local & international status quo report

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Linkd Environmental Services T: +27 11 486 4076 f: +27 866 717 236 e: [email protected] w: www.8linkd.com South African Cities Green Transport Programme: Local & International Status Quo Report and Concept Note on Accelerating the Transition to Municipal Green Fleets Prepared by LINKD August 2014

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Page 1: Local & International Status Quo Report

Linkd Environmental Services

T: +27 11 486 4076 f: +27 866 717 236 e: [email protected] w: www.8linkd.com

South African Cities Green Transport Programme:

Local & International Status Quo Report

and

Concept Note on Accelerating the Transition to

Municipal Green Fleets

Prepared by LINKD

August 2014

Page 2: Local & International Status Quo Report

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2. Defining green transport ..................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Environmental sustainability ................................................................................................... 4

Local environmental impact ................................................................................................................ 5 2.2. Economic sustainability ........................................................................................................... 5 2.3. Social sustainability ................................................................................................................. 6

3. Alternative fuel technologies ............................................................................................... 7 3.1. Battery-Electric ....................................................................................................................... 7 3.2. Hybrid-Electric ......................................................................................................................... 9 3.3. Natural Gas ............................................................................................................................. 9 3.4. Biogas ................................................................................................................................... 10 3.5. Biodiesel and bioethanol ....................................................................................................... 13 3.6. Comparative analysis of transport fuels and modes ................................................................ 14

4. Green transport programme concept ................................................................................. 20 4.1. Purpose ................................................................................................................................ 20 4.2. Technology & Opportunity Assessment .................................................................................. 20 4.3. Detailed Analysis of Local & Global Pilots ............................................................................... 20 4.4. Conduct Additional Pilot(s) and Develop business case ........................................................... 22 4.5. Develop Framework for Large-Scale Green Fleet Rollout & Support Implementation ............... 22

4.5.1. Role of the SACN Transport Reference Group ........................................................................ 23

5. Green transport initiatives in South Africa ......................................................................... 24

6. Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 32

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1. Introduction

Petroleum has been an extraordinary driver of global growth in general, and global transportation in particular, for the last century and a half. Innovative uses of petroleum have created in large part the world of today, and the South Africa of today. But in recent years there has been growing recognition that the burning of oil to release energy has two additional unavoidable effects: first, petroleum once burned is no longer available to burn; and second, burning petroleum also produces carbon dioxide and other, more noxious gases. The first of these effects forces us to consider a world without abundant petroleum to burn, and the second means that the more petroleum we burn, the more uninhabitable we make our planet.

Neither of these effects are theoretical: the artificially and extremely high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is already causing climate change and increased incidences of extreme weather, both to the detriment of human populations (LTAS Phase 1 2013); and there is a growing global shortage of petroleum-derived diesel (Gue 2006; Parker 2006). South African transport is highly dependent on petroleum and its derivatives. Petroleum is the single largest entry on South Africa’s import account, and represents 80% of South African primary energy imports (Vanderschuren, Jobanputra, and Lane 2008). South Africa is therefore acutely vulnerable to scarcity of this non-renewable resource. "Identifying alternative sources of energy is a matter of urgency, since conventional energy sources are becoming exhausted" (Greben, Burke, and Szewczuk 2009:1).

South Africa has an extremely carbon-intensive economy due to the fact that almost all of South Africa’s energy is generated by the burning of coal: our emissions profile is far larger than other economies of equivalent size. The fact that about 30% of liquid fuels consumed by transport in South Africa is produced from coal directly contributes to the carbon intensity of our economy. Our commitment to reducing carbon emissions in, for example, the National Development Plan (NPC 2011) is in effect a commitment to reduce our dependence on emissions-producing, non-renewable resources such as petroleum and its derivatives. “Dependency on fossil fuels makes public intervention to support energy innovation both necessary and justified." (BalticBiogasBus 2012:4)

The South African Cities Green Transport Programme aims to develop a concept and pilot scheme for greening the transport sector. This review of the status quo for alternative fuels, with accompanying concept note, is the beginning of that process.

2. Defining green transport

Based on the evidence introduced above, it is clear that a new paradigm for transport is sorely needed. At the very least, transport’s contribution to greenhouse gas emissions must be dramatically reduced. Sustainability is commonly understood as arising from a nexus of environmental, economic and social impacts. In our view, for a green transport programme to be both effective and practical, it must not only reduce the environmental impact of the transport sector, but also contribute to economic and social sustainability. Each of these aspects of green transport are considered in greater detail below.

Globally, the transport sector is responsible for approximately 15% of all greenhouse gas emissions (OECD/ITF 2010) and consumed just over 54% of total liquid fossil fuels in 2010. In South Africa, the transport sector is directly responsible for approximately 9% of all GHG emissions, with petroleum refining and fugitive emissions from fuels being responsible for a further 25% of the country’s GHG emissions (National treasury, 2013).

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2.1. Environmental sustainability

The bottom line for green transport is that it must help reduce South Africa’s extremely high carbon footprint. This is not simply a matter of reducing the direct emissions of vehicles (although that is a good place to start). If Green Transport is to deliver a substantial contribution to South Africa’s climate change mitigation efforts, its emissions must be measured on a well-to-wheels basis.

Well-to-wheels is a concept in two parts: the first, well-to-tank, refers to the process by which primary energy sources are converted into an energy carrier that the vehicle can use for propulsion, such as liquid fuels, and delivered to the vehicle. Paradigmatically, in the case of petrol, it is a measure of the efficiency of the process with which petroleum is pumped from a well, refined into vehicle fuel, and delivered to petrol stations for use. As has already been pointed out, the coal to liquid fuels refinery process increases the carbon intensity of South Africa’s liquid petroleum fuels. The equivalent process for a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) might be the mining of coal, the generation of electricity from that coal, and the transmission of that electricity to the point at which the car’s battery is charged. A well-to-tank emissions analysis therefore measures the emissions produced by the infrastructure that supports any given vehicle.

The second, tank-to-wheels, refers to the process by which the particular vehicle turns its stored energy into movement. In the case of petrol, that is the use of an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) that burns stored fuel to move the car. In the case of a BEV that is the use of an electric motor to turn the vehicle’s wheels using battery-stored electricity. BEVs score extremely highly on a tank-to-wheels basis, because there are absolutely no emissions at point of use. However, their overall emissions profile depend entirely on the process by which their electricity was originally generated: if that was using renewable sources such as solar power, the BEV remains extremely low in emissions on a well-to-wheels basis; if, however, the electricity was generated in a coal-fired power plant (as it currently is in South Africa) the emissions profile of BEVs worsens dramatically. This demonstrates the necessity of a full well-to-wheels analysis.

For completeness, Green Transport should begin with a well-to-wheels approach to measuring emissions, but it must go further. Any given vehicle is already responsible for a large quantity of greenhouse gas emissions even before its engine is started for the first time: the manufacture and shipping of its component parts, their assembly into a finished vehicle, and then the shipping of that vehicle to the place where it is finally sold all produce greenhouse gas emissions. Although harder to measure than tank-to-wheels emissions or even well-to-tank emissions, a cradle to grave/cradle analysis of the manufacturing footprint of a vehicle must also be taken into account when evaluating its potential place in Green Transport.

