life cycle assessment software for product and process sustainability analysis

Life Cycle Assessment Software for Product and ProcessSustainability AnalysisMarina Vervaeke*

Centre for Corporate Sustainability (CEDON), HUbrussel, Stormstraat 2, 1000 Brussels, Belgium

ABSTRACT: In recent years, life cycle assessment (LCA), amethodology for assessment of environmental impacts ofproducts and services, has become increasingly important. Thismethodology is applied by decision makers in industry andpolicy, product developers, environmental managers, and othernon-LCA specialists working on environmental issues in a widevariety of sectors. Especially for chemical engineers andscientists, it is essential to have an understanding of the LCA-methodology when developing new products. Performing anLCA is time intensive and the choices and assumptions madeduring system modeling, especially with respect to the system boundaries, the processes to include, the used technology, andgeography are often decisive for the result of an LCA study. The outcomes of an LCA have to be analyzed in a critical way,especially if they are used for business decisions and policy making. Different scenarios have to be studied. Two examples arepresented where LCA-software (SimaPro5) is used. The first one is a simple analysis of a coffee machine to obtain informationon the environmental impact of the processes. The second one investigates different scenarios for waste treatment of paper andcardboard.

KEYWORDS: Upper-Division Undergraduate, Environmental Chemistry, Collaborative/Cooperative Learning,Computer-Based Learning, Green Chemistry, Industrial Chemistry

In recent years, concerns about climate change, increasingpressure on natural resources, and environmental pollution

have brought sustainable development to the top of thepolitical, social, and business agenda. Sustainable developmentwas defined by the United Nation’s Commission on Environ-ment and Development as “development that meets the needsof the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs”.1

There are increasing legal, market, and financial pressures onmanufacturing industries to develop sustainable products.Sustainable development requires methods and tools toquantify and to compare the environmental impacts ofproviding goods and services (“products”) to our societies.Every product has a “life”, starting from the design of theproduct, followed by resource extraction, production, use orconsumption, and finally, end-of-life activities (collection,sorting, reuse, recycling, waste disposal). All activities, orprocesses, in a product’s life result in environmental impactsdue to consumption of resources, emissions of substances intothe natural environment, and other environmental exchanges(e.g., radiation).2

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodological framework;today, it is one of the most widely used and internationallyaccepted methods for analyzing the environmental profile ofproducts. An LCA is a calculation of the environmental burdenof a material, product, or service during its lifetime.3

■ LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENTStructure and the Components of an LCA

LCA studies are based on scientific foundations and are carriedout in conformity with the ISO 14040 series (ISO 14040−ISO14044).4−9 These standards provide minimum requirementsfor the performance of an LCA and define the four basic stagesfor LCA studies: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventoryanalysis, life cycle impact assessment, and life cycleinterpretation (Figure 1).1,2

The goal definition of an LCA provides a description of thegoal of the study, as well as the reasons that have led to itsrealization, the kind of decisions that will be made from theresults obtained, and if these will be of internal (for a company,for instance) or external use (to inform the general public or aninstitution). The scope definition describes the system, itsboundaries (conceptual, geographical, and temporal), thequality of the data used, the main hypothesis, as well as thelimitations of the study. A key issue in the scope is thedefinition of the functional unit. This is the unit of the productor service whose environmental impacts will be assessed orcompared. It is often expressed in terms of amount of productor is related to the amount of product needed to perform agiven function.2

The inventory analysis is a technical process of collectingdata, in order to quantify the inputs and the outputs for all theprocesses within the boundaries of the product system, as

Published: April 23, 2012

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defined in the scope. Energy and materials consumed,emissions to air, water, soil, and solid waste produced by thesystem are calculated for the entire life cycle of the functionalunit. To make this analysis easier, the system under study isdivided into several subsystems, and the data obtained aretabulated in a life cycle inventory table for each stage in theproduct’s life cycle.2

Life cycle impact assessment is a process to identify andcharacterize the potential effects produced in the environmentby the system under study.2,10,11 The starting point is theinformation obtained in the inventory stage. It consists of foursteps:

• The first step is classification, in which the environmentalinterventions (resources consumed, emissions to theenvironment) identified in the inventory analysis forevery subsystem are grouped in different impactcategories, according to the environmental effects theyare expected to produce. Impact categories includeclimate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, photo-chemical ozone and smog formation, acidification,toxicological stress, the depletion of resources, wateruse, land use, noise, radiation, and so forth. For example,CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions are classified in thecategory “climate change” and C2H4, CH3COCH3,H2CO are classified in the category “smog”.

