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353: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
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LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
Procedures and selection 37
Flowchart L1: Steps for assessing longer term supply 37
Flowchart L2: Pre-selection of sources for further investigation 38
Water treatment process selection for longer term supply 39
Source selection for longer term supply 46
Checklists 53
Checklist L1: Background information gathering and identification of workingenvironment prior to departure and in-field 53
Checklist L2: Reconnaissance of the area (including existing water usagesituation, logistics and resources) 55
Checklist L3: Features of the source (excluding water quality) 59
Checklist L4: Features of the source (water quality) 60
Checklist L5: Requirements for development and impacts summary 61
Checklist L6: Confirmation of assumptions made during the selection process63
Checklist L7: Groundwater investigation 64
Checklist L8: Rainwater investigation 66
Checklist L9: National government / local government / NGO / internationalorganization 68
Checklist L10: Affected population / local population issues 70
Checklist L11: Water treatment works and urban water supply systems 72
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Survey sheets 79
Survey sheet L1: Conversations / observations log 79
Survey sheet L2: Addresses 81
Survey sheet L3: Published information log 83
Survey sheet L4: Resources log 85
Survey sheet L5: Reconnaissance of the area (including existing water usagesituation, logistics, and resources) 87
Survey sheet L6: Features of the source (excluding water quality) 91
Survey sheet L7: Features of the source (water quality) 95
Survey sheet L8: Requirements for development and impacts summary 98
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FLOWCHART L1
Steps for assessing longer term supply
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FLOWCHART L2
Pre-selection of sources for further investigation
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Water treatment process selection for longer term supply
Introduction ■
There is more benefit gained in terms of health and convenience from supplying large quantities
of reasonable quality water than small quantities of very good quality water. However, the aimshould be to provide adequate quantities of good quality water.
The main objective of water treatment for drinking water is to remove anything which is
harmful to health such as pathogenic organisms, toxins, and carcinogens. Assuming high
levels of toxic chemicals are not present in the water, pathogenic organisms are the most
serious threat to health in the short term.
Disinfection (usually chlorination) is used to destroy the pathogenic organisms. In non-emergencysituations certain waters may not require disinfection (e.g. deep groundwater, mountain streams)
as the faecal contamination may be low at the point of supply. However, because of the largenumbers of possibly traumatized people in confined spaces, and the fact that contamination often
occurs in individual containers after distribution, disinfection should be used wherever possible inemergencies as an added precaution.
The main constraint to eliminating pathogenic organisms is high turbidity, as turbidity
prevents effective disinfection and hence can allow the passage of pathogenic organisms
to the user. A range of solutions are available to remove turbidity, the most common ones being
storage/sedimentation, and assisted sedimentation (coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation).It is possible that in the next few years there may also be an increase in the use of roughing
filtration, as a range of institutions and organizations are working to develop such systems for usein emergency situations.
Other processes can be added depending on the water quality problems. Examples include the
use of aeration, pH adjustment, and activated carbon.
In the initial stages of an emergency water must be supplied quickly, so an upgrading approach totreatment is necessary.
The availability of material resources and organizational preferences often dictate the
solutions chosen for water supply. Variations include the following:
· Organizations may send in equipment before a thorough assessment has been undertakenso as to ensure a speedy implementation phase. Several organizations have their own
modular kits which simplify the process of equipment selection, installation, operation,
and maintenance. The modular items of kit include pumps, water tanks, and distribution
systems including pipelines and tapstands.
· Some organizations also have modular ‘mobile’ treatment units which are very expensive
but useful in the immediate stages of an emergency, especially for industrially polluted
waters or to supply specific units such as health centres. See pp283-4 for details of aselection of modular kits and mobile treatment units.
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· Other organizations prefer to use local materials, methods, and skills wherever possible to
benefit the local populations and to improve the effective operation and maintenance of systemsover the longer term.
How to use this section ■
Study the following:
· Figure 3.1, below
· Tables pp41-2, which highlight water quality problems versus treatment options and giveguideline quality levels; and
· Figure 3.2 which links the water treatment processes in a water supply scheme, p43.
Figure 3.1 — Key factors for water treatment process selection
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Complete the Water treatment process selection tools tables pp44-5, using the information noted
on p40 and the following background information:
· Water quality assessment routines, section pp148-53;
· Water quality parameter summary tables, pp170-3;· Features of water treatment processes, pp214-23; and
· Mobile treatment units and modular kits, section pp283-4.
Instructions on how to use Tables pp44-5 are included within the tables.
Notes:
1. Colour, taste, conductivity, chlorine demand and permanganate value are water quality tests which can indicate the presence of the
parameters noted in tables pp41-2.
2. The treatability tests (p173 and pp176-83) can help to identify the treatment process is suitable for the particular water.
3. In all cases, if a source needs to be treated, look for alternative sources that require less or simpler treatment which may
potentially be more suitable.
4. Treatment options noted in this table are those commonly used. Local alternatives may be more suitable and should be identified in the
field.
5. National water quality standards and WHO guideline values should always be aimed at all stages of an emergency. However, should
this not be possible the above figures may be used as a last resort guide.
Common water quality problems versus treatment options
1F
Treatment process options or
avoidance activities (noted ingeneral order of longerterm preference for supply ofpopulations in settlements ratherthan dispersed or for the shortterm)
screen water at or near to the inlet
infiltration
storage and sedimentation
roughing filtration
assisted sedimentation
use mobile treatment unitsincluding assisted sedimentationand / or rapid sand filtration (RSF)
protect source, slow sand filtration(SSF) and disinfect with chlorine
protect the source and disinfectwith chlorine
for very high levels ofcontamination (>1000 E.coli /100ml) pre-chlorinate prior to, andin addition to, pre-treatment (butnot if SSF used)
adopt different technologies whichwork well within the natural pHrange
add lime to raise the pH or an acidto lower it (lower the pH only ifessential)
modify quantities of treatmentchemicals to compensate for anunsuitable pH
1D
Longer term
(min.recommendedlevel)
nonevisible
10 NTU
<10E.coli /100ml
sanitaryrisk
low
1A
Parameter / feature
Floating solids
Turbidity
Faecal pollution
(E.coli level orsanitary risk)
pH (needs modifyingfor assistedsedimentation,disinfection orcorrosion purposes)
1B
Methods of assessment
sanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledge
sanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgebiological surveywater quality analysis
catchment mappingsanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgewater quality analysis
local knowledgewater quality analysis
1C
Survival
nolargesolids
20 NTU
<1000E.coli /100ml
sanitaryrisk
medium -
low
1E
Longer term
(WHO)
nonevisible
5 NTU(1 NTU fordisinfection)
0E.coli /100ml
sanitaryrisk
low
Guide levels (max.)
(see tables pp170-3 for further information)
See tables p171 and p216 forspecific treatment process requirements
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2F
Treatment process options or
avoidance activities (noted ingeneral order of longerterm preference for supply ofpopulations in settlements ratherthan dispersed or for the shortterm)
blend sources
move camp
use mobile treatment units withreverse osmosis
distillation
blend sources
move camp
high dose assisted sedimentationwith aluminium sulphate and lime(Nalgonda process)
contact with activated alumina
contact with bone char
use mobile unit with reverseosmosis
aerate water prior to maintreatment processes includingsedimentation or filtration
pre-chlorinate prior to sedimentationor filtration (but not SSF)
blend water from two sources
move the camp
use mobile treatment units withreverse osmosis
blend water from two sources
use mobile treatment units withreverse osmosis
protect source from the additionof nutrients
roughing filtration with gradedmedia
pre-chlorinate prior to maintreatment (but not SSF)
reduce algae with copper-basedalgaecide
use mobile treatment units withmicrostraining capacity
protect source from inflow ofpollutants
move camp
use mobile treatment units withactivated carbon and / orreverse osmosis
stop people entering the watersource, provide hygiene education
storage > 24 hours
stop people entering the watersource, provide hygiene educationand filter the water before drinking
2D
Longer term
(min.recommendedlevel)
250mg/l
1.5mg/l
Fe1.0mg/l
Mn0.5mg/l
50mg/las NO
3-
3mg/las NO
2-
400mg/l
No visiblealgae
Occasional water quality problems versus treatment options
2C
Survival
600mg/l
3mg/l
Fe-Mn-
50mg/las NO
3-
3mg/las NO
2-
400mg/l
-
2E
Longer term
(WHO)
250mg/l
1.5mg/l
Fe0.3mg/l
Mn0.1mg/l
50mg/las NO
3-
3mg/las NO
2-
400mg/l
Guide levels (max.)
(see table pp170-3 for further information)
2A
Parameter / feature
Chloride
Fluoride
Iron or
manganese
Nitrate
(or nitrite)
Sulphate
Algae
Industrial or
agrochemical
pollutants
Bilharzia
Guinea worm
2B
Methods of assessment
sanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgewater quality analysis
local knowledgewater quality analysis
sanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgewater quality analysis
catchment mappingsanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgebiological surveywater quality analysis
catchment mappinglocal knowledgewater quality analysis
sanitary investigation / observation
catchment mappingsanitary investigation / observationlocal knowledgebiological surveywater quality analysis
local knowledge
local knowledge
Refer to the section Water quality analysis;Industrial pollution and Industries and activitiesand associates pollutants pp181-92
- none present
- none present
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3F
igu
re 3
.2 —
Lin
kag
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f w
ate
r tr
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rocesses i
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Mo
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term
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Te
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log
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Em
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by J
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avis
an
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rt
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Water treatment process selection tools for longer term supply ■
Complete the three tables below for each water source under investigation.
Common water quality problems treatment process selection
1
2
3
4
5
6
(3A)
Selection step
For each parameter or feature (column 3B) note the methodsof assessment which have been used in column3C (e.g. catchment mapping, local knowledge, etc.) Refer totable p41 for details.
Columns 1C to 1E (table p41) identify the maximum guidelevels for each water quality parameter or feature versus thelevel of supply. Note the appropriate guide levels in column 3C.