Furthermore, vehicles and their emissions need to be analysed in the context of their role in the mobility of goods and people. For instance, while the emissions intensity of a diesel bus is significantly greater than that of a private car per km travelled, the per capita emissions and energy requirements of passengers are likely to be significantly lower. At the same time, within any particular class of vehicle, it is useful to consider the specifications of the vehicle (such as engine size) in relation to the particular function of the vehicle. The SARS environmental levy on sales of vehicles that is progressive applied to vehicles with

The “well-to-tank” approach requires an analysis of environmental impacts across the full value chain of the production of energy for transport. Furthermore, while GHG emissions are an important aspect of environmental impact, they cannot be considered in isolation. As an example, biofuels produced from energy crops have environmental impacts on water and other ecological infrastructure that need careful consideration, particularly in the context of South Africa being a water-scarce country and in relation to food security.

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emissions above 120g/km is an example of an attempt by government to ensure a more energy efficient and environmentally friendly national vehicle fleet in terms of tank-to-wheels emissions.

Environmental sustainability concerns do not begin and end with the fuel that powers a vehicle. The manufacture of motorized vehicles requires large quantities of resources, some of which are recyclable (and therefore at least partly renewable), but some of which are not. The need to reduce consumption of non-renewable and virgin resources and/or increase the use of renewable and recycled resources in the manufacturing process is an important consideration when evaluating the environmental impact of a vehicle.

Local environmental impact

Aside from a commitment to participate in the mitigation of global climate change, South Africa has a direct interest in ameliorating the local ill-effects of transport. These include noise pollution, reduced air quality (particularly from particulates) and congestion.

Of these, the most pressing are congestion and air quality. South African cities are highly congested with traffic. Gauteng, for example, has approximately 500 cars for every kilometre of road (National Treasury, 2009). Congestion increases emissions and decreases the liveability of cities; it also represents a major economic cost. Poor air quality also plagues South Africa: urban air quality is a major risk factor for death in South Africa (Norman et al. 2007). Truly Green Transport will improve both congestion and air quality, as well as reduce the noisiness of cities causes by motorized transport.

2.2. Economic sustainability

GHG emissions reduction is not the only driver for reducing the petroleum-dependence of South African transport sector. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource, and therefore unsuitable to remain the basis for a sustainable transport system in the long term. The graph In Figure 1 tracks the inflation adjusted price of West Texas Intermediate, a grade of crude oil frequently used for benchmarking, since an historic low in the oil price in 1998. The trend over the last 15 years is clear – there is a steady increase in price, briefly interrupted by the economic recession caused by the financial crisis in 2008.

Figure 1: Inflation adjusted price of oil since 1998

The price of petrol and diesel in South Africa is closely linked to the international oil markets. Although South Africa has sophisticated capacity in coal to liquid fuel (CTL) and gas to liquid fuel technology (GTL), we still depend heavily on local refining of imported crude oil to fulfil the fuel needs of the transport sector.

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The economic consequence of this continuous cost of living increase, particularly in a developing country, is significantly exacerbated by the rand-dollar exchange rate and the extremely high percentage of low-income family expenditure spent on transportation. Lastly, any significant reduction in the current account deficit due to a reduced reliance on the import of oil would improve the credit rating of the country, giving the Treasury more room to reduce interest rates as well spend more on social goods like education that are critical to long run economic sustainability.

A strong argument therefore exists for diversifying the fuel mix in South Africa’s transport sector away from petroleum-based fuels towards potentially less expensive, and more importantly, locally produced renewable sources. The options in this respect are discussed more fully in section 3 “Alternative Fuel Technologies”.

Of further relevance in considering economic sustainability of the transport sector is the economic impact of diversifying the fuel mix in terms of growth and job creation, and the skills requirements and capital investment that will be needed to achieve this. There is, for instance, considerable potential for green job creation in developing and processing the various different feed-stocks that can be used in the production of biofuels and alternative drive-chains including electric, hybrid, and hybrid electric vehicles.

2.3. Social sustainability

Ultimately, the success of Green Transport Programme will depend on its social sustainability i.e. the extent to which it meets people’s needs for transport. Any given vehicle may be more or less suitable for a Green Transport system than another, by being more environmentally sustainable, emitting less pollutants and GHG emissions and so on. However, particular technology choices need to be understood in the context of the overall transport system as a central component of urban planning.

Despite efforts to improve public transport, currently transport pathways in South African cities are still focused on supporting cars. Considering that just under 33% of South African households own or have access to cars according to the 2013 National Household Travel Survey, this can be considered inequitable. Between the time of the 2003 National Transport Survey and the 2013 survey, the amount of time that urban and metropolitan households spent waiting for transport and travelling to work or school actually increased. In short, the focus on infrastructure for cars is regressive because it reduces the speed and quality of urban transit for the majority.

Apart from being inequitable, focusing our cities’ transport systems on providing for private cars leads to traffic congestion, increases pollution, results in inefficient use of space in urban centres due to the need to provide parking, and makes our cities less accessible and safe for pedestrians and cyclists.

Green Transport must be broader than the technical specifications of specific vehicles:

“… ultimately, the number of vehicles on the road needs to be reduced… Relying on new technology is not the answer in itself” (Chapman 2007:358).

Green Transport must encourage not just sustainable choices in vehicle design and purchasing, but influence policy that encourages sustainability in the transport system as a whole. This means investment in public transport, incentives to modal shifts (and disincentives to driving), and urban planning that encourages more people to walk, cycle and make use of low or zero emissions vehicles in feeder systems for public transport. The benefits of refocusing planning, resources and infrastructure in this way include reduced travel times across all social sectors, improved human health and social well-being, more functional and productive use of space in urban centres, more social cohesion and interaction, and increased economic activity associated with street vendors and street-level shops.

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Finally, green transport solutions aren’t only accomplished through fuel-switching and urban planning. Awareness and behaviour change are critical to moving people out of cars to non-motorised transport and public transport.

Fuel consumption, and therefore emissions, can also be dramatically reduced with driver behaviour regardless of the fuel being used. Training drivers to anticipate traffic flow, drive smoothly without unnecessarily aggressive acceleration or braking, use higher gears, and minimise unnecessary air conditioning can result in fuel and emission savings of up to 10% without decreased performance or speed (Zarkadoula, Zoidis, and Tritopoulou 2007).

Similarly, keeping a vehicle correctly maintained can dramatically reduce fuel consumption and emissions, regardless of fuel type. In a petrol vehicle this includes correct engine tuning (4% efficiency gains), air filters frequently replaced (10% gains), correct tyre pressure (3% gains) and using the correct motor oil (1-2% gains) (Vanderschuren et al. 2008). While these potential gains may seem small, if mainstreamed across the national fleet they would provide significant emissions reductions.

3. Alternative fuel technologies

The size and growth of the petrol and diesel vehicle market in South Africa run counter to global trends in green transport and lead to the poor performance of the South African transportation system as measured against the key green transport criteria referenced in section 2 above.

In this section potential alternative fuels are described and compared with an aim to better understanding how alternative fuel technologies can improve the countries scores on the key green transport criteria discussed.

3.1. Battery-Electric

Although an emerging alternative energy source to power vehicles, batteries were once the most common means of powering automobiles (Chapman 2007). Today they are enjoying something of a comeback in both private cars, and in limited trials for public transport.