• The second step, called characterization, consists ofweighting the different substances contributing to thesame environmental impact. For example, the relativecontribution of different gases such as CO2, CH4, N2O toclimate change are weighted and each expressed in kg eqCO2. The weighting factors are made available topractitioners in the literature, in the form of databases.The indicator score, expressed as global warmingpotential, for the impact category “climate change” canbe calculated by summarizing the weighted data. At thispoint, the environmental profile of the system isobtained, consisting of a set of indicator scores, one foreach impact category.

• The third step is normalization of the indicator scores,which involves relating the environmental profile of thesystem to a broader data set or situation. For example,relating the system’s global warming potential to theEuropean yearly global warming potential. As such,information is obtained on the contribution of a productto the total climate change for a certain geographicalregion. Normalization allows to compare indicatorsacross impact categories and to choose between productalternatives, for example, to prioritize two products, onewith a low climate change indicator and hightoxicological indicator and another with a higher climate

change indicator and a lower toxicological indicator.Normalization results can help to judge the relativeimportance of different impact categories within an LCAstudy.

• The last step is weighting. The environmental profile,expressed in a set of normalized indicators, is reduced toa single impact score by using weighting factors based onsubjective value judgments. For instance, a panel ofexperts or public could be formed to weight the impactcategories. The advantage of this stage is that differentcriteria (impact categories) are converted to a numericalscore of environmental impact, thus, making it easier tomake decisions. However, a lot of information is lost, andreality is simplified.

Normalization, grouping, and weighting are not a requirementof ISO 14044:2006.A number of impact assessment methodologies are available

to the LCA practitioner and several of them are implemented insoftware, commercially available on the market. Threefrequently applied life cycle impact assessment methods arethe Danish method “Environmental Design of IndustrialProducts 2000” (EDPI2000) and two Dutch methods “Eco-indicator 99” and “Life Cycle AssessmentAn OperationalGuide to the ISO Standards 2001” (CML2001). The Eco-indicator 99 method has a damage-oriented or an end pointapproach, proceeding from the identification of areas ofconcern (damage categories) to the determination of whatcauses damage to these (impact categories). The Eco-indicator99 method considers three damage categories: human health,ecosystem quality, and resources.12,13 The result obtained withthe Eco-indicator 99 method is expressed as a single Eco-indicator score in eco-points (Pt) or milli-points (mPt). Oneeco-point can be interpreted as one-thousandth of the annualenvironmental load of one average European inhabitant.Interpretation is the last stage of an LCA study. The results

obtained are presented in a synthetic way, presenting thecritical sources of impacts and the options to reduce them.Interpretation involves a review of all the stages in the LCAprocess to check the consistency of the assumptions and thedata quality, in relation to the goal and the scope of thestudy.2,11

Direct applications of LCA include product development andimprovement, strategic planning, public policy making, andmarketing (Figure 1).1,14 The general aim of an LCA is:

• to provide an environmental evaluation, as complete aspossible, of products and processes for the differentphases of the life cycle;

• to identify major environmental impacts and the lifecycle stages or “hot-spots” contributing to these impacts;

Figure 1. Phases and applications of an LCA based on ISO 14040.4.

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dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200741b | J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 884−890885

• to compare environmental impacts of alternativeproducts, processes or activities;

• to provide decision makers with information on theenvironmental effects of these activities and identifyopportunities for environmental improvements.