In column 3C note the level or description of each parameteror feature and any variations expected in the parameter orfeature (in the future or seasonally). Compare present andexpected future levels with the guide levels.Note which will require treatment
Can the parameter or feature requiring treatment beimproved by protecting the source? If so will the waterstill require treatment?
Column 1F (table p41) identifies alternative treatment /avoidance options for each parameter / feature.Consider each option in turn in relation to:· the stage of the emergency and predicted length of
operation of the treatment units· its common usage in the area (and hence the likelihood
of existing appropriate skills and resources to run thesystem effectively)
· technical requirements· the availability of material, equipment and human
resources· its time of set up· its cost· its ease of operation and maintenance· its acceptability to the group of concern (e.g. some
groups will not drink water with ‘medicines’ in it andhence will not allow chlorine to be used)
Select the most appropriate treatment processes.
To ensure that the treatment process will be effectivecheck each individual process against:· the information supplied in the features of
treatment processes section, tables pp214-23; and· results of the treatability tests, pp176-83
(3B)
Parameter/feature
Floating solids:
Turbidity:
E.coli or sanitary risk:
pH:
Floating solids:
Turbidity:
E.coli or sanitary risk:
pH:
(3C )
Details
Methods of assessment used:
Appropriate guide levels:
Level or description Variations Which will
of each feature expected require
treatment?
Can it be improved Will it still
by protection? require
treatment?
Treatment processes initially selected:
Problems envisaged:
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Key references:
· Davis and Lambert, 1995, pp317-46 · Tebbutt, 1992, pp107-91· Howard, 1979 · Twort et al, 1994· MSF, 1994, Section I, pp16-21, 38-45 · UNHCR, 1992, pp80-93· Shulz and Okun, 1984 · WHO, 1971, 1989, 1993
Occasional water quality problems treatment process selection
(4B)
Parameter / feature
(4A)
Selection step
Refer to table p42 for steps 7 to 12.Repeat step 1 (Table p44) but for each of the occasionalwater quality problems.
Repeat step 2 (table p44) for the occasional features /parameters where a problem is expected.
Repeat step 3 (table p44) for the occasional features /parameters where a problem is expected.
Repeat step 4 (table p44) for the occasional features /parameters where a problem is expected.
Repeat step 5 (table p44) for the occasional features /parameters where a problem is expected.
Repeat step 6 (table p44) for the occasional features /parameters where a problem is expected.
7
8
9
10
11
12
(4C)
Details
Methods of assessment used:
Appropriate guide levels:
Level or description Variations Which will
of each feature expected require
treatment?
Can it be improved Will it still require
by protection? treatment?
Treatment processes initially selected:
Problems envisaged:
Linkage of treatment processes or avoidance activities
13
14
15
(5A)
Selection step
Link all of the treatment processes using Figure 3.2, p43as a guide.
Check if any of the treatment processes can be removedfrom the chain. Some processes will be able to deal withseveral parameters/ features at the same time.
Identify the final selection of treatment processes.
(5B)
Details
Order of treatment:
Processes which can be removed:
Order of treatment:
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Source selection for longer term supply
How to use this section ■
Source selection for longer term supply should only be undertaken after a thorough assessmentof available information. See the checklists for suggested information to be collected and note
your findings on the survey sheets provided or in another easily accessible form.
Key factors for source selection are highlighted in the schematic chart opposite.
Complete a source summary table (p48) for each source(s) option. From here the source(s) maybe selected:
· by scanning the alternative summary tables and undertaking a selection based on experience;
or
· by using the source comparison tool and sample scoring chart to help analyse the variables.
Whichever method is used, experience, common sense and engineering judgement will be
required to make an appropriate selection.
The source comparison tool does not give an answer; it is only to be used to guide the
thought process, highlighting the features which are critical and those which are not so
important.
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Figure 3.3 — Key factors for source selection
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Source summary table
Source details
Acceptable yield?
Requirements to obtain an
acceptable water quality?
Management, legal, security,
socio-political or cultural
constraints?
Technical and O&M
requirements?
Resource and logistical
constraints?
Time of set-up?
Ease of O&M?
Impacts of development?
Costs?
Source name / number and location
Type of source
Existing demand on the source (excluding theaffected population)
Present yield
Predicted future and seasonal yield
Current water quality problems
Predicted future and seasonal water quality
problems
Treatment processes required
Management, legal, security, socio-political
or cultural constraints
Protection
Abstraction method and structures
Treatment
(including raw water storage)
Transmission distance and method
Supply storage
Distribution
Subsidiary requirements
Material and equipment resources
Human resources
Logistical
Time of set-up
Ease of O&M
On aquifers, existing users and local
populations, on vegetation and erosion
and on water treatment and waste disposal
Impact minimization activities, subsidiary
activities or compensation required
Capital
O&M
Affected population water demand =
Note: This summary table may require adaption for sources for dispersed populations. A separate form could be completed for typical
examples of each type of source used in the area.
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Source comparison tool for longer term supply ■
Introduction
The ranking and weighting method was chosen for source comparison as it allows several factors
to be included in the comparison at the same time. It also allows for weightings to be put on thefactors changing their relative importance with the stage of the emergency. For example, in the
immediate emergency stage the time of set-up is critical but the level of O&M required is not soimportant. Over the longer term period, the O&M requirements become more important and the
time of set-up less so.
It should be understood, however, that it is difficult to apply objective weightings and theiridentification is purely arbitrary and based on best judgement. They should be modified to suit
the particular situation. The original weightings have been set at 10 for a high level of importanceand zero for unimportant. Sometimes a veto has to be applied (Davis et al.,1995). An example of
this would be where the water source is located in an area controlled by a warring faction which isin conflict with the affected population. Under this situation access to the water cannot be
guaranteed. Hopefully such problems will have been identified early in the information gatheringprocess and the source option already discarded.
Source(s) with the highest total weighted scores are more favourable, but once the numerical
determinations have been completed, a visual analysis should be undertaken on the results.This is the most important step in the comparison and should identify which were the critical
factors for the source selection and whether additional activities could be implemented whichwould modify the results.
Survival supply weightings have not been provided in the scoring table. If required the following
weightings could be used (from top to bottom: 9-2-9-5-2-2-1).
If two similar options are being considered, for example trucking from two different locations orabstraction from two different points on the same river, then comparison can be made using only
the critical factors. For example the following may be considered:· costs, security and impacts of development for the trucking programmes; or
· costs, security and requirements to obtain an acceptable quality water for the water sourceabstraction from two points on the same river.
This method may be more suitable for sources to supply camp populations rather than those in
dispersed locations or mobile.
Instructions for use
1. Collect information on the alternative source(s) options and summarize this information in theSource summary table p48.
2. For the first source(s) option decide on scores for each of the key factors using the sample
scoring chart for source comparison p52 for guidance. A high score indicates that thefactor is positive and a low one that it is negative.
3. Chose the weightings indicated in the scoring chart p51 applicable to the level of supply
(in turn related to the stage of emergency to which the assessment applies).
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4. Multiply the scores by the weightings in the table p51 to obtain the ‘weighted score’.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for the other source options.
6. Add all of the weighted scores for each source and insert the ‘total weighted scores’ into thefinal row on the table p51.
7. Identify the sources in order of total weighted score.
Analysis of results
1. Which source gives the highest score and which the lowest?
2. Compare the selected source(s) with the expected result by scanning the summary table. If
they are different then investigate why.
3. Which key factors have been the deciding ones in making one option’s total weighted score
higher than the others?
4. Could the lower scores be raised by undertaking additional activities to modify the situation inthe field?
5. Would this change the final order of preference of sources?
6. Look at the source(s) with the highest total weighted score. Are any of the key factor scorestenuous or dependant on unknowns? If these scores are replaced by ones representing the
worst scenario, would the order of preference change between the sources?
7. Undertake a ‘sensitivity analysis’: weightings and scores are modified slightly and the final
positions compared (Reed, 1995). If there is no change in the overall positions then theresults can be accepted with more confidence, but if there are variations, the results should
be treated with care and further thought should be given to acceptable weightings and scores.
8. Is the order of preference sensible?
9. If so, chose the source with the highest weighted score. If not re-assess the scores and
weightings for the particular scenario and repeat the process for comparison.
Key references (decision-making):
· Davis and Lambert, 1995, pp563-7· Gosling and Edwards, 1995· Reed, 1995, pp13-8
Key references (water source selection):
· Cairncross and Feachem, 1978, pp3-7· UNHCR, 1992, pp30-7
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So
urc
e c
om
pa
ris
on
to
ol fo
r lo
ng
er
term
su
pp
ly
So
urc
e(s
) 1
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ore
fo
r s
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rce
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igh
ted
sc
ore
So
urc
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) 2
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ore
fo
r s
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rce
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igh
ted
sc
ore
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y f
ac
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fo
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rce
se
lec
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n
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le y
ield
?
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qu
ire
me
nts
to
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ter
qu
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?
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7 5 5 4 4 3 2
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igh
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Re
fer
to:
·K
ey
fact
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fo
r so
urc
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ele
ctio
n F
igu
re 3
.2,
p4
3
·S
am
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or
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52
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ore
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3
Sa
mp
le s
co
rin
g c
ha
rt f
or
so
urc
e c
om
pa
ris
on
Sco
re
7
·>
10
% o
f yie
ld r
em
ain
ing
afte
r a
lla
bstr
actio
n.
or
·U
nkn
ow
n y
ield
bu
t in
dic
atio
ns a
re t
ha
tyi
eld
exc
ee
ds
sup
ply
.
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rote
ctio
n, sto
rag
e, a
ssis
ted
se
dim
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tatio
n /
filt
ratio
n a
nd
dis
infe
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eq
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.
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t-u
p 1
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ks.
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ipm
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t a
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ea
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ava
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n s
ite
.·
Mo
st a
dd
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l re
so
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an
be
ob
tain
ed
lo
ca
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en
t, c
om
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nitie
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nd
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on
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t n
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on
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l use
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ve
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·W
ou
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qu
ire
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t fr
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r p
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ec
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so
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/ p
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tic
al
or
cu
ltu
ral
co
ns
tra
ints
?
