countries on the Uncertainty-Avoidance and Masculinity Scales

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Achievement motivation theory must be modified to meet the specific needs of the local culture: The culture of many countries does not support high achievement Anglo cultures and those that reward entrepreneurial effort do support

achievement motivation and their human resources should probably be managed accordingly

International Findings on Achievement Motivation Theory

Hofstede offers the following advice:

The countries on the feminine side . . . distinguish themselves by focusing on quality of life rather than on performance and on relationships between people rather than on money and things. This means social motivation: quality of life plus security and quality of life plus risk.

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Select Process Theories

Equity Theory

When people perceive they are being treated equitably it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction

If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to relevant others) they will be dissatisfied which will have a negative effect on their job performance and they will strive to restore equity.

When the theory is examined on an international basis, the results are mixed.

There is considerable research to support the fundamental equity principle in Western work groups.

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Equity Theory

Equity perceptions among managers and nonmanagers in an Israeli kibbutz production unit Everyone was treated the same but managers reported lower

satisfaction levels than the workers Managers perceived their contributions to be greater than other

groups in the kibbutz and felt under compensated for their value and effort

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Equity Theory

Employees in Asia and the Middle East often readily accept inequitable treatment in order to preserve group harmony

Men and women in Japan and Korea (and Latin America) typically receive different pay for doing the same work – due to years of cultural conditioning women may not feel they are treated inequitably

These results indicate equity theory is not universally applicable in explaining motivation and job satisfaction

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Goal-Setting Theory

A process theory that focuses on how individuals go about setting goals and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation

Specific areas that are given attention in goal-setting theory include: The level of participation in setting goals Goal difficulty Goal specificity The importance of objective Timely feedback to progress toward goals

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Goal-Setting Theory

Unlike many theories of motivation, goal setting has been continually refined and developed There is considerable research evidence showing that employees

perform extremely well when they are assigned specific and challenging goals that they have had a hand in setting

Most of these studies have been conducted in the United States – few have been carried out in other cultures

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Goal-Setting Theory

Norwegian employees shunned participation and preferred to have their union representatives work with management in determining work goals

Researchers concluded that individual participation in goal setting was seen as inconsistent with the prevailing Norwegian philosophy of participation through union representatives

In the United States employee participation in setting goals is motivational – it had no value for the Norwegian employees in this study

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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory

A process theory that postulates that motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that Effort will lead to performance Performance will lead to specific outcomes, and The outcomes will be of value to the individual.

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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory predicts that high performance followed by high rewards will lead to high satisfaction

Does this theory have universal application?

Eden found some support for it while studying workers in an Israeli kibbutz Matsui and colleagues found it could be successfully applied in Japan

Expectancy theory could be culture-bound – international managers must be aware of this limitation in motivating human resources since expectancy theory is based on employees having considerable control over their environment (a condition that does not exist in many cultures)

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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards

Job Design

Quality of work life (QWL) is not the same throughout the world.

Assembly-line employees in Japan work at a rapid pace for hours and have very little control over their work activities

Assembly-line employees in Sweden work at a more relaxed pace and have a great deal of control over their work activities

U.S. assembly-line employees typically work somewhere between – at a pace less demanding than Japan’s but more structured than Sweden’s

QWL may be directly related to the culture of the country.

Quality of Work Life: The Impact of Culture

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Cultural DimensionsCultural Dimensions

Adapted from Table 12–6: Cultural Dimensions in Japan, Sweden, and the United States

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Sociotechnical Job Designs

The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to increase overall productivity

New technology often requires people learn new methods and in some cases work faster

Employee resistance is common

Effective sociotechnical design can overcome these problems

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Sociotechnical Job Designs Some firms have introduced sociotechnical designs for better blending

of their personnel and technology without sacrificing efficiency General Foods

Autonomous groups at its Topeka, Kansas plant Workers share responsibility and work in a highly democratic

environment

Other U.S. firms have opted for a self-managed team approach

Multifunctional teams with autonomy for generating successful product innovation is more widely used by successful U.S., Japanese, and European firms than any other teamwork concept