LCA can be applied by decision makers in industry and policy,product developers, environmental managers, and other non-LCA specialists working on environmental issues in a widevariety of sectors.15

LCA Databases and Software

Life cycles easily comprise hundreds of processes. Thecollection and compilation of data for the environmentalexchanges between processes in the product system and theenvironment is often the most work- and time-consuming stepin an LCA.1 Product systems usually contain process typescommon to nearly all studies; these are energy supply,transport, waste management services, and the production ofcommodity chemicals and materials. Because of global markets,many of these process types are similar or even identical (oilextraction in the Middle East, steel manufacturing in Asia, etc.).

Other processes show typical continental, national, or evenregional characteristics, such as electricity generation, roadtransport, cement manufacturing, and agricultural production.2

To assist the inventory analysis, data have been collected inlife cycle databases in a unit process. These data are used asbuilding blocks in different life cycle models. The databasescontain data on the most important processes (manufacturing,transportation, disposal, electricity and thermal energygeneration, etc.) and materials (plastics, metals, biologicalmaterials etc.).2 Several international and national-level data-bases have been created that cover more commonly used goodsand services.Software tools have been developed to make system

modeling (process-chart) and calculation (inventory analysisand impact assessment) of an LCA easier and faster. The initialsteps were taken about two decades ago, with the main focusoften on the assessment of production processes. Over time,LCA-software also has been applied to other fields such aswaste management.A software tool generally consists of a database and a

graphical user interface where the data are handled, modeled,

Figure 2. A simplified process chart for the life cycle of a coffee machine.

Figure 3. (A) Normalization and (B) weighting analysis of 0.1 kg virgin aluminum by Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.06/Europe EI 99 H/A.



and analyzed, following the ISO 14040 series recommenda-tions. The modeling consists mainly of connecting successiveprocesses with material flows in what is called the process chart.Each process represents a stage in production and is defined byits input and output. The LCA software tool SimaPro5 (Pre Consultants B.V.) can be used for the evaluation of differentproducts and is also applied in waste management. SimaProprovides different impact assessment methods including theEco-indicator 99.16

Data have been collected for the most common materials andprocesses and Eco-indicator 99 numbers, that express the totalenvironmental load, were calculated from them. Standard Eco-indicator 99 values are available for the production of materials(based on 1 kg material), production processes (expressed insquare meters or kg), transport (unit is the transport of 1 ton ofgoods over 1 km), energy (based on 1 MJ energy), and wasteprocessing and recycling (based on 1 kg product).13

■ EXAMPLES OF LCAThe analysis of a coffee machine and the study of differentscenarios for waste treatment of paper and cardboard are used

to illustrate the LCA methodology (definition of the functionalunit, process chart, inventory analysis, classification, character-ization, normalization, weighting, interpretation) with Sima-Pro5.LCA of a Coffee Machine

The product analyzed is a coffee machine for domestic use. Thepurpose of the calculation is to obtain an overall impression ofthe product’s major environmentally damaging processes; thus,only main processes are included. This information can be usedto identify environmental hot spots (processes that have a largeimpact on the environment) and to establish priorities in thesearch for more environmentally friendly design alternatives.The functional unit is defined as “all the products and processesneeded, over a period of 5 years (the life time of the coffeemachine), for the provision of 5 cups of coffee twice a day andkeeping it hot for half an hour after brewing”. The number of

filters (3650) and the energy consumption can then beincluded based on this assumption.A simplified life cycle of the coffee machine is given in Figure