Imp
ac
ts o
f d
ev
elo
pm
en
t?
*Co
sts
?
Ea
se
of
O&
M?
10
·>
50
% o
f yie
ld r
em
ain
ing
afte
r a
lla
bstr
actio
n.
·O
nly
sim
ple
so
urc
e p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
dis
infe
ctio
n r
eq
uir
ed
.
·T
ime
of
se
t-u
p <
1 w
ee
k.
·E
qu
ipm
en
t a
nd
exp
ert
ise
alr
ea
dy
ava
ilab
le o
n s
ite
.
·N
o s
uch
co
nstr
ain
ts.
·L
oca
l g
ove
rnm
en
t co
mm
un
itie
sa
nd
la
nd
ow
ne
rs a
re v
ery
he
lpfu
la
nd
ag
ree
ab
le.
·N
o o
bvio
us im
pa
cts
on
lo
ca
l u
se
rso
r th
e p
hysic
al e
nvir
on
me
nt.
·Low
·W
ou
ld o
nly
re
qu
ire
in
pu
t fr
om
loca
lly t
rain
ed
pe
rso
nn
el.
an
d
·N
o f
ue
l o
r p
ow
er
req
uir
em
en
ts.
4
·Y
ield
on
ly m
ee
ts t
he
de
ma
nd
of
the
affe
cte
d p
op
ula
tio
n a
nd
loca
l re
sid
en
tsd
uri
ng
pe
rio
d o
f m
axim
um
yie
ld.
·P
rote
ctio
n, sto
rag
e, a
ssis
ted
se
dim
en
tatio
n /
filt
ratio
n a
nd
dis
infe
ctio
nre
qu
ire
d p
lus a
dd
itio
na
l tr
ea
tme
nt
su
ch
as a
era
tio
n o
r o
the
r.
·T
ime
of
se
t-u
p 1
-2 m
on
ths.
·S
ign
ific
an
t co
nstr
uctio
n r
eq
uir
ed
.·
Ma
teri
als
ne
ed
to
be
im
po
rte
d.
or
·B
ore
ho
le d
rilli
ng
re
qu
ire
d in
to k
no
wn
aq
uife
r.
·S
om
e c
on
str
ain
ts t
o t
he
de
ve
lop
me
nt
of
the
so
urc
e.
·W
ou
ld r
eq
uir
e n
atio
na
l le
ve
ln
eg
otia
tio
ns.
or
·W
ou
ld r
eq
uir
e a
dd
itio
na
l se
cu
rity
at
the
sourc
e.
·G
rou
nd
wa
ter
to b
e u
se
d a
nd
pu
mp
ing
tests
in
dic
ate
a s
low
re
co
ve
ry o
f w
ate
rle
ve
ls a
nd
, p
ote
ntia
lly,
effe
cts
on
oth
er
sourc
es.
or
·S
om
e n
eg
ative
im
pa
cts
exp
ecte
d o
nb
oth
loca
l use
rs a
nd
th
e p
hysic
al
en
vir
on
me
nt.
·H
igh
er
tha
n a
ve
rag
e
·W
ou
ld r
eq
uir
e o
cca
sio
na
l in
pu
t fr
om
sp
ecia
list p
ers
on
ne
l.o
r
·H
igh
co
st o
f co
nsu
ma
ble
s.
1
·In
su
ffic
ien
t yie
ld t
o m
ee
t a
ffe
cte
dp
op
ula
tio
n a
nd
lo
ca
l d
em
an
ds e
ve
n a
tp
eri
od
of
ma
xim
um
yie
ld.
or
·U
nkn
ow
n y
ield
bu
t in
dic
atio
ns a
re t
ha
t it
wo
uld
be
low
er
tha
n r
eq
uir
ed
.
·V
ery
bad q
ualit
y.·
He
avy in
du
str
ial /
ag
roch
em
ica
lp
ollu
tio
n e
xp
ecte
d.
·V
ery
diff
icu
lt t
o p
rod
uce
acce
pta
ble
wa
ter
qu
alit
y u
sin
g s
tan
da
rd t
rea
tme
nt
pro
cess
es.
·T
ime
of
se
t-u
p >
2 m
on
ths.
or
·G
rou
nd
wa
ter
exp
lora
tio
n r
eq
uir
ed
.
·S
eri
ou
s c
on
str
ain
ts t
o t
he
de
ve
lop
me
nt
of
the
so
urc
e.
·P
olit
ica
l in
terf
ere
nce
.·
Co
uld
le
ad
to
ad
ditio
na
l se
cu
rity
pro
ble
ms.
·P
rob
lem
s u
nlik
ely
to
be
so
lve
d b
yn
eg
otia
tio
n.
·G
rou
nd
wa
ter
so
urc
e to
be
use
d fro
m a
kn
ow
n a
qu
ife
r o
f lim
ite
d c
apa
city.
or
·W
ate
r so
urc
es a
lre
ad
y s
ca
rce
fo
r lo
ca
lco
mm
un
itie
s.
or
·N
eg
ative
im
pa
ct
exp
ecte
d o
n b
oth
th
elo
ca
l use
rs a
nd
th
e p
hysic
al
en
vir
on
me
nt.
·H
igh
·W
ou
ld r
eq
uir
e r
eg
ula
r in
pu
t fr
om
sp
ecia
list p
ers
on
ne
l an
d h
igh
co
st o
fco
nsu
mable
s.o
r
·Ta
nke
rin
g o
pe
ratio
n.
* C
osts
(b
oth
ca
pita
l a
nd
O&
M)
are
co
mpa
rative
be
twe
en
op
tio
ns.
A p
roje
ct
sp
ecific
de
cis
ion
will
be
re
qu
ire
d a
s t
o t
he
le
ng
th o
f tim
e c
on
sid
ere
d f
or
O&
M c
osts
. T
he
sa
me
pe
rio
d m
ust
be
use
d f
or
all
op
tio
ns.
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3252
533: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
CHECKLIST L1
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Government departments of
donor country (geological, land
survey, environment, military)
❑❑❑❑❑ Government departments of
host country (water resources,
water and sewerage,
surveying, meteorological,
military, social, planning)
❑❑❑❑❑ Specialist shops (e.g. for
maps: Stanfords, London, UK)
❑❑❑❑❑ Consulting engineers
❑❑❑❑❑ University departments
(geography, geology,
environmental science, civil
engineering, mining,
surveying)
❑❑❑❑❑ Employing organization head
office (verbal from head office
and returned personnel;
reports from past projects)
❑❑❑❑❑ Organization field staff and
experts in the area
❑❑❑❑❑ Government embassy
❑❑❑❑❑ Press reports
❑❑❑❑❑ Books, journals
❑❑❑❑❑ Travel guides
❑❑❑❑❑ The Internet
❑❑❑❑❑ ‘District Surveys’ in libraries for
ex-colony countries
❑❑❑❑❑ Donor country briefings
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp68-9
Background information gathering before departure and in-field ■
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Maps (topographic, geological, road, hydrogeological, demographic,
land-use, rainfall)
❑❑❑❑❑ Aerial photographs / landstat images
❑❑❑❑❑ Regional details
❍❍❍❍❍ Climate (including rainfall data)
❍❍❍❍❍ Industrial and agricultural practices
❍❍❍❍❍ Populations (culture, religion)
❍❍❍❍❍ Economy
❍❍❍❍❍ Political situation
❍❍❍❍❍ Exchange rate
❑❑❑❑❑ Previous surveys / studies (organizations’ database or library)
❑❑❑❑❑ Other agencies working in the field
❑❑❑❑❑ Organizational structure of employing agency and policy and
mandate
❑❑❑❑❑ Specific job information
❍❍❍❍❍ Job description
❍❍❍❍❍ Responsibilities and chain of command
❍❍❍❍❍ Other agency personnel in the field
❍❍❍❍❍ Logistical and financial constraints
❍❍❍❍❍ Communication procedures
❑❑❑❑❑ Structure of government and local government (including which store
information and which make decisions)
❑❑❑❑❑ Contacts in key departments (water and sewerage, water resources,
planning, surveying, meteorological)
❑❑❑❑❑ National policies and development projects
❑❑❑❑❑ Existing national emergency plans
❑❑❑❑❑ Capacity of the government to cope with the water demands of the
affected population
❑❑❑❑❑ Background to the crisis and projected developments
Note: The following two checklists and the Availibility of resources / logistics checklist pp56-7 may be sent
ahead to the field so that information gathering may begin before the arrival of the assessors.
Background information gathering and identification of
working environment before departure and in-field
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3253
54 3: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Employing organization staff
❑❑❑❑❑ Other organization staff
(including UNHCR)
❑❑❑❑❑ National and local government
CHECKLIST L1
Identification of working environment ■
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Field organizational structure of employing agency/organogram
(chain of command, logistics, administration, technical, health
education, medical personnel)
❑❑❑❑❑ Areas of responsibility for yourself and others
❑❑❑❑❑ Personnel from other organizations working in water or sanitation in
the area (government, international and local)
❑❑❑❑❑ Operational structure for co-ordination between organizations,
government — including role of UNHCR, organization and national
and local government contacts, and employment agreements
❑❑❑❑❑ Decision-making structure re: water source selection. Are you
working for the lead organization? Which camps or populations are
you responsible for supplying?
❑❑❑❑❑ Communication channels with affected and local populations and
community structures (contacts), and role of UNHCR and
governments in communication channels
❑❑❑❑❑ Organization’s policy for supporting local populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Team members / access to local personnel (translators, surveying
assistants, driver)
❑❑❑❑❑ Working facilities (office space, telephone / radio, fax, photocopying,
storage space for equipment and workshops, power sources,
security, vehicle)
❑❑❑❑❑ Methods of payment
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3254
553: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Published and unpublished maps, aerial
photographs, etc. as collected in background
information gathering
❑❑❑❑❑ Simple surveying (GPS, Abney level / clinometer,
altimeter)
❑❑❑❑❑ National and local government
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Other field staff
❑❑❑❑❑ Natural threat monitoring stations
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: maps and symbols pp154-60
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: surveying pp161-8
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Mapping
❑❑❑❑❑ Panoramic photographic records
CHECKLIST L2
Reconnaissance of the area a
Regional orientation ■
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Physical features (high and low areas, vegetation,
water sources)
❑❑❑❑❑ Location and type of water source (developed?
not developed?)