In principle, a battery electric vehicle (BEV) works just like a scaled up version of a child’s remote-control car. The car itself has a battery and one or more electric motors. The battery is typically rechargeable and is most likely charged using municipal power, and then directly powers the car. Electric motors are much more efficient than internal combustion engines: the latter loses up to 75% of the fuel’s energy to heat, vibration, and noise, whereas electric motors lose only 5%-10% (Khare and Sharam 2003).

Key criteria for evaluating green transport strategies

The work that transport systems perform consists of moving people over distances (km). The following criteria are useful for determining how “green” a transport system, mode, or technology is in terms of “person kilometres” (p.km) as the unit of work performed:

The amount of CO2 emissions per p.km

The amount of energy consumed (MegaJoules) per p.km

The cost in Rands per p.km

The amount of time (minutes/hours) per p.km

The spatial footprint (m2) per p.km

Integration of multiple transport modes and networks into urban planning

(SANEDI presentation to the SABOA National Conference, 6 March 2014)

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Furthermore electric vehicles can be designed to make use of regenerative braking, in which the kinetic energy of the vehicle’s momentum is transformed into chemical energy in the battery when slowing or stopping the vehicle. This increases the energy efficiency of electric vehicles in urban traffic which involves frequent braking. Though the electric motor may still be on when the car is at rest (“idling”) or coasting (Khare and Sharam 2003), it does not turn (or do any work), which again is of greatest benefit in stop-start driving conditions due to not consuming any energy under these conditions. Battery-electric vehicles have no tank-to-wheels emissions: at point of use they “run clean”. They also run nearly silently, which reduces noise pollution but is perceived to be a potential safety hazard for pedestrians: many BEVs as a result are designed to produce artificial “engine” noises.

The limiting factor for the mass acceptance of electric vehicles has long been, and remains, battery technology. Batteries capable of generating the required power are expensive, bulky and heavy (Lave et al. 2000). This not only constrains vehicle designs and limits performance but limits the number of batteries that one vehicle can reasonably carry, in turn limiting vehicle range. This is the reason why BEVs typically have much shorter ranges than conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles (Tzeng, Lin, and Opricovic 2005).

Recharging time is also a problem. Once the battery energy has been depleted it may need to be charged for several hours. This is not a problem for commuting trips but is a constraint on long-distance or all-day driving (as buses are required to do). Innovative battery development however, is busy addressing these problems and higher energy densities and lower costs are expected in the not too distant future. The battery pack of a vehicle may also be swappable. In such cases a vehicle with a flat battery can visit a swopping station where its battery is removed and exchanged for a fully charged battery. The spent battery can then be charged at the depot for as long as is necessary before being swapped back in. Such systems allow all-day driving but in the absence of suitably scaled demand are most easily introduced for fixed route services such as public transport.

Currently, BEVs are much more expensive to purchase than ICE vehicles - by as much as 80% (Mathiesen, Lund, and Nørgaard 2008), although this cost can be recouped over time through lower fuelling costs, after the costs of parts and maintenance have been taken into account.

The emissions profile of a BEV is linked to the grid emissions factor from which it draws electricity (which in South Africa is very high relative to most countries due to our reliance on generating electricity from coal). For this reason, despite the greater efficiency of electric motors relative to the ICE and the absence of exhaust emissions, based on the current grid emissions factor for South Africa their a little or no GHG emissions gains for BEV in comparison to petrol or diesel vehicles (Wilson, 2013).

Of course, adoption of BEVs at scale has potential implications for electricity demand. At the same time, if plugged into a smart grid, BEVs have the potential to stabilise the grid by charging at off-peak hours or even to function as an energy reservoir and contribute to creating storage capacity for renewable energy. Although owners of electric vehicles installing fast charging stations in their homes can create local issues on undersized domestic grids, there is currently no country in which BEVs have been adopted at sufficient scale and speed for either the increased electricity demand to be a significant constraining factor, or for the opportunities for energy storage to be systematically leveraged within a smart grid. A notable example of BEVs contributing to Green Power can be seen in Adelaide, Australia, which has a fleet of “Tindo” BEV buses that are “fast-charged” between trips from solar panels on the roof of the central bus depot. Pairing BEVs with fully-renewable electricity generation is about as Green as transport gets, and is suitable as a long-term goal in South Africa.

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3.2. Hybrid-Electric

Hybrid-Electric Vehicles (HEVs) share many of the components of BEVs, with the addition of a petrol or diesel engine. By pairing an electric motor and batteries with an internal combustion engine, they benefit from both the fuel economy of electric propulsion and the energy density of conventional fuel, which batteries cannot compete with. There are broadly two possible configurations of an HEV: series, where the electric motor is always used to propel the vehicle and the ICE is only used to charge the batteries as necessary; and parallel, where either the electric motor or the ICE can propel the vehicle depending on driving conditions. The former is more efficient for urban “stop-start” driving, while the latter is more efficient on the open road (Richardson 2013). An HEV can be designed either to “plug-in” to charge its batteries, or to charge them directly from the internal combustion engine when necessary or possible. HEVs also typically use regenerative braking, as with BEVs, to charge recuperate some energy that would have been lost during braking.

Because HEVs make use of an internal combustion engine, HEV technology may be thought of as a major efficiency upgrade to a number of the other options on this list, rather than a new power source in its own right. In public buses the most common configuration is hybrid diesel-electric; but hybrid CNG-electric or biogas-electric are also possible. The efficiency gains can be substantial: diesel-electric buses are between 10% and 50% more fuel-efficient than diesel alone (Richardson 2013), with corresponding reductions in emissions. According to some studies hybrid-diesel buses produce fewer total well-to-wheel emissions than any non-BEV alternative (Beer et al. 2004). However HEVs come with additional considerations: in addition to fuelling infrastructure they require battery-maintenance infrastructure and staff, as well as staff trained to maintain the buses. They are typically more expensive to purchase than either conventional diesel buses or buses that can run on CNG. Several cities worldwide have begun hybridising their bus fleets, including Rotterdam and Barcelona.

A more detailed study is required to establish the economics of hybridising buses in South Africa, but on their merits, hybrid buses are potentially a very effective transitional solution. They should be considered carefully – even in conjunction with other solutions such as CNG and biogas.

3.3. Natural Gas

Natural Gas has been used as a vehicle fuel in the form of compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) since at least the 1930s, although it has become cost-effective on a large scale only much more recently. Today it is in widespread use, powering approximately 14.8 million vehicles worldwide (Alternative Fuels Data Centre, 2014). A mixture of gases, mostly methane, is extracted either from dedicated gas wells or alongside petroleum. It is then processed, compressed, and combusted in a specially-designed engine to power the vehicle.

Natural gas can be used as either a dedicated fuel source, as a bi-fuel in vehicles that have separate fuelling systems that support both natural gas and conventional petroleum fuels, or in dual-fuel systems that use natural gas as the primary fuel and diesel for ignition assistance. Conventional vehicles can be retrofitted to run on natural gas. Natural gas vehicles range from light passenger cars to buses and heavy-duty commercial vehicles.

LNG and CNG require different refuelling and storage infrastructure and the respective engines work in quite different ways. LNG has a higher energy density than CNG, and for this reason is more suited to heavy-duty and long distance applications. LNG is a cryogenic liquid that needs to be stored at very low temperatures in specially insulated tanks, although under less compression than is the case with CNG. CNG is stored under compression, which requires energy and increases the costs associated with refuelling

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infrastructure as well as placing constraints on vehicle design, which needs to accommodate robust storage tanks than cannot be moulded as flexibly as is the case with petroleum fuels. CNG vehicles need more frequent refuelling than LNG vehicles and therefore more ready access to refuelling infrastructure. In March 2014 the first public CNG filling station in South Africa was opened in Langlaagte, Johannesburg, and provides fuel mostly to taxis that have been converted to use CNG. More filling stations are planned.