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Work Centrality

The importance of work in an individual’s life can provide important insights into how to motivate human resources in different cultures Japan has the highest level of work centrality Israel has moderately high levels The United States and Belgium have average levels The Netherlands and Germany have moderately low levels Britain has low levels

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Work Centrality

Work is an important part of most people’s lifestyles due to a variety of conditions Americans and Japanese work long hours because the cost of

living is high Most Japanese managers expect their salaried employees who are

not paid extra to stay late at work, and overtime has become a requirement of the job

There is recent evidence that Japanese workers may do far less work in a business day than outsiders would suspect

Value of Work

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Work Centrality

In recent years, the number of hours worked annually by German workers has been declining, while the number for Americans has been on the rise.

Germans place high value on lifestyle and often prefer leisure to work, while their American counterparts are just the opposite.

Research reveals culture may have little to do with it

A wider range of wages (large pay disparity) within American companies than in German firms creates incentives for American employees to work harder.

Value of Work

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Work Centrality

Impact of overwork on the physical condition of Japanese workers One-third of the working-age population suffers from chronic fatigue

The Japanese prime minister’s office found a majority of those surveyed complained of

Being chronically tired

Feeling emotionally stressed

Abusive conditions in the workplace

Karoshi (“overwork” or “job burnout”) is now recognized as a real social problem

Value of Work

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Job Satisfaction

EU workers see a strong relationship between how well they do their jobs and the ability to get what they want out of life U.S. workers were not as supportive of this relationship Japanese workers were least likely to see any connection

This finding suggest difficulties may arise in American, European, and Japanese employees working together effectively

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Job Satisfaction

An emphasis on flexibility. An emphasis on control.

Cooperation built on intuition and pragmatism.

The habit of analyzing things in such great depth that it results in “paralysis through analysis.”

An emphasis on cooperation, trust, and personal concern for others.

The avoidance of risk taking and the feeling of distrust of others.

Viewing work as a challenging and development activity.

Viewing work as a necessary burden.

A more holistic, idealistic, and group thinking approach to problem solving.

Logical and reason-centered, individualistic thinking.

Moving toward …Moving away from …

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Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel

Some rewards are financial in nature such as salary raises, bonuses, and stock options

Others are non-financial such as feedback and recognition

Significant differences exist between reward systems that

work best in one country and those that are most effective

in another

Reward Systems

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Incentives and Culture

Use of financial incentives to motivate employees is very common Countries with high individualism When companies attempt to link compensation to performance

Financial incentive systems vary in range Individual incentive-based pay systems in which workers are paid

directly for their output Systems in which employees earn individual bonuses based on

organizational performance goals

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Many cultures base compensation on group membership

Such systems stress equality rather than individual incentive plans An individually based bonus system for the sales representatives in

an American MNC introduced in its Danish subsidiary was rejected by the sales force because

It favored one group over another Employees felt that everyone should receive the same size bonus

Indonesian oil workers rejected a pay-for-performance system where some work teams would make more money than others

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Workers in many countries are highly motivated by things other than financial rewards The most important rewards in locations at 40 countries of an

electrical equipment MNC involved recognition and achievement Second in importance were improvements in the work

environment and employment conditions including pay and work hours

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French and Italian employees valued job security highly while American and British workers held it of little importance

Scandinavian workers placed high value on concern for others on the job and for personal freedom and autonomy but did not rate “getting ahead” very important

German workers ranked security, fringe benefits, and “getting ahead” as very important

Japanese employees put good working conditions and a congenial work environment high on their list but ranked personal advancement quite low

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The types of incentives that are deemed important appear to be culturally influenced

Culture can even affect the overall cost of an incentive system

Japanese efforts to introduce Western-style merit pay systems typically lead to an increase in overall labor costs

Companies fear that reducing the pay of less productive workers’ may cause them to lose face and disturb group harmony

Hence, everyone’s salary increases as a result of merit pay systems

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managing across culture 1

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