❑❑❑❑❑ Human features (settlements, industry, agriculture,
roads)
❑❑❑❑❑ Distances between users and water sources
❑❑❑❑❑ Distances and approximate heights between
features
❑❑❑❑❑ Areas vulnerable to natural threats (cyclones,
mudslides, earthquakes, etc.)
❑❑❑❑❑ Areas with high security risk (e.g. mined areas)
❑❑❑❑❑ Areas subjected to extreme weather conditions
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation from high ground (using binoculars)
and by walking around the camp
❑❑❑❑❑ Aerial photographs
❑❑❑❑❑ Simple surveying (pacing, Abney level /
clinometer, GPS)
❑❑❑❑❑ Other field staff
❑❑❑❑❑ Local government
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected population
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: maps and symbols pp154-60
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: surveying pp161-8
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Mapping
❑❑❑❑❑ Photographic records
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Boundaries, present sub-divisions (including
ethnic or clan divisions), possible areas for
expansion (include distances)
❑❑❑❑❑ Population density where settlements are
dispersed or mobile
❑❑❑❑❑ Slope of ground (and existing drainage channels if
any)
❑❑❑❑❑ Water sources (and areas susceptible to flooding
and other physical threats)
❑❑❑❑❑ Areas with buildings / shelters, open spaces and
communal areas
❑❑❑❑❑ Access roads
❑❑❑❑❑ Sanitation facilities including excreta disposal,
refuse dumps / collection areas and graveyards
❑❑❑❑❑ Administration centres and feeding centres
❑❑❑❑❑ Chemical stores
❑❑❑❑❑ Lighting
❑❑❑❑❑ Security arrangements
Settlement orientation ■
(including existing water usage situation, logistics and resources)
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3255
56 3: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
Information
Logistics
❑❑❑❑❑ Condition of roads in the dry and rainy seasons (major access roads;
minor access roads; internal settlement roads; road crossings)
❑❑❑❑❑ Flooding and other physical threats (settlement areas; access roads)
❑❑❑❑❑ Security (on access roads and within settlements). Which groups
are causing the security problem? How common are guns in the
area?
❑❑❑❑❑ Access to international freight (airstrips; ports; railways; road links)
❑❑❑❑❑ Customs clearance (import taxes, procedures, problems, delays)
❑❑❑❑❑ Availability and reliability of freight transporters
❑❑❑❑❑ Journey time for freight
Note: This survey information can be collected as the assessment
procedure progresses or after the resources required for the specific
engineering solution are known. Depending on the agency
procedure, the initial solution may be directed by the modular kit
which has been brought to the field at the assessment stage.
Availability of resources / logistics ■
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ National or local government
(water and sewerage, building)
❑❑❑❑❑ Local contractors
❑❑❑❑❑ Local suppliers
❑❑❑❑❑ Head office modular kit lists
❑❑❑❑❑ Other field staff
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Customs authorities
❑❑❑❑❑ National threat monitoring
systems
❑❑❑❑❑ Mobile water treatment units
and modular kits Table p283-4
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ UNHCR
❑❑❑❑❑ Employing organization staff
members
❑❑❑❑❑ Other field staff
❑❑❑❑❑ Local government (water and
sewerage, social, statistical
office)
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected population
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Medical practitioners
(traditional and non-traditional)
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp70-1
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Calculation of water demand
for affected and local
populations using employing
organization’s water demand
figures or those given on p141
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Water user numbers — affected population:
❍❍❍❍❍ Individuals
❍❍❍❍❍ Livestock large and small (and average number per family)
❍❍❍❍❍ Other users / uses if specific supply is within remit:
e.g. health centres (in-patient, out-patient and cholera
centres); feeding centres
❑❑❑❑❑ Water user numbers — local population:
❍❍❍❍❍ As affected population (above) up and downstream
❍❍❍❍❍ Industries and agriculture
❑❑❑❑❑ Present water source (type, location, level of service, distance to
collection point). Note: The populations’ own coping mechanisms
should be identified and potentially built upon.
❑❑❑❑❑ Current water consumption
❑❑❑❑❑ Does the affected population have adequate containers for water
collection?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the populations static or mobile?
❑❑❑❑❑ Diseases prevalent in the local and affected populations (e.g. cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, malaria, fluorosis, diarrhoea to those new to the
area, skin diseases)
Demographics, present water usage and water demands ■
CHECKLIST L2
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3256
573: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
CHECKLIST L2
Information (continued)
Resources
❑❑❑❑❑ Material and equipment (type; make; size; condition; capacity; power
consumption; fuel requirement; cost; volume / number available; availability of
drivers / operators):
❍❍❍❍❍ Pumps (electrical; diesel; petrol; hand pumps)
❍❍❍❍❍ Generators (diesel; petrol)
❍❍❍❍❍ Tanks (galvanized steel / iron; Oxfam tanks; pillow tanks)
❍❍❍❍❍ Pipes (cast iron; galvanized steel / iron; asbestos cement;UPVC; MDPE; flexible hose)
❍❍❍❍❍ Pipe fittings (valves, bends, air valves, couplings, etc.)
❍❍❍❍❍ Mobile water treatment units
❍❍❍❍❍ Construction materials and tools (cement; reinforcement steeland tying wire; gabion mesh; aggregate; sand; constructionhandtools; masonry hand tools; nails / screws; timber; cementmixer)
❍❍❍❍❍ Drilling rigs (rotary, percussion)
❍❍❍❍❍ Water tankers or trucks (tankers; flat-bed truck with sides; flat-bed truck without sides; container truck)
❍❍❍❍❍ Chemicals (chlorine; aluminium sulphate; ferric chloride;ferrous sulphate; lime)
❍❍❍❍❍ Fuel / power (diesel; petrol; electricity)
❍❍❍❍❍ General usage transport (pick-ups; small lorries or vans)
❑❑❑❑❑ Human resources (names; point of contact; employer; numbers):
❍❍❍❍❍ Tradespeople: plumbers; mechanics; electricians; carpenters
❍❍❍❍❍ General construction personnel and supervisors
❍❍❍❍❍ Water technicians / engineers
❍❍❍❍❍ Health educators / community development workers
❍❍❍❍❍ Logisticians
❑❑❑❑❑ Local construction techniques (details):
❍❍❍❍❍ Well construction (hand dug well, tube well)
❍❍❍❍❍ Spring tapping
❍❍❍❍❍ Borehole drilling (are the drilling teams available with rigs?)
❍❍❍❍❍ Pipe laying and joining
❑❑❑❑❑ Water treatment processes used locally:
❍❍❍❍❍ Infiltration
❍❍❍❍❍ Sedimentation
❍❍❍❍❍ Roughing filtration
❍❍❍❍❍ Assisted sedimentation
❍❍❍❍❍ Slow sand filtration
❍❍❍❍❍ Rapid filtration
❍❍❍❍❍ Disinfection
❍❍❍❍❍ Activated carbon
Availability of resources / logistics (continued) ■
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:3257
58 3: LONGER TERM SUPPLY
3
Physical features including yield ■
CHECKLIST L2
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Source name / number, type and location
❑❑❑❑❑ Ground and water level (note instrument used for
measurement)
❑❑❑❑❑ Layout / dimensions
❑❑❑❑❑ Yield estimation: (volumes / flows, variation with
season, recharge capacity)
❑❑❑❑❑ Discharges (in and out; where are they from and
where do they go)
❑❑❑❑❑ Environmental features of the area surrounding
the source (river bed materials; plant and tree
cover; activities such as farming or industries)
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the source affected by extreme weather
conditions (e.g. below 0OC)?
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations (including users
and landowner)
❑❑❑❑❑ National or local government (may have pumping
test records)
❑❑❑❑❑ Water diviners
❑❑❑❑❑ Measurement of yield and water levels pp143-7
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: maps and symbols pp154-60
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: surveying pp161-8
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp64-5
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp66-7
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Detailed sketch of source and abstraction point
❑❑❑❑❑ Flow measurement
COLLECT FOR EACH SOURCE
Features of the source (excluding water quality)
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CHECKLIST L3
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Present demands (who, what for, how much, is
there competition with animals)
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there intermittent users such as nomads
❑❑❑❑❑ Who owns the land and what is the procedure to
obtain permission to abstract
❑❑❑❑❑ Responsible authority for control and maintenance
❑❑❑❑❑ Is a tariff being charged for using the source (paid
to whom and how much)
❑❑❑❑❑ Accessibility at present for water collection (can
elderly, children, or those with disabilities gain
easy access to the source?)
❑❑❑❑❑ Security problems at the source (especially
consider women and children and opposing
groups in conflict situations)
❑❑❑❑❑ Are any areas mined?
❑❑❑❑❑ Socio-political constraints to using the source and
cultural beliefs re: water provision
❑❑❑❑❑ Consider national development objectives
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the affected populations’ and local
populations’ priorities for water provision
❑❑❑❑❑ Natural threats within the vicinity of the source
(cyclones, earthquakes, mudslides, etc.)