2. Only the polystyrene housing, the glass jug, the steel hotplate, and an aluminum riser pipe are included. Paper used forthe production of filters and the electricity consumption neededto brew the coffee and keep the coffee hot are included. Otherparts of the coffee machine, the coffee beans, and the waterhave been omitted. Assumptions about consumer behavior forthe disposal stage are that the machine will be put in the trashand thus processed as municipal waste and that only the glassjug can be regarded as household waste. Some of the filters endup in the trash and some with organic waste. Such a processchart, with a quantity for each process on the basis of thefunctional unit, provides a useful insight for further analysis.The Eco-indicator 99 scores (Europe EI 99 H/A) are obtainedby multiplying the amount by the indicator value for eachprocess (Figure 2). For aluminum, for example, this iscalculated as follow: 0.1 kg × 780 mPt/kg = 78 mPt.The process chart of the coffee machine can easily be built by

selecting the processes in the database (in the requiredamount) and connecting them in the graphical user interface.Students are asked to analyze the processes “aluminum”,“steel”, and “polystyrene”, which are important basic materialsfor the production of this consumer good, and the process“electricity low-voltage” that represents the energy used by thecoffee machine during its life time.For each of these processes, the database provides a detailed

description of the used technology, cutoff rules, allocation rules,transport and energy model, and information about the end oflife waste treatment. The inventory table illustrates the inputsand outputs for the amount of product or energy selected andoutputs for the amount of product per energy selected and isthe base for classification, characterization, normalization, andthe final step weighting to obtain the Eco-indicator. Thecalculated results for characterization, normalization, andweighting are presented in tables and graphs. The results fornormalization and weighting of 0.1 kg virgin aluminum areillustrated in Figure 3. Important impact categories for theproduction of aluminum are the emission of inorganicsubstances (31 mPt) and the extraction of fossil fuels (26mPt). Figure 4A illustrates the Eco-indicator value for 0.1 kgvirgin aluminum.In the second part of the assessment, the students compare

and evaluate alternative processes for the aluminum productionand the electricity low-voltage. They are asked to look foralternatives to make both processes more environmentalattractive. Figure 4B illustrates the Eco-indicator value for theproduction of 0.1 kg 100% recycled aluminum, which is muchlower compared to virgin aluminum. Thereto the studentsreceive the essential information about the different industrialproduction processes of aluminum.17−21

The low-voltage electricity Eco-indicator in this model has avalue of 10.3 mPt/MJ and represents the environmental loadresulting from the production of low voltage electricity in TheNetherlands (time period 1990−1994, average technology, mixof fossil fuels, renewable sources, and nuclear sources). Whenthe coffee machine is used in Switzerland, a country wherehydroelectric power accounts for about 60% of the totalelectricity production, the Eco-indicator value is reduced to 2mPt/MJ.

Figure 4. Eco-indicator of 0.1 kg (A) virgin aluminum, (B) 100%recycled aluminum.



LCA of Paper and Cardboard

The second case study looks at the LCA of paper andcardboard with particular attention to waste management. Inthe waste policy of the European Union, waste prevention hasbeen set as the first priority of waste management. Prevention isfollowed by material recycling, recovery as energy and safe finaldisposal. It is noteworthy that this priority list is not always themost preferable. It appears that the overall sustainability ofwaste management solutions may vary depending on the

materials studied, the region in question, the technology used,and so forth.22

There is considerable debate on the relative environmentaladvantages and disadvantages of recycling versus incinerationwith energy recovery of paper and cardboard. The vast majorityof the LCA studies on the recycling of paper and cardboardindicate that recycling of waste paper and cardboard has a lowerenvironmental impact compared to landfilling and inciner-ation.3,22 The environmental benefit of recycling is lesspronounced when incineration with energy recovery isconsidered. Paper and cardboard have a relatively high heatingvalue, similar to wood, and this energy (13−15 MJ/kg) can bereleased and utilized via incineration. In many incinerationplants, this energy is transformed into electricity and suppliedto the grid or supplied directly as heat via district heating.The goal of the LCA is to compare the environmental impact

of recycling and incineration with energy recovery of paper andcardboard. The functional unit of the product system is definedas “1 kg paper or 1 kg cardboard waste entering the wastemanagement system”. Figure 5 shows the stages in the life cycleof paper. Paper is essentially a sheet of fibers with a number ofadded chemicals that affect the properties and quality of thesheet. The main raw materials used for the production of paperare pulp processed from wood and deinked pulp processedfrom separately collected newspapers and magazines. Thereport “Best available techniques in the pulp and paperindustry” from the European Commission describes theprocesses, resources, chemicals, and energy used for theproduction of paper (and cardboard), the emissions to theatmosphere and water and the generation of solid waste duringproduction. This report reveals valuable information on inputsand outputs of the production process and thus on the differentcomponents appearing in the inventory table.23,24

The first phase of the life cycle of paper is forestry. Thesecond phase is pulping where wood for paper production may

Figure 5. A simplified process chart for the life cycle of paper.