Natural gas has the following advantages over petroleum-based fuels:

Natural gas burns more cleanly than diesel and other petroleum derivatives, with emissions reduced by up to 30% (Lave et al. 2000) although improvements in exhaust emissions standards for conventional vehicles are reducing the gap.

Depending on local energy prices, natural gas is usually less expensive per km travelled than petrol or diesel.

Despite the fact that CNG is stored under pressure, it is considered to be a safer fuel source than petrol. It is usually odorised to aid detection of leaks and in the event of a leak, because it is lighter than air it dissipates easily and has a lower range of flammability than petrol or diesel. CNG tanks in vehicles are built to high standards and include automatic release valves that activate under excessive heat or pressure. In public transport systems, CNG vehicles tend to outperform petrol or diesel vehicles in terms of safety.

Despite these advantage, natural gas remains a non-renewable fossil fuel and the full value chain of GHG emissions and environmental impact from the extraction and processing of natural gas may be similar to that of petroleum fuels, depending on the nature of the process.

For the above reasons, natural gas is sometimes regarded as being a transitional fuel that in general has a lower carbon footprint and lower cost than petroleum, but will ultimately need to be replaced by renewable sources of energy. In India, for instance, the discovery of natural gas reserves in the 1970’s has resulted in a sustained increase in the contribution of natural gas to meeting the country’s energy needs and natural gas technologies have penetrated widely into the economy, with natural gas being used extensively in transport, electricity generation, industrial applications, agriculture, and domestic cooking. Production of natural gas from local fossil sources is now failing to match demand, and some of the resulting gap is being filled by biogas (Corbeau, 2010)

3.4. Biogas

Biogas is chemically comparable to CNG. Both are a mixture of combustible gases, predominantly methane, and can potentially be used interchangeably or even mixed to fuel the same gas-driven vehicles. In Germany, 25% of the CNG used in public filling stations is in fact biogas that has been purified and processed to the required standards. However in origin, and in net environmental impact, biogas and CNG are very different.

South Africa disposes enormous quantities of waste to landfill. The middle class alone produces roughly 2.7 million tonnes of domestic waste each year (DEAT 2006). Landfills are overstressed, and some are under pressure to close as a result (Jewaskiewitz 2008). Up to 40% of household waste is organic material, which when landfilled slowly decomposes into various organic gases including the greenhouse gas methane.

Biogas can be harvested directly from a landfill (in which case it is commonly referred to as landfill gas) or organic waste can be placed in an anaerobic digester (instead of a landfill). In both cases, microorganisms break down biodegradable materials in the absence of oxygen, generating methane and other gases in the process. Biogas production from anaerobic digestion can be used to process both agricultural waste and

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sewerage – and until recent decades was standard in many South African sewerage plants. However, many of these digesters have fallen into disrepair and disuse.

The efficiency of anaerobic digestion in producing methane is partly determined by the design of the digester itself, but depends mostly on the calorific value of the bio-degradable feedstock. In all cases, biogas requires some form of purification to remove carbon dioxide and other gases, as well as compression before it can be used as a transport fuel. Figure 2 shows indicative values of yields from different types of feedstock.

Figure 2: Biogas yields in m3 per ton feedstock

Methane (CH4) is consumed during biogas combustion, resulting in CO2 and H20. However methane has a global warming potential approximately 23 times that of CO2 and therefore the flaring or capture of landfill gas as fuel is considered an emissions reductions activity which in certain circumstances may qualify for carbon financing through the generation of carbon credits. Therefore it is theoretically possible for a biogas bus fleet to have negative net emissions. Although practical outcomes are likely to be more modest, biogas is considered to have the lowest GHG emissions profile of all hydrocarbon fuels.

The waste water treatment plants (WWTP) of several South African municipalities already have anaerobic digesters on-site. With relatively little technical difficulty, these treatment plants could be used for both sewerage and the processing of organic waste from households, restaurants or farms. This is called co-digestion1, and it increases the biogas yield of the digester. “Co-digestion can also be applied at existing WWTP without excessive investment costs, thereby combining the treatment of the two largest municipal waste streams” (Greben et al. 2009:6), reducing the waste-burden on municipalities and producing low-cost biogas from a resource that is currently going, literally, to waste.

1 Formally, “anaerobic treatment of a mixture of at least two different organic waste types.” (Greben et al. 2009:6).

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Figure 3: A digester being constructed near Giyani, Limpopo. Gas produced from cow dung is used in domestic stoves (from van Ierland 2013)

Biogas is a renewable fuel that when used as a transport fuel not only reduces transport emissions, but also reduces emissions from waste management. It offers the potential for short-term emissions reduction at relatively low cost. An IDC pilot programme in Gauteng showed that converting buses to dual-fuel use of diesel and biogas saved enough for the capital investment requirements to be reclaimed within about 3,5 years (IDC 2013).

Biogas production technology is proven and already being mobilised in South Africa: eThekwini has several Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) funded projects underway to produce biogas from landfill, wastewater, and agricultural effluent. Even more important than short-term gains, however, is long-term sustainability, and biogas infrastructure will form an important part of waste treatment and energy production in a low-carbon South Africa. Unlike any other energy source, biogas production increases with population:

“Not only will the population and the economic growth cause a demand on the energy supply, it will also contribute to the generation of waste.” (Greben et al. 2009).

In addition to being a potential source of transport fuel, the process of anaerobic digestion that produces biogas also results in nutrient-rich liquid that can be used as a fertiliser in agricultural production.

The main challenges in using biogas as a transport fuel lie in:

Processing the gas to a sufficient level of purity and concentration of methane – once this has been achieved biogas is sometimes referred to as Renewable Natural Gas (RNG).

Compressing and distributing the gas at a suitable level of energy density

There is considerable research and development effort underway internationally focused on reducing the costs of biogas production and purification.

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3.5. Biodiesel and bioethanol

Apart from biogas, there are a number of other biologically-produced combustible fuels including bio-ethanol and bio-diesel. In the case of bio-alcohols such as bioethanol and bionutanol these are produced through a fermentation process involving the use of enzymes and microorganisms. The process for producing biodiesel is referred to as transesterification involving a chemical reaction achieved though mixing vegetable or animal fats with alcohols such as methanol or ethanol and results in a product that is very similar to diesel derived from petroleum.

The first generation biofuels currently in widespread production are produced by processing high-carbohydrate crops food such as sugar cane, maize, and sugar beets. While first generation biofuels do provide limited benefits in terms of GHG emissions reductions compared to fossil fuels their environmental and social sustainability has been questioned, particularly in terms of the implications for land and water use and food security (Sims, Taylor et al, 2008).

Second generation biofuels are currently still in their infancy and involve ligno-cellulosic feed stocks which can include forest residues, wood process wastes and the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes as well as dedicated feedstocks such as short rotation timber and grasses and are therefore more environmentally sustainable than first generation biofuels. The two main conversion pathways for breaking down the lignin and cellulose with vegetable biomass to produce biofuels are:

Biochemical processes involving enzymes and microorganisms that convert cellulose into sugars so that ethanol can be produced through fermentation.