Management, legal, security, socio-political and cultural issues ■
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations (including local
users and landowner)
❑❑❑❑❑ National or local government (may have pumping
test records)
❑❑❑❑❑ Natural threat monitoring stations
❑❑❑❑❑ Management, legal, security, socio-political and
cultural issues and case studies pp108-24
❑❑❑❑❑ Guidance on undertaking assessments and report
writing pp103-4
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp68-9
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp70-1
COLLECT FOR EACH SOURCE
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Water quality assessment ■
CHECKLIST L4
COLLECT FOR EACH SOURCE
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ The quality of the water at present
❑❑❑❑❑ Existing protection and potential for improved
protection of the source
❑❑❑❑❑ Predicted variations in the water quality in the
future and pollution risks
Parameters commonly causing problems:
❑❑❑❑❑ Floating solids
❑❑❑❑❑ Turbidity
❑❑❑❑❑ Faecal contamination (thermotolerant coliforms /
E.coli level)
❑❑❑❑❑ pH
Parameters occasionally causing problems:
❑❑❑❑❑ Algae
❑❑❑❑❑ Arsenic
❑❑❑❑❑ Chloride
❑❑❑❑❑ Fluoride
❑❑❑❑❑ Iron or manganese
❑❑❑❑❑ Nitrate (or nitrite)
❑❑❑❑❑ Sulphate
❑❑❑❑❑ Industrial or agrochemical pollutants
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Field-testing equipment
❑❑❑❑❑ Local government
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Health centres
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality assessment: Assessment routines
pp148-53
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality analysis pp169-203
❑❑❑❑❑ Biological survey pp204-213
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality analysis and surveying equipment
pp261-82
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping
❑❑❑❑❑ Local knowledge including medical information
❑❑❑❑❑ Sanitary investigation / observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality analysis
❍ Core parameters (common problems)
❍ Secondary parameters (occasional
problems)
❍ Treatability tests
❍ Industrial pollution assessment
❑❑❑❑❑ Biological survey
Features of the source (water quality)
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Physical requirements ■
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Technical requirements:
❍ Protection requirements
❍ Abstraction method
❍ Treatment requirements including storage
❍ Transmission distance and means of
transmission
❍ Supply storage
❍ Distribution requirements
❍ Subsidiary requirements (e.g. road
construction; threat mitigation activities)
❍ Consider standardization with existing
systems in-country as support to national
development objectives
❑❑❑❑❑ O&M requirements (human and consumables):
❍ O&M human resources
❍ O&M consumables
❑❑❑❑❑ Resources / logistics:
❍ Material and equipment requirements
❍ Human resource requirements
❍ Logistical requirements
❑❑❑❑❑ Costs:
❍ Costs for capital and O&M (materials,
equipment, human resources, logistics)
❑❑❑❑❑ Time of set-up:
❍ Total time for system to be up and running
(technical requirements versus resources /
logistics and other constraints)
❑❑❑❑❑ Ease of O&M
❍ O&M requirements versus resources /
logistics and other constraints
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Past technical solutions
❑❑❑❑❑ Head office WATSAN division
❑❑❑❑❑ Agency modular kit and equipment lists
❑❑❑❑❑ Standard text books
❑❑❑❑❑ Local government and other organizations in field
❑❑❑❑❑ Requirements for development pp131-5
❑❑❑❑❑ Mobile water treatment units and modular kits
Table pp283-4
Requirements for development and impacts summary
CHECKLIST L5
COLLECT FOR EACH SOURCE
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Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Effects of source development on the
aquifer and remote sources:
❍ Location and capacity of aquifers
❍ Which sources are fed from the same
aquifers
❑❑❑❑❑ Effects of development on existing users of
the source and local populations at the
point of abstraction and downstream:
❍ Determine: yield of source at present,
existing demands, new abstraction demand,
remaining yield (dry season) and the effects
on existing users
❍ Possible compensation for local
communities up and downstream for the loss
of yield or inconvenience. Also compare
local and affected populations’ supplies and
consider upgrading local supplies to prevent
friction
❍ Consider migration of people and animals /
livestock to improved water sources (may be
pronounced with nomadic populations)
❍ Effects on community structures /
management capacity of organizations and
populations
❍ What subsidiary / ancillary activities are
required (training, road construction,
sanitation, agricultural extension, hygiene
promotion, etc.)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Effects on vegetation and erosion:
❍ Change in yield
❍ Effects of abstraction on vegetation and
erosion and potential actions to minimize
effects
❍ Effects of migration to improved water
sources on vegetation and erosion
❑❑❑❑❑ Effects of water treatment and waste disposal:
❍ Increase in waste water — how will it affect
levels of standing water
❍ How will chemicals and fuel for water
treatment be stored (location, security)?
❍ How will waste chemicals be disposed of?
❍ How will the sludge produced during
treatment be disposed of?
Impacts of development ■
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ National or local government
❑❑❑❑❑ Local and affected populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Impacts of development section pp136-8
❑❑❑❑❑ Management, legal, security, socio-political and
cultural issues with case studies pp108-24
❑❑❑❑❑ Groundwater investigation pp249-52
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist p64-5
❑❑❑❑❑ Checklist pp70-1
CHECKLIST L5
COLLECT FOR EACH SOURCE
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Resources, logistics, legal, security, socio-political, and cultural issues ■
COLLECT FOR THE SELECTED SOURCE
Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Resources
❍ Can the required resources be made
available within a suitable time-scale?
❍ Are the costs within the available budget?
❑❑❑❑❑ Logistics
❍ Will logistical constraints prevent the
solution being implemented?
❑❑❑❑❑ Legal, security, socio-political, and cultural
issues
❍ Have there been any developments in
these areas which could prevent
implementation? (physical developments
could be due to natural threats or human
activities)
❍ Have the selected options been discussed
with the local and affected populations and
accepted as culturally appropriate?
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ See previous checklists
Confirmation of assumptions made during the selection process
CHECKLIST L6
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Groundwater investigation
The use of groundwater is limited in the initial stages of an emergency because:
❑❑❑❑❑ It is difficult to locate;
❑❑❑❑❑ It is difficult to assess the capacity of the aquifer in a short time period; and
❑❑❑❑❑ Access to equipment and an experienced drilling team is often limited.
If groundwater is available, however, it is an excellent source of water, often with limited requirements for treatment,
and if the conditions are right can supply large quantities of potable water. Development of new groundwater
sources is limited in the initial stages of the emergency because of time restrictions. However a general overview
of the groundwater situation in the area is an important addition to the initial assessment of emergency water
sources. The information gathered can be used to identify whether further studies should be undertaken by a
hydrogeologist and can be a useful start to his / her investigation.
Situations where groundwater could be used in the early stages:
❑❑❑❑❑ Spring sources;
❑❑❑❑❑ Existing developed groundwater sources such as shallow wells and boreholes which have reliable yields
and additional capacity;
❑❑❑❑❑ Sub-surface flow abstracted from sandy / gravel river beds of rivers which flow intermittently and can be
rapidly and easily abstracted; and
❑❑❑❑❑ New boreholes in areas where drilling equipment is readily available and the aquifer is already located and
known to be reliable.
CHECKLIST L7
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Information
Level 1 (possible to collect some of this
information as part of the initial assessment of
emergency water sources):
❑❑❑❑❑ Locations and details of all natural and man-made
features including topography (can indicate
potential recharge routes, pollution sources and
location of populations who could supply
information on water sources)
❑❑❑❑❑ Details of existing water sources including types,
water levels, seasonal variations, present yields
and reliability (can indicate locations, depths and
reliability of aquifers)
❑❑❑❑❑ Existing borehole logs and testing results
(indicates geology and hence possible aquifer
characteristics, such as yield, water quality,
drawdown during pumping, seasonal fluctuations)
❑❑❑❑❑ Climatic data (indicates potential for recharge)
❑❑❑❑❑ Soil and rock types (indicates potential aquifer
characteristics)
❑❑❑❑❑ Vegetation (indicates potential locations of springs
and shallow groundwater)
❑❑❑❑❑ Investigation of river beds, erosion channels and
nearby hills for rock outcrops (identification of the
rocks and angle of outcrops provide further
information in the assessment of aquifer capacity)
❑❑❑❑❑ Use of aerial photographs (highlights
topographical, vegetational and geomorphological
features which can be interpreted by an
experienced hydrogeologist. Aerial photographs
can also highlight drainage patterns and land use)
Level 2 (unlikely to be collected as part of an
initial assessment, but may be recommended in
the RAEWS conclusions):
❑❑❑❑❑ Use of remote sensing images (1:12,500 to
1:25,000) (highlights topographical, vegetational
and geomorphological features which can be
interpreted by an experienced hydrogeologist)
❑❑❑❑❑ Geomorphological analysis and hydroclimatic
monitoring
❑❑❑❑❑ Geophysical surveying assessment (electrical
resistivity, seismic refraction, electromagnetic
profiling, VLF profiling)
❑❑❑❑❑ Exploratory drilling (hand drilling, machine drilling,
geological logging, test pumping)
Sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Local well drilling team
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ Local populations
❑❑❑❑❑ National and local government (water resources,
agriculture, geological survey and water supply
departments)
❑❑❑❑❑ Other organizations working in the provision of
water supply (consultants, NGOs, etc.)
❑❑❑❑❑ University departments of host country
(geography, geology, environmental science, civil
engineering, mining, surveying)
❑❑❑❑❑ Certain organizations such as the British
Geological Survey can provide interpretations of
information based on satellite imagery and their
vast data information banks for a fee (See Useful
addresses pp289-90)
❑❑❑❑❑ Other sources of information as indicated in the
checklist p53
❑❑❑❑❑ Hand drilling — See reference Oxfam (1991)
❑❑❑❑❑ Measurement of yield and water levels pp143-7
❑❑❑❑❑ See Background to groundwater and aquifers
pp230-5
❑❑❑❑❑ Rock and soil identification pp235-48
❑❑❑❑❑ Groundwater investigation pp249-52
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping
❑❑❑❑❑ Cross section drawing of topography and water
levels using details from existing sources
❑❑❑❑❑ *Pumping tests on existing boreholes
❑❑❑❑❑ Interpretation of the information identified under
Level 1 using table Indicators of the presence of
groundwaters p252
* Note: Difficult to do in the field but useful if possible.
CHECKLIST L7
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Rainwater investigation
The use of rainwater in emergencies is limited because:
❑❑❑❑❑ It requires significant time and capital to set up large schemes;
❑❑❑❑❑ It may only be available for short periods of the year; and
❑❑❑❑❑ It is unpredictable.