Figure 6. Eco-indicator incineration (with energy recovery) of 1 kg ofpaper.



be received as debarked logs or as byproduct chips from someother wood working industry like sawmills and plywood mills.Chemical and thermo mechanical pulping techniques can beapplied to produce cellulose fiber. The sulfate or kraft process isthe dominating chemical pulping process worldwide due to thesuperior pulp strength properties and its application to all woodspecies. The main raw materials used are renewable resources(wood and water) and chemicals for cooking (to destroy thelignin) and bleaching. Before the early 1990s, free chlorine wasused to bleach the paper, but today chlorine dioxide and ozoneare used. The kraft pulp process has a high total energyconsumption; however, most of it is produced internally fromwood as energy resource.In mechanical pulping, the wood fibers are separated from

each other by mechanical energy applied to the wood matrix(logs or chips). The objective is to maintain the main part ofthe lignin to achieve a high yield with acceptable strengthproperties and brightness. In mechanical pulping, the waste-water effluents (washing, bleaching) and consumption ofelectricity for the drives of grinders and refiners are the mainitems. The production of virgin thermo mechanical pulp has amuch lower energy consumption, but this energy is mainlyobtained from electricity. Because of these differences, it isimportant and even necessary to clarify what type of pulp isbeing investigated.The third phase is the manufacturing of paper, where

different additives are used to improve the product properties.This phase is followed by the production of newspapers andmagazines and their distribution to the readers.For effective use of collected paper, it is necessary to sort and

classify this material into suitable quality grades. The sortedpaper is usually compacted by baling machines. The options forwaste management of paper are paper recycling (repulping),incineration with or without energy recovery, and landfilling.A complete repulping plant includes a repulper, a mechanical

cleaning unit, and an deinking unit. The recycled paper is mixedwith water and chemicals in the repulper and is agitated torelease the cellulose fibers. A mechanical cleaning unit is usedfor the removal of coarse contaminants (nonpaper items suchas stones, sand, metal, string, glass, plastic foils, paper clips, etc.)from the fibers. In the deinking unit, chemicals are added torelease ink particles from the fibers. Ink removal is necessary inplants manufacturing paper grades where brightness isimportant, for example, for printing and writing paper and

newsprint. After deinking, the pulp is thickened and washedand is ready to be used for the production of paper.The students are asked to analyze the Eco-indicator for the

processes chemical pulping (kraft process), thermo mechanicalpulping, repulping, landfilling, incineration without energyrecovery and incineration with energy recovery listed in thedatabase. They are also asked to describe under whichconditions incineration with energy recovery is preferable torecycling. The incineration of 1 kg paper has an Eco-indicatorvalue of 3.9 mPt and the electricity produced from the heatreleased during incineration is 2.16 MJ. The Eco-indicator valuefor the traditional production of 2.16 MJ electricity in Europe is11.7 mPt. (Figures 6 and 7). The total Eco-indicator for theincineration of 1 kg of paper with energy recovery is 3.9 mPt −11.7 mPt = −7.8 mPt. The eco-indicator for the production of1 kg of paper out of wood varies between 20 and 90 mPtdepending on the desired paper quality, the used technology,the geography, and so forth. The production of 1 kg of paperout of 100% recycled fiber is about 32 mPt. Incineration withenergy recovery becomes favorable over recycling when thebest available techniques are used for fiber production fromwood and bleaching.The same exercise is applicable on cardboard.