Thermo-chemical processes where pyrolysis or gasification is used to produce a synthesis gas from which a range of hydrocarbon fuels can be synthesised, including biodiesel and jet fuel.

Petrol or diesel can be mixed with up to 5% bio-ethanol or bio-diesel and still be used in normal unmodified vehicles. The dilution can happen before the fuel gets to the filling station, and could have little effect on consumers. Modified vehicles can run on mixtures with greater proportions of biofuels, as in Brazil where all petrol is at least 22% sugar cane-derived bio-ethanol, and more heavily modified vehicles can run on pure bio-ethanol.

Both bio-ethanol and bio-diesel burn cleaner than conventional fuels and are renewable. However producing biofuel from crops requires an industrial process and energy input, and substitution of fuel production for food production in agriculture. Existing value chain analyses of production processes for biofuels suggest that the total emissions reductions achieved are generally small, or even in some cases negative.

As a consequence of the production value chain, in many circumstances biofuels are also more expensive than petroleum derived fuels (Chapman 2007) and often require national subsidies to establish an industry. Furthermore, the dedication of agricultural land to biofuel production opens questions of food security and sovereignty. Nonetheless biofuels are widely used globally in cars, buses and commercial vehicles and are likely to form a growing part of the fuel mix as second generation technologies mature.

In December 2007 the South African cabinet approved a Biofuels Industrial Strategy that aims to achieve a 2% penetration of biofuels in the national liquid fuel supply. Sugar cane and sugar beet are proposed as feedstock for the production of bioethanol and sunflowers, canola and soya for the production of biodiesel. The strategy provides for exemptions from the fuel levy for biodiesel (50%) and bioethanol (100%) and has an objective of stimulating rural economies and creating jobs. Considering the relatively large amounts of underutilised land in the country, the main environmental concern is the potential impact on scarce water resources where feedstock production would require irrigation.

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3.6. Comparative analysis of transport fuels and modes

In terms of tailpipe emissions, electric vehicles provide the greatest PM10 and Nox reductions, as shown in figure 4. It should be noted that Figure 4 is not drawn from a South African study. In the South African context it is likely that the well to wheel emissions from petrol, diesel, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and electric vehicles may be somewhat higher than those shown here. In the graph liquid bio-methane and compressed bio-methane (LBM/CBM), otherwise known as renewable natural gas (RNG) or biogas are shown to have the lowest GHG emissions of all transport fuels. Although biodiesel has the highest emissions of Nitrogen oxides, which contribute to localised formation of smog and ozone, its CO2 emissions are lower than conventional diesel and it also has significantly lower particulate emissions, which are a more serious health concern than nitrogen oxides.

Figure 4: Well to wheels emissions for transport fuels

Source: Carbon Trust, 2013

Comparisons of the relative energy efficiency of transport modalities must consider both:

1. Energy efficiency in terms of the entire wells to wheels value chain of extraction, processing, distribution and consumption of particular fuels

2. The energy efficiency of particular vehicle categories and modes e.g. Smart cars vs SUVs vs buses vs rail.

Figure 5 below provides a perspective on the relative energy efficiency of different energy sources and transport fuels in terms of the efficiency in converting an energy source (oil, coal, or solar energy) into work in the form of transport in a passenger car on a wells to wheels basis. The difference that the method of generating electricity (e.g. coal generation versus solar energy) or processing a hydrocarbon fuel (e.g. petrol from oil versus from a coal to liquid fuel process) makes to the overall energy efficiency of a fuel is effectively illustrated.

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Figure 5: Energy conversion efficiency for ICE vs electric vehicles

Source: SANEDI presentation to the SABOA National Conference, 6 March 2014

As has already been illustrated in Figure 2, the efficiency of methane production in the form biogas as a hydrocarbon fuel source is heavily dependent on the calorific value of the feedstock.

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Table 1 below compares the tank to wheels energy expenditure in megajoules and carbon emissions per passenger kilometre (or in the case of commercial vehicles, per payload ton kilometre) for: cars; sports utility vehicles (SUVs); light, medium and heavy commercial vehicles, (LCVs, MCVs, and HCVs). The table also shows:

the quantity of each vehicle type on the road, both as a number and percentage of all vehicles

The average load (in people and tonnes) per vehicle.

Unit fuel consumption (in litres) per 100km

From the table it is clear that cars and SUVs are the least energy efficient and most carbon intensive mode for transporting passengers, and that heavy commercial are more efficient than light or medium vehicles.

Table 1: Energy and emissions performance of transport modes

Source: SANEDI presentation to the SABOA National Conference, 6 March 2014

While there is no data for CNG and RNG vehicles in South Africa, based on international experience of these technologies they would be expected to outperform petrol and diesel vehicles both in terms of energy efficiency and GHG emissions, particularly in the minibus and bus segment.

The broader environmental impact of alternative fuels is an important consideration, both in terms of their spatial requirements and in terms of their water requirements in the context of South Africa being amongst the world’s most water scarce countries.

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Figure 6 below shows the passenger kilometres that can be travelled per hectare land dedicated to photovoltaic solar power (in the case of electric vehicles or the cultivation of feed stocks for biofuels). Of course, currently in South Africa the contribution of solar power to the national grid remains small. Furthermore, current national policy precludes the use of maize in biofuels for reasons of food security. Therefore, biogas is more likely to be produced from municipal and agricultural wastes, thus improving its spatial profile further. In figure 6 “Biomass to liquid” refers to second-generation biofuels, which have a significantly smaller spatial footprint than first generation bioethanol and biodiesel.

Figure 6: Kilometres per hectare used in energy production

Source: SANEDI presentation to the SABOA National Conference, 6 March 2014

In addition to considering the spatial footprint of particular fuels, it is also useful to evaluate the spatial footprint of particular modes of transport. The reduced spatial footprint of pedestrians, bicycles and public transport in relation to the single occupancy private car is graphically illustrated in figure 7.

Figure 7: Spatial footprint of transport modes in cities

Source: Low2No, A New Direction for Transport Planning, 2011.

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Figure 8 below shows the water consumption from the extraction and processing of a range of fuels on a logarithmic scale. The information for natural gas and coal includes the process of conversion to liquid fuel (GTL and CTL) and for oil it includes water consumption associated with Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques. Corn ethanol is an example of a first generation biofuel while cellulosic ethanol represents second-generation biofuels.

Most first generation biofuels have very high water requirements. Biogas, on the other hand, is likely to have water requirements more similar to that of natural gas, although limited amounts of water may be used in anaerobic digesters.

Figure 8: Water consumption from the extraction and processing of fuels

Source: Massachusetts Institute for Technology, Mission 2017: Global Water Security

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.

Implications for Green Transport in South Africa

Because alternative fuels do not have extensive existing infrastructure, they face a natural disadvantage relative to conventional petroleum-derived fuels. However carefully directed investment can level the playing field and allow alternative fuels to compete directly with conventional fuels. The relatively high infrastructure costs to all alternative fuels make it particularly important to select a truly sustainable approach or one that is genuinely transitional to a sustainable approach, because there will be substantial "lock-in" to whichever solution receives investment - even if it's not the best solution. Investing in a superficially or presently attractive option, without a long-term strategy, could produce a "white elephant" of a transportation system.