However, rainfall can be a useful source of water as a supplement to individual household supplies if simple
catchment structures can be constructed, or for small centres such as clinics or health centres where other
sources are limited. Consideration should only be given for mid to long term projects where there is time to
investigate yields and develop appropriate catchment structures and storage systems or for the short term if the
emergency begins in the rainy season.
Rainwater can be collected on corrugated sheeting or plastic roofs, on other artificial material, or on the ground
surface if it is relatively impermeable.
Techniques for storage include:
❑❑❑❑❑ Ponds (do not tend to have isolated abstraction point)
❑❑❑❑❑ Birkas (cement-lined ponds)
❑❑❑❑❑ Hafir dam (artificial pond with isolated inlet and outlet structures)
❑❑❑❑❑ Sand or sub-surface dams
❑❑❑❑❑ Household tanks (ferrocement, bamboo reinforced cement, concrete, steel, etc.)
Different geographical areas may have differing names for rainwater harvesting or storage techniques.
CHECKLIST L8
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Information
❑❑❑❑❑ Is rainwater harvesting a common technique in
the area?
❑❑❑❑❑ In which months of the year does it rain?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does the amount of rain vary each year?
❑❑❑❑❑ What technologies are used?
❑❑❑❑❑ Can the technologies be improved to prevent
contamination (e.g. add isolated abstraction
structures)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the storage units publicly or privately owned?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is there a tariff?
❑❑❑❑❑ What capacity of storage already exists in the
area?
❑❑❑❑❑ How long does the stored water last taking into
account existing demands prior to the
emergency?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is there a possibility of increasing storage
capacity?
❑❑❑❑❑ Who owns the land on which the catchment and
storage units are located?
To estimate potential yields:
❑❑❑❑❑ Annual rainfall
❑❑❑❑❑ Temperature variations
❑❑❑❑❑ Permeability of the ground or catchment surface /
run-off coefficient
❑❑❑❑❑ Size of catchment area
❑❑❑❑❑ Current position in rainfall cycle
Source of information
❑❑❑❑❑ Owners of storage units and catchment land
❑❑❑❑❑ Local populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Observation
❑❑❑❑❑ National and local government
Methods
❑❑❑❑❑ Calculate storage potential, run-off capacity,
evaporation and seepage. See Rainwater
harvesting pp253-4
CHECKLIST L8
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National government / local government / NGO /
international organization
This checklist may be used when collecting information from government departments or other organizations
working in the field. It contains information included in the main checklists but which is brought together for ease
of access during interview.
National or local government (includes organizations managing utilities) ■
Note that caution is required in conflict situations when gathering information especially from government
departments. Requests for aerial photographs and similar items may be misinterpreted. Employer organization
and co-ordinating organization (e.g. UNHCR) guidance should be followed in these circumstances. If you are a
government employee of the host country or you are working alongside government counterparts this information
may be easier to access.
Some of the information may have already been requested by the employing organization, country or regional co-
ordinator. Organizational procedures for communicating with official personnel set down by the employing
organization should be followed.
Reasons for contacting the host government:
❑❑❑❑❑ You are guests working in their area of responsibility
❑❑❑❑❑ It is necessary for gaining government approvals
❑❑❑❑❑ They will be responsible for looking after the facilities when the outside organizations leave
❑❑❑❑❑ They may be able to provide or loan resources (both human and material)
❑❑❑❑❑ They could be useful sources of information
❑❑❑❑❑ They know the area and probably the location, size and quality of water sources
❑❑❑❑❑ It can provide links with local populations
❑❑❑❑❑ A good relationship with the local authorities can reduce possible frictions
❑❑❑❑❑ It is courteous
Departments which may be useful to contact:
❑❑❑❑❑ National or regional government: administration of refugee or returnee affairs, water resources,
environment, geological survey, health, military
❑❑❑❑❑ Local government: administration, water and sewerage, surveying, social, planning, engineering, public
works
When meeting with government departments it may be useful to take with you:
❑❑❑❑❑ Information showing who you are and your areas of expertise
❑❑❑❑❑ Documents proving permission to act and letters of support
❑❑❑❑❑ Photographs of past emergency work for subsequent meetings (if requested)
CHECKLIST L9
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❑❑❑❑❑ Logistical constraints
❑❑❑❑❑ Security situation and local clearance procedures
❑❑❑❑❑ Maps of the area (topographic, geological or road)
❑❑❑❑❑ Aerial photographs
❑❑❑❑❑ Aquifer details
❑❑❑❑❑ Numbers and water demands of local populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Water demands and effluent details of local
industries and agriculture
❑❑❑❑❑ Government resources which could be made
available (possibly for exchange or payment)
❑❑❑❑❑ Personnel assistance (engineers, technicians)
❑❑❑❑❑ Introductions to local leaders
❑❑❑❑❑ Contacts for local contractors and specialists
❑❑❑❑❑ Availability of local resources and supplier
contacts
❑❑❑❑❑ Standard specifications for materials and
equipment which they usually use (especially
pumps)
❑❑❑❑❑ Where to find further information
❑❑❑❑❑ Local staff recruitment policy
❑❑❑❑❑ Method of payment for affected population if
included in construction work
❑❑❑❑❑ Environmental problems in the area
❑❑❑❑❑ Main concerns of the government and local
populations
On specific water sources:
❑❑❑❑❑ Details of land rights and who permission for
abstraction should be sought from
❑❑❑❑❑ Construction drawings of sources already used
❑❑❑❑❑ Borehole logs
❑❑❑❑❑ Pumping or yield records
❑❑❑❑❑ Details of operating procedures or problems with
existing systems
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality records
❑❑❑❑❑ Socio-political or cultural issues to be considered
when dealing with water
❑❑❑❑❑ River basin studies
Additional for national government:
❑❑❑❑❑ Permission to become active
❑❑❑❑❑ Procedures for importing goods
❑❑❑❑❑ Letters of introduction
❑❑❑❑❑ Line of government responsibility
❑❑❑❑❑ Policy and level of support to the affected
populations
❑❑❑❑❑ Designated agency responsible for co-ordination
of the interventions (often UNHCR)
Non-governmental organizations and international organizations ■
Much of the information noted above may also be requested from non-governmental organizations and international
organizations working in the field. Requesting information from more than one source can verify or dispute
information already collected. In conflict situations or where governments are inoperational, other field organizations
may be the best source of information.
CHECKLIST L9
Can the government department give you, or provide information on any of the following?:
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Affected population / local population issues
The person undertaking the rapid assessment of emergency water sources in the early stages of an emergency
will often have to act within a short time frame. There are key factors which he / she must assess in order to select
a water supply and treatment process to provide potable water.
In the initial stages of an emergency, the questioning of the affected population may be mostly superficial with
questions used to confirm observations on existing water sources, pollution risks, availability of containers, etc.
However, as soon as possible further questioning of greater depth should be undertaken to help the assessor
gain an understanding of the populations he / she is supporting. This will help to ensure that the technological
solutions are appropriate to the users. Care must be taken to question as many different groups as possible
including those who are vulnerable (consider vulnerability on the basis of gender, age, ethnicity and culture). One
method of involving the affected population at an early stage is to request that existing community groups come
forward (e.g. women’s groups or people who have previously been on water committees) when calls are made for
workers. Representatives of these groups can then be consulted on subjects such as the suitability of chosen
locations for standposts and the cultural acceptability of proposed sources.
Refer to Guidance undertaking assessments and report writing pp103-7 for guidance on avoiding assessment
pitfalls. Record answers to questions in the Conversations / observations log pp79-80
Population / community structure and skills
❑❑❑❑❑ How is the population divided?
❑❑❑❑❑ Who are the population’s representatives or acting representatives? (initial contacts for questions)
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the social hierarchies and which are the most vulnerable groups?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there personnel with the following skills: tradespeople, construction personnel, supervisors, health
educators, water technicians, engineers?
❑❑❑❑❑ How are food and other resources presently being distributed?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the balance of males and females? (if high percentage of single men it may imply that both men and
women may have lead responsibility for water usage in different family groups)
Cultural practices
❑❑❑❑❑ Which days are religious / cultural festivals or days of rest?
❑❑❑❑❑ General gender and age roles (before and after being affected by the emergency): who collects water, is
responsible for family hygiene, cooks? (can indicate which groups have greatest responsibility for water use
and hence who should be consulted)
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there any restrictions for a particular group (e.g. Muslim women in purdah may have to collect water in
the dark)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Where do people bathe and wash clothes? (potential source of pollution)
❑❑❑❑❑ What forms of sanitation are used? (potential source of pollution)
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the requirements for sanitation: cleaning materials; segregation; level of privacy; water for hand
washing? (can indicate level of hygiene practice and hence potential for post-supply contamination)
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there any particular attitudes to water treatment (e.g. are they worried about the use of chemicals)?
(could lead to rejection of water supply)
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❑❑❑❑❑ Do women have any particular needs or concerns (for example over water and privacy needs during periods
of menstruation)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there any other cultural beliefs related to water not included above?
Past and present sources of water and, the populations needs and concerns
❑❑❑❑❑ What types of water source did they use before affected by the emergency (well, spring, stream)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Was it chlorinated?
❑❑❑❑❑ What was the level of service (piped supply, direct from source, etc.)?
❑❑❑❑❑ How much water did they use?
❑❑❑❑❑ Details of the water used at present (what does it taste like, does it look muddy or clear and does the taste
or appearance change with the seasons)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the water collection containers adequate in number, quality and size?
❑❑❑❑❑ What are their priorities in the supply of water and sanitation?
❑❑❑❑❑ What are their needs and concerns?
Security of water collection points
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there any problems with the location of the water collection points in terms of security or accessibility
(especially for women, children, the elderly, those physically impaired, those vulnerable due to their ethnicity,
those vulnerable due to conflicts)?
