JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION

Table of Contents

1.Judgment 2.Proposition3.Structure and element of

proposition4.Rules governing copula

Judgment is defined as the second act of the intellect by which the intellect makes a pronouncement on the agreement or disagreement of ideas.

When there is agreement of ideas, it result in positive or affirmative judgment; but if there is disagreement of ideas, it yields to a negative judgment. Further, judgment is also understood as a process by which the intellect compares two or more ideas.

By nature, a judgment, whether affirmative or negative, can be true or false. We say that it is true, when the ideas that constitute it conform to reality. Otherwise, it is false.

I think that Mr. Wilestremaeus is a teacher. If in reality the individual mentioned is a teacher, then such judgment is true. However, if in another case I think that Mr. Wilestremaeus is a carabao, yet in reality he is a person, then such judgment is false.

PROPOSITION

A proposition, aside from being identified as the external sign of the second act of the intellect, is defined as a judgment expressed in a sentence. In this definition, there are two things to note. One is that, a proposition is, essentially, a judgment; and the other, that it is a sentence.

With the first observation, the proposition, as judgment, basically pronounces truth or falsity. With respect to the second observation, there is a need to understand the proposition as different from other sets of connected ideas or as only one of the many types of sentences.

The matter at point and relevant in this study is that type in which thoughts are expressed through a declaration or assertion of something that is either true or false. This sentence is known as declarative sentence. Only a declarative sentence pronounces truth or falsity, and it is the only type of sentence considered as a proposition.

Structural Elements or Parts of a Proposition

A simple categorical proposition is that which makes a direct assertion of the agreement or disagreement of two or more ideas. It is a basic component of arguments or even that of compound propositions.

Structural Elements or Parts of a Proposition

There are two major parts in a simple categorical proposition: the subject and the predicate. The subject designates the idea about which the assertion is made, while the predicate designates the idea that is affirmed or denied of the subject.

Structural Elements or Parts of a Proposition

In Basic English grammar, a simple sentence has a quantifier which appears right before the subject, and a linking verb which marks the beginning of the predicate. In logic, the quantifier and the linking verb, are given equal importance with the subject and the predicate terms due to their significance in logical analysis vis-a-vis the quantity and the quality of the proposition. The quantifier has an effect on the quantity of the proposition, while the linking verb, which is better known in logic as the copula, has an effect on the quality of the proposition.

Structural Elements or Parts of a Proposition

For a closer look at the structure of a simple categorical proposition, consider this illustration:

All Emilians are service-oriented. Quantifier Subject-Term Copula Predicate-Term

The Quantifier and the Quantity of the Proposition

As mentioned earlier, the quantifier attached to the subject has an effect on the quantity of the proposition. The quantifier signifies the number of individuals identified in the subject and is indicative of whether the proposition is universal or particular. Recall your knowledge about what makes a term universal or particular. A term that is introduced explicitly (or implicitly) by such words as: all, every, each, and no becomes universal. On the other hand, if the term is introduced by words such as: some, certain, several, many, few, and not all, it becomes particular. Such introductory words are what we call quantifiers.

Once a quantifier appears before the subject of the proposition, this indicates the universal or the particular quantity of the whole proposition. Consider the following examples: 1. Every human being is subject to death. (Universal Proposition) 2. Some human beings are Filipinos. (Particular Proposition)

• The first example is introduced by the quantifier “every” which is indicative of a universal extension. This means that the extension or quantity of the proposition is universal, which follows that what is asserted in such a judgment applies to any or all human beings. In contrast, the second example is introduced by the quantifier “some” which expresses a particular extension. This means that the proposition is particular, and that the judgment expressed only applies to certain number of human beings.

• Note, however, that the quantifier indicates the quantity of the subject term and the whole of the proposition, but not necessarily the quantity of the predicate term of the proposition. The quantity of the predicate is identified with the quality of the proposition or with the type of the copula that constitutes the proposition.

The Copula and the Quality of the Proposition The copula (also known as the linking verb)

is that which connects the subject and the predicate terms, and signifies the quality of the proposition, i.e., affirmative or negative. To fully understand the function of the copula and what it signifies, let us right away consider the rules governing the copula.

Rules Governing Copula: 1. The copula that is not joined by the word “not” is

an affirmative copula. An affirmative copula signifies an affirmative proposition.

2. The copula that is joined by the word “not” is a negative copula. The word “not” becomes part of the copula (and not of the predicate). A negative copula signifies a negative proposition.

Rules Governing Copula: 3. If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity or extension

of the predicate is particular. • Except:• 3.1. If the predicate of such proposition is a proper name. In

such a case, the extension of the predicate is universal. 3.2. If the predicate of the affirmative proposition is an

essential definition of the subject.

4. If the proposition is negative, the quantity or extension of the predicate is universal.

Rules Governing Copula:

1. The copula that is not joined by the word “not” is an affirmative copula. An affirmative copula signifies an affirmative proposition.

• For example, “The Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences is compassionate.” Note that the copula “is” is not joined by the word “not”. Thus, the proposition is affirmative.

2. The copula that is joined by the word “not” is a negative copula. The word “not” becomes part of the copula (and not of the predicate). A negative copula signifies a negative proposition.

• • For example, “That student is not concerned with her

studies.” The copula “is not” makes the proposition negative. • Note, however, that for every rule there is an exception. A

copula may not be joined by the word “not” to make a negative proposition. Such an instance is only possible if a certain proposition is introduced by the word “no” or “not.” Below are examples of (negative) propositions introduced by “no” and “not”:

• No Lyceans are irrational.• Not all Emilians are irresponsible.•

• 3. If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity or ex-tension of the predicate is particular.

• • For example, “Books are reading materials.”

The copula “are” (not joined by the word “not”) is affirmative and it makes the predicate particular. Thus, without changing the meaning of the given proposition, it is still appropriate to say that, “Some reading materials are books”.

•

• But there are exceptions to this rule:• • If the predicate of such proposition is a proper name. In such

a case, the extension of the predicate is universal. For example, “That teacher is Mr. Wilestremaeus.” The predicate “Mr. Wilestremaeus” is a proper name and it, therefore, takes a universal extension from an affirmative proposition.

• If the predicate of the affirmative proposition is an essential definition of the subject. For example, “A triangle is a three-sided plane figure.” The predicate “three-sided plane figure” is an essential definition of the subject “triangle.” In this example, the extension of the predicate is also universal. Thus, it is also correct to say, “All three-sided plane figures are triangle.”

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• 4. If the proposition is negative, the quantity or extension of the predicate is universal.

• • For example, “Birds are not dogs.” The copula “are” is

negative due to the word “not” that is joined with it. Such negative copula makes the predicate universal. Thus, it is still correct to say, “No dogs are birds” or “All dogs are not birds.” Notice that the term “dogs” in both examples, as still faithful to the original proposition with regards to the quantity, is universal.

• But there are exceptions to this rule:• • If the predicate of such proposition is a proper name. In such

a case, the extension of the predicate is universal. For example, “That teacher is Mr. Wilestremaeus.” The predicate “Mr. Wilestremaeus” is a proper name and it, therefore, takes a universal extension from an affirmative proposition.

• If the predicate of the affirmative proposition is an essential definition of the subject. For example, “A triangle is a three-sided plane figure.” The predicate “three-sided plane figure” is an essential definition of the subject “triangle.” In this example, the extension of the predicate is also universal. Thus, it is also correct to say, “All three-sided plane figures are triangle.”

EXERCISES