In the long-term, if South Africa makes a real shift to a low-carbon future, the backbone of Green Transport is likely to be battery-electric vehicles powered by renewable energy. The technology is already extremely promising, and is only likely to improve. However, if implemented today battery-electric vehicles would be far less Green, as their batteries would be charged almost entirely by carbon-intensive, non-renewable coal-fired power plants. There are also technical limitations to BEVs that are yet to be overcome.

Hybrid technology is also promising, and well worth further examination as to whether it would be economical. Hybrid technology has been effective elsewhere in the world at reducing emissions, fuel consumption and running costs of public transport systems; however this is dependent on local conditions. Further study is necessary.

In the short- and medium-term, a better alternative is biogas. This is a mature technology that is more affordable than BEVs, fully renewable, and able to deliver immediate and dramatic reductions in emissions. The infrastructure is already partly in place, there have been real-world pilots in South Africa, and developing capacity in biogas production would have ancillary benefits for waste management and, potentially, in meeting energy needs in rural communities where biogas can provide an affordable and clean source of energy for cooking. Furthermore, biogas will continue to meet the standard for Green Transport long into the future, due to its extremely low net emissions and positive externalities.

There is one clear and present danger with biogas, which is its potential for “green washing” Compressed Natural Gas. Biogas is renewable and minimally-emitting; CNG is neither. Biogas is suitable for Green Transport; while CNG is best viewed as a transitional fuel while greener alternatives are brought on stream. However the fact that both are usable in the same vehicles means that a superficial commitment to biogas could be used to motivate for a large-scale conversion to gas buses that are subsequently run using CNG, which would be sub-optimal in terms of the national emissions profile.

In the short term, the production of first generation biofuels should be managed with careful regard to wider environmental and social risks, particularly in relation to water usage and food security. At the same time, the development of second-generation biofuels has significant potential. South Africa already has sophisticated capacity in coal and gas to liquid hydrocarbon fuel technologies and there is no reason why the technical and research capacity this entails cannot be brought to bear to the research and development of second generation biofuels. If this were achieved eliminating the water, land, and food related risks of bio-ethanol, the above calculus in favour of biogas would disappear making both alternative fuels attractive in both the short and long terms.

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4. Green transport programme concept

4.1. Purpose

The overarching purpose of the Green Transport Programme is to contribute to reducing the environmental impact of the transport sector by supporting the sector’s contribution to the transition to a sustainable low carbon economy. The programme’s primary goal is to develop an implementation framework for green transport in partnership with South African cities and thereby accelerate the societal shift to green transport.

Figure 9: Activities of the Green Transport Programme

4.2. Technology & Opportunity Assessment

To accomplish this task, the team will conduct a literature review to ensure that the primary issues, metrics, concerns, and opportunities are identified for detailed scoping and evaluation.

4.3. Detailed Analysis of Local & Global Pilots

To accomplish this, the team will undertake a detailed evaluation of existing South African initiatives and international pilots, programmes, and deployments of green transport as per below.

Technology and opportunity assessment

Detailed analysis of local & global pilots

Conduct additional pilots as necessary and develop

business case

Develop framework for large-scale green fleet

rollout & support implementation

Analysis of South African & Global Green Transport Pilots

• Costs (Capex, Opex, Fuel)

• Environmental Analysis

• Operations & Maintenance Analysis

• Quality & Supply of Fuel

• Green Jobs Potential

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The analysis of these pilots will include the transportation infrastructure and planning context within which these projects were designed, developed, and implemented, including any of the following:

Non-motorised transport and supporting infrastructure and services such as bicycle lanes and bicycle hire schemes. Improving accessibility of cities and workplaces to cyclists has the advantage of promoting an affordable transport mode with minimal emissions of any kind, and which contributes to the liveability and efficiency of cities by reducing air and noise pollution and having a small spatial footprint, as well as other ancillary benefits for human health and the economy.

Fuel switching, in particular Compressed Natural Gas, Liquefied Natural Gas, Biogas, & Bioethanol – these are proven technologies with potential application in public transport systems, minibus taxis and municipal or commercial fleets as a first point of entry to achieving the scale needed in terms of infrastructure support for more widespread adoption. These options offer significant emissions reductions, particularly in the case of Renewable Natural Gas derived from biogas.

Behaviour change, particular in achieving modal shifts in transport from single occupancy passenger cars to public transport. This would be driven by an analysis of best practice and opportunities for innovation in terms of Integrated Public Transport planning, subsidies and marketing, as well as car-share and car-pooling schemes.

Bus Rapid Transit Systems and any other mass transit systems designed to improve sustainability by more efficiently allocating urban space to commuters

Initiatives will be evaluated in terms of:

Financial sustainability and return of investment

Contribution to CO2 emissions reductions and environmental impact

Contribution to the liveability of cities in terms of reduced traffic congestion, air pollution, commuting times and spatial impact.

Socio-economic impacts, particularly in terms of equitable access to transport and job creation.

Analysis of Global Large Scale Conversions to Green Fleets

• Experience of Delhi’s conversion from diesel to CNG

• Experience of Lima’s conversion from Diesel to CNG

• Experiene of Stockholm’s conversion from diesel to Ethanol and Biogas

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4.4. Conduct Additional Pilot(s) and Develop business case

SANEDI will implement a biogas based pilot at the Johannesburg Zoo for the purpose of gaining additional South African data for fuel, logistics, maintenance, and costs associated with small scale non WWTP or landfill gas related biogas.

Based on the analysis of the existing initiatives and internationally proven technologies and approaches to green transport infrastructure and planning, the programme team will develop a specific business case for a specific ‘’winning’’ technology or technologies including:

Technical and financial feasibility

Institutional arrangements and implementation partnerships

Infrastructure and investment requirements

Regulatory and policy obstacles and opportunities

The business cases will inform the development of a detailed business plan(s) and implementation strategies for the large scale rollout of green transport. The programme team will develop these plans in partnership with the stakeholders who will ultimately be the project owners. A crucial aspect of the business plan will be the development of a monitoring and evaluation framework that is aligned with the principles of environmental, economic and social sustainability for transport articulated in this document. This will contribute to ensuring a robust and credible process of learning from the pilot projects in relation to future scaling up of the programme.

4.5. Develop Framework for Large-Scale Green Fleet Rollout & Support Implementation

The team will conduct a regulatory review as outlined below and present a proposal to streamline the implementation of a green fleet that complies with existing legislation and work with all stakeholders to ensure a realistic rollout.

Business Case for Large Scale Municipal Green Fleet Conversion / Rollout

• Bankable Business Plan

• Financial Options

• Engagement with Manufacturers and Suppliers of Fuel

• Engagement with government on procurement

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4.5.1. Role of the SACN Transport Reference Group

The Transport Reference Group has a critical role to play in steering the project and ensuring that the recommendations and lessons from the Green Transport Programme are effectively disseminated to local government. It is expected that the programme will form a regular part of the agenda for meetings of the Transport Reference Group.

The Transport Reference Group will be appraised on all project deliverables, including:

The programme concept described here

An evaluation of green transport initiatives and regulatory and policy framework

The selection and motivation of potential pilot projects to be developed into business cases

The selection of one or more pilot projects and demonstration projects for which detailed business plans and implementation strategies will be developed

Review of the business plans for the selected pilot projects and demonstration projects

Evaluations of the pilot projects

Ultimately, the Transport Reference Group should play an instrumental role in driving the scaling up of the pilot projects in cities and towns across the country, equitable access to transport and job creation.