Key references:
· Anderson et al, 1992
· Davis and Lambert ,1995, pp55-77
· Gosling and Edwards, 1995
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Water treatment works and urban water supply systems
The following checklists are to be used for the assessment of existing water treatment works in urban
environments in addition to the general checklists provided previously:
❑❑❑❑❑ Urban water supply system inventory
❑❑❑❑❑ Resources / spares checklist
❑❑❑❑❑ Water treatment works operational checklist
Sources of information: Local government water and sewerage departments; existing works staff; local and
international consulting and contracting firms.
Urban water supply system inventory ■
General
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there maps / plans already available of the supply network?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does a contingency plan for emergencies already exist?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are recent test data results available and inventories of age and condition of pipes and other equipment?
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify damaged sections / items and potential causes of pollution: vandalism; war damage; cross-
connections; back-syphonage; pipe near sewer; illegal tapping; fire (Hodgson and Tannock, undated)
❑❑❑❑❑ Who is responsible for operation and maintenance of each section of the supply system
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify and map location of:
❍❍❍❍❍ Sources
❍❍❍❍❍ Treatment works
❍❍❍❍❍ Pumping stations
❍❍❍❍❍ Trunk mains
❍❍❍❍❍ Distribution mains
❍❍❍❍❍ Raw and clear water reservoirs
❍❍❍❍❍ Location of consumers (domestic and industrial, including power plants)
❍❍❍❍❍ Heights of all features
❍❍❍❍❍ Power stations or fuel suppliers (e.g. electricity, diesel or petrol)
❍❍❍❍❍ Workshop / storage facilities
❍❍❍❍❍ Laboratories for water quality testing
❍❍❍❍❍ Areas susceptible to physical threats (landslides, floods etc.)
Sources (UNHCR, 1996)
❑❑❑❑❑ Springs
Identify: expected yield at design and date of design; actual yield and date; description and condition of
spring box; description and effectiveness of protection above and around spring; potential sources of
contamination
❑❑❑❑❑ Hand dug well
Identify: yield; draw down; lining type and condition; height and number of rings; parapet height and material;
apron width and material; depth to bottom of well and to static water level; water drawing mechanism and
condition; geology if known; potential sources of contamination
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❑❑❑❑❑ Borehole
Identify: drilling company, technique used and date; diameter; pumping test results: date, duration, static
water level, drawdown and safe yield; gravel packing type and volume; casing details: type, diameter, length,
screen length, percentage of openings
❑❑❑❑❑ Hand pump
Identify: make; model; date of installation; number of strokes required to deliver output — note initial 5 litres
and then subsequent 5 litres; borehole details (as above); sand presence in water
Pump units and power supply (UNHCR, 1996)
❑❑❑❑❑ Pumps
Identify: type; make; model; serial number; condition; rated yield and head; actual yield and head; power
supply; stockage of fuel for how long; flood protection; motor house condition
❑❑❑❑❑ Power unit (engine)
Identify: type; make; model; serial number; condition; hp; r.p.m.; fuel use (l/hour); cooling system
❑❑❑❑❑ Power (generator)
Identify: type; make; model; serial number; power (KVA); power factor; phase; voltage; amperage; r.p.m.;
frequency; condition
❑❑❑❑❑ Electrical supply panel
Identify: type; make; model; serial number; voltage; Hz; hp
Pipelines (UNHCR, 1996)
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify: materials; sizes; working pressures; isolation valves on pipelines; water hydrants; standpipes; air
valves; corrosion protection; invert levels
Treatment works (see Water treatment works operational checklist for detailed assessment pp74-8)
❑❑❑❑❑ Process operation; process control; hydraulic operation; structural soundness
❑❑❑❑❑ Operation and maintenance: maintenance programme; chemicals and fuels; disposal of wastes; operational
management and availability of skilled personnel; record keeping; budget; health and safety
Distribution
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify: details and condition of distribution units; wastewater drainage arrangements
Workshop / storage facilities
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify: capacity of staff; availability of spares; capacity for storage; management capability and systems
Sewage treatment works and sewerage system
❑❑❑❑❑ As water supply system and treatment work
❑❑❑❑❑ Identify possible areas of contamination to the water supply
Solid waste disposal
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the existing facilities and are they working?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does solid waste pose any potential hazards to the water supply?
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Resources / spares checklist ■
See checklist pp56-7
Also:
❑❑❑❑❑ Locations of factories which make equipment
❑❑❑❑❑ What supplies does local government have?
❑❑❑❑❑ Who supplies the local government?
❑❑❑❑❑ What equipment do NGOs and international organizations have in stock; are the parts compatible, and if not
what adapters are required?
Skilled personnel
❑❑❑❑❑ Who is still available from existing staff?
❑❑❑❑❑ Which skills are lacking?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is additional training required to run new or modified equipment?
Water treatment works operational checklist ■
Produce a process diagram and layout map of the operational treatment works including numbers and sizes of
units and any spare land available for expansion.
Works details:
❑❑❑❑❑ Built in (and upgraded in) year ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Design capacity ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Operating capacity (usual) ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Operating capacity (at present) ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Area of supply ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the access to the works OK? ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there any natural threats to the system? ____________________________________________
(earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanoes, ____________________________________________
mudslides, etc) ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Which sections of the system are most ____________________________________________
vulnerable? ____________________________________________
❑❑❑❑❑ Can mitigation measures be put in place to ____________________________________________
prevent further damage? (include details) ____________________________________________
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Process operation:
Screening / intake:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is screening in place and adequate?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the screens being cleaned?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the intake protected, such as by a fence?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is it located away from major pollution sources?
❑❑❑❑❑ Can the intake cope adequately with change in water levels?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the point of abstraction susceptible to erosion?
Raw water storage:
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the turbidity at the inlet and outlet?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the retention time?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the size of the reservoir and its effective capacity?
Sedimentation:
❑❑❑❑❑ Are settled solids prevented from being disturbed to the outlet?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does the settlement tank have baffles?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the retention time > 1 hour?
❑❑❑❑❑ How often are the tanks desludged?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the turbidity at the inlet and outlet?
Assisted sedimentation (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation):
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the coagulant mixed immediately?
❑❑❑❑❑ How is the coagulant being flocculated?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the coagulant dose controlled?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the turbidity at the outlet to the sedimentation tank < 10 TU?
Chlorination or other disinfection process:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the contact time > 30 min?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are chlorine residuals checked regularly?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are chemicals weighed or measured accurately?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the free residual entering the distribution system > 0.4mg/l?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there no interruptions to disinfection?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the method of dosage?
❑❑❑❑❑ In what form is the chlorine dosed?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is there safety equipment for handling the chlorine?
Slow sand filtration:
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the filters blocked or being bypassed?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the top layer of the schmutzdecke being removed when required?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the run time between subsequent removals of the top layer of schmutzdecke?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does the plant have facilities for washing filter sand?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the turbidity on leaving the filter < 5TU?
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❑❑❑❑❑ What is the media?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the depth of sand > 600 mm?
❑❑❑❑❑ How long does the filter run before the removed sand needs replacing?
Rapid gravity filtration:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the filter being regularly backwashed?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the run time between backwashes?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the backwash rate?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is air scour used?
❑❑❑❑❑ Where does the washwater go?
❑❑❑❑❑ Does the washwater contaminate the clean water?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the media?
Clear water storage:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the capacity > 1 day for demand?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the tank clean, undamaged and covered?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are vents and overflow pipes protected by screens?
Other:
Consider the process operation of any additional processes:
❑❑❑❑❑ Grit chamber
❑❑❑❑❑ Oil / grease trap
❑❑❑❑❑ Aeration
❑❑❑❑❑ Pre-chlorination
❑❑❑❑❑ Activated carbon
❑❑❑❑❑ Fluoridation
Process control:
Are the following being checked on a regular basis:
❑❑❑❑❑ Turbidity?
❑❑❑❑❑ pH?
❑❑❑❑❑ Chlorine residuals?
❑❑❑❑❑ Jar test for assisted sedimentation?
❑❑❑❑❑ Microbiological (E.coli / total coliform)?
Hydraulic operation:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the flow control equipment present and functional?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the process units being operated at designed flow rates?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are overflows being used on a regular basis?
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Structural soundness:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is there any point of leakage in the treatment system?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are any of the units cracked, broken or otherwise damaged?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are any of the units dirty?
❑❑❑❑❑ Is the drainage in the treatment works area adequate?
Operation and maintenance:
Maintenance programme:
❑❑❑❑❑ Is there an accepted and implemented programme of maintenance?
❑❑❑❑❑ What does it consist of?; check off each treatment process structure and equipment (pumps, dosing
equipment, etc.); are the items of equipment and structures calibrated, oiled, greased, and any damage
repaired?
Chemicals and fuels:
❑❑❑❑❑ Note usual dosages of all chemicals
❑❑❑❑❑ How are the treatment process chemicals and fuels stored?
❑❑❑❑❑ How are the chemicals handled?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are the chemicals delivered on a regular basis?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there likely to be interruptions to deliveries?
Disposal of spoilt chemicals and sludges:
❑❑❑❑❑ How are spoilt chemicals disposed of?
❑❑❑❑❑ How are sludges produced during treatment disposed of?
Workshop / storage facilities
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the capacity of workshop staff?
❑❑❑❑❑ How available are spare items of equipment?
❑❑❑❑❑ How quick are systems for obtaining additional spares?
❑❑❑❑❑ What is the capacity of storage facilities?
❑❑❑❑❑ How effective are stock control systems?
Operational management and personnel:
❑❑❑❑❑ Names and duties of responsible personnel; also position, training, period in job, total experience in water
treatment
❑❑❑❑❑ How much time is spent on tasks?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there enough skilled personnel to keep the plant running?
Record keeping:
Are records kept of the following:
❑❑❑❑❑ Process control results (especially bacteriological and residual chlorine)?
❑❑❑❑❑ Chemical consumption?
❑❑❑❑❑ Problems with the treatment processes?
❑❑❑❑❑ Maintenance?
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Health and safety:
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there obvious health and safety problems on the site?
❑❑❑❑❑ Are there facilities to cope with chemical spillage or injury to personnel? What are they?