■ TEACHING EXPERIENCES

Selection of Software and Course Content

A lot of LCA software tools are available on today’s market. It isimportant that the selected LCA tool is easy to use, welldocumented with a user guide and software tutorial, andcomprises several industrial processes with a completeinventory table (raw materials and emissions) and visualizationof the results (classification, characterization, normalization andweighting). SimaPro is the program of choice because itanswers these criteria and is also intended for non-LCA experts.Students are able to work with it in less than 1 h.In the assessment, real industrial processes and actual

environmental issues have to be dealt with. The choice of thematerial and process should have a clear effect on the outcomeof the LCA. In the first example, the students are asked tocompare the environmental effect of virgin aluminum andrecycled aluminum. Recycled aluminum now accounts for overhalf of all U.S.-produced aluminum. In the second examplestudents are asked to analyze the eco-indicator for the processes

Figure 7. Avoided electricity for 1 kg of incinerated paper.



chemical pulping, thermo mechanical pulping, and repulping.These processes are well documented in the literature and areapplied worldwide.

Course Organization

General aspects of the LCA methodology are presented as ateacher-centered course lecture. The process chart of the lifecycle of the coffee machine as well as the one of the paperproduction are explained. The teaching methodology suitablefor these two LCA examples is “cooperative learning”. In thistype of classroom environment, students are assigned to three-member teams where they work together without formal roleassignments. Each team uses a computer with installed softwareSimaPro for dealing with both LCAs. The teacher manages theprogress of students making sure that all members accomplishthe goals. Results are summarized and guided by the teacher.

Learning Outcomes

The students get a better insight in the different phases of theLCA methodology through the use of the documented LCAdatabase, embedded in the software, as well as through the useof the calculation tool, that generates the inventory table andthe data and graphs for classification, characterization, normal-ization and weighting. Students learn to explore that theassumptions made on technology (old or new), geography,allocation, and so forth influence the main conclusion of theLCA.

■ AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected].

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(12) Dreyer, L. C.; Niemann, A. L.; Hauschild, M. Int. J. Life CycleAssess. 2003, 8 (4), 191−200.(13) Goedkoop, M. Eco-indicator 99 Manual for Designers; Ministry ofHousing, Spatial Planning and the Environment CommunicationsDirectorate: The Hague, The Netherlands, 2000; p 48.(14) Azapagic, A. Chem. Eng. J. 1999, 73, 1−21.(15) Wenzel, H.; Hauschild, M.; Alting, L. Environmental Assessmentof Products. Vol. 1: Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in ProductDevelopment; Kluwer Academic Publishers Group: Dordrecht, TheNetherlands, 2001; p 543.(16) SimaPro; Pre Consultants: Amersfoort, The Netherlands.Available from http://www.pre.nl/simapro(17) Gatti, J. B.; de Castilho Queiroz, G.; Correa Garcia, E. E. Int. J.Life Cycle Assess. 2008, 13 (3), 219−225.(18) Industrial Technologies Program Energy Efficiency andRenewable Energy. U.S. Energy Requirements for Aluminum Production.Historical Perspective, Theoretical Limits and Current Practices. U.S.Department of Energy, 2007; p 150.(19) Gaustad, G; Olivetti, E.; Kirchain, R. J. Ind. Ecol. 2010, 14 (2),286−308.(20) European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau.Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Non-FerrousMetals Industries: European Commission: Sevilla, Spain, 2001; p 807.(21) European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau.Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Non-Ferrous Metal Industries; European Commission: Sevilla, Spain, 2009; p900.(22) Dahlbo, H.; Laukka, J.; Myllymaa, T.; Koskela, S.; Tenhunen, J.;Seppala, J.; Jouttijarvi, T.; Melanen, M. Waste Management Options forDiscarded Newspaper in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area; FinnishEnvironment Institute: Helsinki, Finland, 2005; p 151.(23) European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau.Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Pulp and PaperIndustry; European Commission: Sevilla, Spain, 2001; p 509.(24) European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau.Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Pulp andPaper Industry; European Commission: Sevilla, Spain, 2010; p 746.



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