Regulatory Review and Recommendations

• The Gas Act

• Piped Gas Regulations

• Licencing Regime

• National Gas Infrastrucsture Development Plan

• IPAP 2

• NEMA

• Transport Legislation

• Biofuel Legislation

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5. Green transport initiatives in South Africa

The following are initiatives in South Africa that support the development of green transport options. A selection of these will be included in the next phase of the programme for detailed evaluation.

Table 2 – Green transport initiatives locally in development and implementation

Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

Findalift

Findalift is a private sector initiative started in Cape Town. It is a private car share system which allows online users to both find and offer lifts. The website finds matches for lifts going in the same direction at the same time.

In addition, Findalift also offers an internal service to large organisations including Stellenbosch University and aims to attract other larger organisations such as Municipalities.

National (web-based)

Lift share

Daniel Claassen

[email protected]

Operational Unknown www.findalift.co.za

Metro Police Electric bikes (Durban)

The Metro Police Electric Bikes project was implemented in 2010 by eThekwini Municipality and is located on the City’s beachfront. The aim of the project was dual: to demonstrate and test new low-carbon technology In the city and; to allow metro police office patrolling

eThekwini

Electric Bikes

Zebike Berg model

Derek Morgan

[email protected]

Operational R100,000 Project Briefing Document

Metro Police E-bikes

Green cab

Taxi cab company based in Cape Town that uses biofuels in its fleet of taxis utilising a B50 blend of Diesel and used cooking oil.

Cape Town Biodiesel

Lynn Maggot

021 788 3706

Operational Unknown http://thegreencab.co.za/

Bike lanes -Durban

Durban has built several bicycle lanes that link key areas of tourist value in the city, in particular along the Beachfront and the Umgeni River as well as the ICC and Botanic Gardens.

Durban NMT Roadworks

Carlos Estevez

031 311 7481

[email protected]

Operational Unknown

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

Bike lanes - Cape Town

Over 400 kilometres of purpose built bicycle lanes.

Cape Town NMT Roadworks TBC Implementati

on R10s-millions

New cycle lanes to link southern suburbs with Cape

Town central business district

Private bike share

feasibility study

Feasibility study conducted to understand the demand/appetite for a private bike share initiative in Durban and what form that programme could take on

Durban Bike share

Derek Morgan

[email protected]

031 311 1139

Project awarded to

Urban Earth. Study

completed in 2013/14

<R200,000

eThekwini Municipality Staff Bicycle

Project

Bike share project for eThekwini Municipality staff members where 150 bicycles will be rotated between various eThekwini staff buildings in and around the CBD. The bikes were donated to eThekwini during COP17 which took place in Durban in 2011 and will make use of a bicycle tracking system. Bikes can be borrowed at point A and returned at point B.

Durban

Bike share

Craig Richards

[email protected]

031 311 1444

Project in progress

Bike Share – City of

Johannesburg

Feasibility study (TOR available) - The overall objective is to undertake a technical and financial feasibility with the development of the institutional arrangements for implementation. The study is therefore a complete enabler for the City to setup a bicycle sharing programme.

Johannesburg Bike Share

Esther Letlhaka

Transport Planning

011 870 4549

082 559 3723

[email protected]

Study in progress,

GIBB awarded contract

early 2014

Biogas feasibility study

in local municipalities,

Full feasibility study - Maletswai LM: A potential project of 300 kWe has been identified, combining three feedstocks in Aliwal North (all within a 5 km radius.

Maletswai Local

Municipality and Umjindi

Biogas

Tsholofelo Molefe

[email protected]

Study underway

+/- R2-million

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

GIZ/SALGA Identified feedstocks are: agricultural waste from a piggery, waste water sludge and organic waste fraction of the municipal solid waste).

Umjindi LM: The wastewater treatment works, treating around 4.3ML/day, could lead to a project with a capacity of approximately 80 kWe. Potential is there to combine this project with the nearby landfill site.

Local Municipality

012 423 5900

Langlaagte - CNG refilling and vehicle

retrofits

NGV Gas is working with various partners, including government and the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), to establish projects where CNG can be used as an alternative fuel to diesel and petrol for vehicle operators.

Phase 1 will see a flagship filling station being established in Langlaagte, Johannesburg and 1 000 taxis and vehicles being funded to convert to Natural Gas.

Besides the flagship filling station, which also operates as a training and information centre, NGV Gas is converting two existing filling stations in Soweto, Johannesburg, to retrofit vehicles and dispense CNG, and establishing one satellite station. In Mamelodi, Pretoria, a further two filling stations will be retrofitted for Natural Gas Vehicles, with the owners identifying additional locations. Each of the stations is able to service 500 taxis, trucks and buses a day at an average refuelling time of five minutes per vehicle. The aim is to increase this to 7 800 vehicles a day.

As a gas supplier, NGV Gas will

Johannesburg CNG

Gerald Ganesh

[email protected]

084 551 3459

Implementation

TBC

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

expand its footprint by working with existing filling station owners to establish their suitability to be retrofitted, as well as with fleet owners who wish to establish their own filling stations.

Ekurhuleni Municipality

Biogas – The Innovation Hub Feasibility Study

The Innovation Hub Management Company has been mandated by the Gauteng Department of Economic Development to implement a waste to energy plant in the Gauteng Province.

The ‘city supported poultry farms’ were selected as the appropriate sites. The Implementation of this project is expected to demonstrate a modular waste to energy plant using Bio-digestion, proving the feasibility and sustainability model for modular alternative energy solutions.

Gauteng, Ekurhuleni

Biogas

Pheeha Ramohlaka

012 844 0062

[email protected]

Study underway or

complete R1.7-million

CNG/Bio-methane Taxi

Pilot - IDC

In an attempt to promote the use of compressed natural gas (CNG) and bio-methane as vehicle fuel, to generate information regarding the applicability of the technological solution, and to inform policy stakeholders, the Green Industries Strategic Business Unit (SBU) of the Industrial Development Corporation of South Africa (IDC) in May 2012 initiated a 6-month-long gas vehicle fleet trial pilot project. The objective of the pilot project was to evaluate the operation and performance of a range of different types of engine/gas combustion systems in different vehicles under different driving/duty cycles under South African operating conditions.

Johannesburg CNG and bio-

methane

Raoul Goosen

011 269 3000

082 458 1969

[email protected]

Complete R2.7-million

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

Eskom Electric Vehicles Study

In May 2013 Eskom received 10 Nissan Leaf all-electric cars as part of a research project to study the charging requirements and characteristics of EVs. The study will be conducted over three years.

Johannesburg Electric vehicles

Eskom Media Desk

011 800 3304

082 805 7278

[email protected]

Study in progress

R6 million

(estimate)

http://www.eskom.co.za/OurCompany/MediaRoom/Documents/MediaStatementElectri

cVehicle29May2013.pdf

uYilo Technology E-

Mobility Innovation

Programme (uYilo EMIP)

The uYilo Technology E-Mobility Innovation Programme (uYilo EMIP) was established by the Technology Innovation Agency (TIA) to fast-track the development and commercialisation of key technologies to support the establishment of a South African electric vehicle (EV) industry. A testing station called eNtsa was established in Feb 2013 together with TIA to test various aspects of electric vehicle. The Nissan Leaf will be used in this study. The business and user case model will be established at the end of the study.