Budget:
❑❑❑❑❑ Who pays?
❑❑❑❑❑ How much money is available? Is it adequate?
❑❑❑❑❑ How long does it take to get funds?
Assessment of potential for increase in capacity:
❑❑❑❑❑ Could the treatment works cope with further flow? How much?
❑❑❑❑❑ Could the works be expanded to cope with extra flow? How much? How could this be achieved?
Key references:
· Hodgson and Tannock (undated) · Siru, 1992
· Lloyd and Helmer, 1991 · UNHCR, 1996
· Jagour, 1996 · Youde, 1996
· Schulz and Okun, 1984 · PAHO, 1997
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Conversations / observations log
Notes (including location and date) ■Name/organization ■
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SURVEY SHEET L1
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SURVEY SHEET L1
Conversations / observations log
Notes (including location and date) ■Name/organization ■
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SURVEY SHEET L2
Addresses
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: ________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: ________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
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SURVEY SHEET L2
Addresses (continued)
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: ________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: ________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
Name: _________________________________
Position: _________________________________
Organization: ______________________________
Address: _________________________________
___________________________________________
_________________________________________
Phone: _________________________________
Fax: _________________________________
Telex: _________________________________
Email: _________________________________
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SURVEY SHEET L3
Published information log
Publication details ■ Relevance ■
(including title, author/s, organization, date, contents, location)
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SURVEY SHEET L3
Published information log (continued)
Publication details ■ Relevance ■
(including title, author/s, organization, date, contents, location)
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Resources log
Details (numbers, cost, quality, logistical constraints where available) ■Resource ■
Resources:
❑❑❑❑❑ Materials and equipment ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Human ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Construction techniques and water treatment processes used
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SURVEY SHEET L4
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Resources log (continued)
Details (numbers, cost, quality, logistical constraints where available) ■Resource ■
Resources:
❑❑❑❑❑ Materials and equipment ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Human ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Construction techniques and water treatment processes used
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SURVEY SHEET L4
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SURVEY SHEET L5
Reconnaissance of area s
Regional orientation ■
Draw a map of the area including details noted in the checklist p55.
(including existing water usage situation, resources and logistics)
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Settlement orientation ■
Draw a map of the settlement including details noted in the checklist p55.
SURVEY SHEET L5
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Demographics, present water usage and water demands ■
Water user numbers from affected population:
People: __________ Livestock: (large) __________ Livestock: (small) __________ Other users: ___________
Water user numbers from local population:
People: __________ Livestock: (large) __________ Livestock: (small) __________
Other users: (e.g. industry agriculture) ________________________________________________________
Comment on reliability of figures: ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Calculation of total water demand:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Present water sources in use: (type, location, level of service, distance to collection point). Note: The
populations’ own coping mechanisms should be identified and potentially built upon.
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Current water consumption:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Do affected population have adequate containers for water collection?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Are the populations static or mobile?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Diseases prevalent in the local and affected populations:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
SURVEY SHEET L5
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Logistics (see also ‘Resources log’) ■
Condition of roads and areas susceptible to flooding and other physical threats (at present and
throughout the seasons)
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Security conditions (on access roads and in settlements)
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Access to international freight (airstrips, ports, railways, link roads)
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Airport / port handling facilities
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Customs clearance procedures
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Availability and reliability of freight transporters
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Journey time for freight
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Other logistical issues
SURVEY SHEET L5
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Physical features including yield ■
Source name/ number and location and type (including grid reference)
Ground and water levels (note instrument for measurement)
Layout / dimensions (attach sketch, see p93)
Yield estimation
· volumes / flows
· variation with season
· recharge capacity
Discharges in and out (where from, where to)
Environmental features of catchment area (farming, industry, settlements, tree cover, etc.)
Is the source affected by extreme weather conditions (e.g. below 0oC)
SURVEY SHEET L6
Features of the source (excluding water quality)
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For groundwater sources
Date Date
Test reference number
Constant yield or step drawdown test
Pump details
Method of flow measurement used
Reference point / level
Static water level
Drawdown
Specific capacity
Safe yield
Observations
Note: If a supply system already exists then refer to the Urban water treatment works and supply system
checklist pp72-8
SURVEY SHEET L6
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Draw a sketch of the source and the surrounding area
Include:
❑❑❑❑❑ Layout / dimensions
❑❑❑❑❑ Ground level and water level
❑❑❑❑❑ Discharges (in and out; where do they come from and where do they go)
❑❑❑❑❑ Environmental features (river bed materials; plant and tree cover, activities in catchment area)
❑❑❑❑❑ Water collection points
❑❑❑❑❑ Current structures and source protection activities
SURVEY SHEET L6
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Management, legal, security, socio-political and cultural issues ■
Present demands (who, what for and how much, is there competition with animals?)
Are there intermittent users such as nomads?
Who owns the land and what is the procedure to obtain permission to abstract?
Who is responsible authority for control and maintenance?
Is a tariff being charged for the water? (how much and paid to whom?)
Is the source accessible for all? (elderly, children, disabled)
Are there security problems at the source? (especially for women and children and other vulnerable groups
such as opposing groups in conflicts)
Are any areas mined?
Socio - political constraints to using the source and cultural beliefs re- water provision
What are the local and affected populations’ priorities for water provision?
Are there natural threats in the vicinity of the source? (cyclones, earthquakes, mudslides, etc.) What are
they and what is the risk?
SURVEY SHEET L6
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Features of the source (water quality)
For further information refer to:
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality assessment routines pp148-53; ❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: maps and symbols pp154-60;
❑❑❑❑❑ Catchment mapping: surveying pp161-7; ❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality analysis pp169-203;
❑❑❑❑❑ Biological survey pp204-13
❑❑❑❑❑ Water quality analysis and surveying equipment pp261-92;
Water quality assessment summary ■
Water quality assessment method Water quality inferences for
source name/ number and location
Catchment mapping Observations:
Inference:
Local knowledge including medical information Observations:
Inference:
Sanitary investigation & observation Sanitary risk: high - medium - low - very low
Improved sanitary risk: high - medium - low - very low
Specific risks which can potentially be improved:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Observations of the water source:
Inference:
Water quality analysis Key findings:
❑❑❑❑❑ Core parameters:
❑❑❑❑❑ Secondary parameters:
❑❑❑❑❑ Treatability tests:
Inference:
Biological survey Species found: Yes No
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ intolerant
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ slightly intolerant
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ moderately tolerant
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ tolerant
Inference: Clean water / some minor pollution / moderate pollution /some major pollution / severe pollution
Type of pollution expected:
Overall conclusions Present quality:
Predicted variations in quality:
SURVEY SHEET L7
(see following page for details)
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Measured value / Prediction of Date of Test kit / method
description variation assessment used
Core tests
Turbidity (TU)
Odour
Colour
Conductivity (µS/cm)
pH
E.coli / 100 ml
Chloride mg/l
Fluoride mg/l
Iron mg/l
Manganese mg/l
Nitrate mg/l
Nitrite mg/l
Sulphate mg/l
Taste
Arsenic mg/l *
Permanganate Value
Chlorine demand
(of raw water) mg/l
* Suitable field equipment may not be available for this parameter
Water quality analysis ■
SURVEY SHEET L7
Secondary tests (only test if there is an indication that there may be a problem)
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Dosage required / time Date of assessment Test kit / method used
Treatability tests
Sedimentation
Assisted sedimentation
pH adjustment
Chlorination (chlorinedemand of treated water)
Other
Treatability tests ■
Industrial pollution laboratory analysis ■
Date sample sent to the laboratory
Address of laboratory
Details:
❑❑❑❑❑ chemicals added for stabilization
❑❑❑❑❑ storage conditions in transit
❑❑❑❑❑ time from sampling to laboratory analyses
Key results (attach data sheet)
SURVEY SHEET L7
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Requirements for development and impacts summary
Source name, location and reference:
Technical and O&M requirements and time of set up ■
Technical and O&M Details Predicted time Potential time delays for set up /
requirements for set-up problems for set up and O&M
Protection
Abstraction methodand equipmentstructures
Treatment (includingraw water storage)
Transmissiondistance and meansof transmission
Supply storage(if additional to rawwater storage fortreatment)
Distribution
Other (subsiduary)
Estimated total time of set-up(items can be implemented in parallel)
SURVEY SHEET L8
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Key resources (capital and O&M) Capital cost O&M costs
Material Human
Protection
Abstraction
Treatment system
(including raw water
storage)
Transmission
Supply storage
(if additional to raw
water storage for
treatment)
Distribution
Other (subsiduary)
Total costs
Resources and costs ■
SURVEY SHEET L8
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Potential effects of source development on the aquifer and remote sources
Effects of development on existing users of the source and local populations at the point of abstraction
and downstream
❑❑❑❑❑ Determine: yield of source at present,new abstraction demand, existing demands,remaining yield (dry season)and the effects on existing users
❑❑❑❑❑ Possible compensation for localcommunities for the loss of yieldor inconvenience
❑❑❑❑❑ Consider migration of people andanimals / livestock to improved watersources (may be pronounced withnomadic populations) and the effects
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the effects on communitystructures / management capacity oforganisations and populations?
❑❑❑❑❑ What subsidiary / ancillary activities arerequired? (training, road construction,sanitation, agricultural extension,hygiene promotion etc.)
Effects on vegetation and erosion
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the effects of abstractionon vegetation and erosion?
❑❑❑❑❑ What are the effects of migration toimproved water sources onvegetationand erosion?
Effects of water treatment and waste disposal
❑❑❑❑❑ Increase in waste water - how will it affectlevels of standing water?
❑❑❑❑❑ How will chemicals and fuel for watertreatment be stored ?(location, security)
❑❑❑❑❑ How will waste chemicals be disposed of?
❑❑❑❑❑ How will the sludge produced duringtreatment be disposed of?
Impacts of development ■
SURVEY SHEET L8
❑❑❑❑❑ Potential effects on aquifer
Untitled-3 02/12/2004, 15:32100