Port Elizabeth (NMMU)

Electric vehicles

Mr Dirk Odendaal

Position: Director: New Business & Commercialisation

041 504 9507

[email protected]

Study in progress

Unknown http://uyilo.org.za/

DEA Electric Vehicle Project

DEA purchased four Nissan Leaf electric cars which are being charged by solar energy from solar recharge stations located at the DEA offices. The programme was launched in February 2013 and will be tested over a three year period. The project is known as the 'Zero Emissions Electric Vehicles Programme'.

Pretoria Electric vehicles

Albi Modise (DEA: spokesperson)

083 490 2871

[email protected]

Study in progress

R1,5 million (estimate)

https://www.environment.gov.za/content/minister_launch_

greencars_zeroemission

Cycology Electric Bicycles

Cycology is a start-up business promoting cycling and supplying a diverse range of electric bicycles. They have been very successful in gaining momentum, in terms of interest, sales and are a potential agent of change to

Johannesburg and other

metros

Battery/electric motors

Vincent Truter

082 890 8767

[email protected]

Implementation

Private investment, see website for price

list

http://cycology.biz

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

move the car captive market onto bicycles. Cycology are also locally manufacturing a bicycle that will be very financially accessible.

DEA Biogas Project

(SANEDI)

SANEDI has worked on several biogas projects, in particular the Bela-bela biogas project which aimed to demonstrate agricultural waste being converted to biogas for reticulation to local communities.

Bela-bela Organic waste to

biogas TBC TBC

Biogas from Manure-Karen

Beef

Independent power producer Lesedi Biogas Project is planning to build one of the world’s largest open-air feedlot manure-to-power plants.

Heidelburg, Lesedi Local Municipality

Biogas TBC TBC > R100-million

Biogas from Manure-CAE

Energy

The Humphries Boerdery farm has constructed and commissioned a biodigester for the waste from its piggery, which comprises about 1,400 breeding sows and about 10,000 pigs in total. It also develop power generation capacity of more than 500 kW of electricity from the biogas. However, only about 10% to 20% of the biogas was currently being used to produce electricity, with the remainder being flared and wasted, due to the legislation regarding sale of electricity into the grid.

Bela-Bela, Limpopo

Biogas

Andrew Taylor

082 775 1001

[email protected]

Operation TBC

http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/biogas-projects-

could-add-200-mw-to-sa-power-mix-cae-energy-2009-

09-18

Landfill Gas-Sebenza Novo

First commercial Landfill-to-Transport Fuel project in Africa. The project include the harvesting of methane from a landfill site in the Ekurhuleni Municipal Municipality, Gauteng and dispenses the gas to e fleet of private, commercial and public transport

Ekurhuleni Landfill Methane,

CNG

Eddie Cooke

082 322 6210

[email protected]

Operation TBC

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Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

customers.

Landfill Gas-City of

Johannesburg

Joburg has implemented two landfill gas-to-energy projects. At the Robinson Deep landfill site and the Marie Louise project, landfill gas is extracted and combusted to generate electricity. The Robinson Deep landfill was completed in May 2011. 68 gas wells were installed and will be increased during the second phase of the project. It has produced 137,888 Certified Emission Reductions (CER's) and captured 18,288,457Nm3 of landfill gas, which would have otherwise been released into the atmosphere.

Construction of the Marie Louise project commenced in February 2012 with 28 wells being installed. To date, a total 19,042 CER's were amassed and 3,157,656Nm3 of landfill gas was captured since May 2012. Eventually a total of 19MW of electricity will be generated at five landfill sites, which could be used by about 12,500 middle-income households.

Construction for the three remaining sites (Goudkoppies, Ennerdale and Linbro Park) is indicated to commence shortly.

Gauteng

Landfill gas, currently used for

electricity generation

TBC Developmen

t and Operation

TBC

Metro Bus Fleet Greening

TBC – Indication of fleet greeting outlined in recent tender for restructuring and IDC have mentioned that Metrobus have been undertaking a pilot.

Johannesburg

Page 31: Local & International Status Quo Report

Project title Description Location Technology Contact Person Status Budget Links

Rea Vaya Fleet Greening

TBC – This has been mentioned, no data found or contact person located.

Johannesburg

Waste to Biogas - Johannesburg

Zoo

Info required from Carel

Waste to Biogas - Tswhane Zoo

Info required from Carel

SANEDI – EVIA of SA

Info required from Carel

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6. Bibliography

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Beer, Tom, Tim Grant, Harry Watson, and Doina Olaru. 2004. Life-Cycle Emissions Analysis of Fuels for Light Vehicles. Aspendale.

Chapman, Lee. 2007. “Transport and Climate Change: A Review.” Journal of Transport Geography 15:354–67.

DEAT. 2006. South Africa Environment Outlook: A Report on the State of the Environment. Pretoria.

Greben, H., L. M. Burke, and S. Szewczuk. 2009. Biogas, as a Renewable Energy Source, Produced during the Anaerobic Digestion of Human Waste. Johannesburg.

Gue, Elliott. 2006. “The Diesel Dilemma.” Investing Daily, September.

IDC. 2013. IDC Gas Vehicle Fleet Trail Pilot Project.

Van Ierland, Jotte. 2013. Rural Domestic Biogas near Giyani. Giyani, Limpop.

Jewaskiewitz, S. 2008. “Waste to Energy: Are We Ready for It in South Africa?” Waste Management, February, 69–77.

Khare, M., and P. Sharam. 2003. “Fuel Options.” Pp. 159–84 in Transport 4: Handbook of Transport and the Environment, edited by DA Hensher and KJ Button. New York: Elsevier.

Lave, L., H. Maclean, C. Hendrickson, and R. Lankey. 2000. “Life-Cycle Analysis of Alternative Automobile Fuel/propulsion Technologies.” Environmental Science Technology 102:205–9.

LTAS Phase 1. 2013. Climate Trends and Scenarios for South Africa. Pretoria.

Mathiesen, B. V, H. Lund, and P. Nørgaard. 2008. “Integrated Transport and Renewable Energy Systems.” Utilities Policy 16:107–16.

National Treasury. 2009. Provincial Budgets and Expenditure Review. Pretoria.

Norman, Rosana et al. 2007. “A Comparative Risk Assessment for South Africa in 2000: Towards Promoting Health and Preventing Disease.” South African Medical Journal 97(7).

NPC. 2011. National Development Plan. Pretoria.

Parker, Darren. 2006. “Looming Diesel Shortage Could Mean Trouble.” Mining Weekly, August.

Richardson, Steve. 2013. Hybrid-Diesel vs. CNG.

Tzeng, Gwo-Hshiung, Cheng-Wei Lin, and Serafim Opricovic. 2005. “Multi-Criteria Analysis of Alternative-Fuel Buses for Public Transportation.” Energy Policy 33:1373–83.

Vanderschuren, M., R. Jobanputra, and T. Lane. 2008. “Potential Transportation Measures to Reduce South Africa’ S Dependency on Crude Oil.” Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 19(3):20–29.

Zarkadoula, Maria, Grigoris Zoidis, and Efthymia Tritopoulou. 2007. “Training Urban Bus Drivers to Promote Smart Driving: A Note on a Greek Eco-Driving Pilot Program.” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and the Environment 12(6):449–51.

Wilson, Lindsay.2013. "Shades of Green: Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe" Accessed online on 11 July 2014 from http://shrinkthatfootprint.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Shades-of-Green-Full-Report.pdf