Lecture 7: Enlightenment

Ann T. Orlando

25 April 2007

Introduction

History Review Enlightenment Real question: how do we ‘know’ and what is

relation to belief in God Enlightenment answer is one of either

presumption or despair In my opinion we are no longer doing history,

but modern analysis

Political Developments in Europe (1500 – 1850) England: Tudors, Revolution, Restoration with

broader democracy, American Revolution, King as head of State

France: Strong Kings, Revolution, Napoleon, Restoration, Revolution, Democracy, sometimes King as head of State

Germany: Separate Duchies, Revolution, Strong National Leader (Bismarck), King as head of State

Italy: Separate states; Revolution; National Unity with Democracy, end of Papal States, King as Head of State

Papacy

Paul III, pope 1543-1549 Concerned about reform of Church Approved Jesuits Called Council of Trent

Popes 17th and 18th C faced with rising ‘national’ Catholicism Gallicanism (France) Febronianism (Germany) Josephism (HRE)

Tension between national interests and universal Church interests leads to suppression of Jesuit order in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV

After Napoleon, Catholic countries view papacy as politically stabilizing force; Congress of Vienna, 1815, restores Papal States

Papacy becomes increasingly ‘conservative’ in reaction to European political and ideological turmoil during 18th and 19th C

Pope Pius IX, pope 1846-1878 Considered a liberal, but shocked by revolutions of 1848 Negotiates Church rights with many European governments (concordats) Issues Syllabus of Errors condemning much enlightenment thought Promotes Thomism as ‘official’ theology of Church Convenes V I in 1869 Loses Papal States in 1870 Beatified along with John XXIII in 2000

Development of a new secular philosophy: Enlightenment Science (as we now define it) as the basis for

knowledge; Human reason can figure it (anything, everything) out; is

always making progress Devalue history, tradition

Toleration as the basis for political-religious relationship; Separation of Church and State

Individual rights, not duty, as basis for political systems and society; Social contract not natural law as basis of legal system

Becomes an alternative to established religions

Church and Physics in the Thirteenth through the Seventeenth Century Just as scholastic theology relied on Aristotle,

so did medieval physics Earth-centered cosmology All substances composed of matter and form No change to celestial spheres beyond the moon Velocity is inversely proportional to density of

medium through which an object moves; therefore a vacuum is impossible

New Observations in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Telescope allows observations of heavens that calls

older physics into question Reveals changes in sun, moons of Jupiter Earth revolves around the sun

New understanding of velocity Dropped balls fall at same rate, regardless of weight Velocity of a body not defined by resistance of medium

Experiments with gasses leads to speculation about atomic theory of matter, not matter and form

Catholicism and Early Modern Science Galileo (1564-1642) controversy Church silences Galileo because of his theory that earth

revolved around sun But the Jesuits also supported Kepler against Protestant

attackers Part of Robert Bellarmine’s argument against Galileo

was that his circular orbits were not consistent with observations; epicycles explained astronomical observations better than circular orbits

Real question: Where is knowledge to be found? Church rejects the argument that only physics has access to

truth; rejects attempts to relativize (trivialize) revelation

The Revival of Hellenistic Philosophy In rejection of Aristotelianism, new

philosophical and political theories ‘reached back’ to the ‘golden era’ of Rome and Hellenistic philosophy: Stoicism, Epicureanism

Scientific theories developed around both cause and effect, as well as atomic motion

The Enlightenment Emphasis on Science Before Enlightenment ‘science’ meant any area of

human knowledge During the Enlightenment it comes to mean

investigation of nature by our senses through inductive reasoning and then applying mathematical models to describe observations

Key Enlightenment Scientists Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Robert Boyle (1627-1691) Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Philosophical Developments During the 17th C Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

Empiricists: Knowledge is from senses Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Pierre Gassendi (1597-1655) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) John Locke (1632-1704)

The Giant of the Scientific Age: Isaac Newton The most famous man in Europe in his own day and

thereafter until Einstein Founder of calculus Fundamental discoveries in optics, mechanics,

gravitation Very deeply religious; focuses on Biblical exegesis,

not physics, at end of his life But rejected Jesus as divine; considered himself an Arian

Alexander Pope: “Nature and nature's laws lay hid by night; God said let Newton be and all was light”

Religion and Science: Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle Newton

At the end of his Opticks, he tries to distance himself from Epicurean ethics. He was concerned that a corpuscular theory of light could be interpreted as support for Epicurean philosophy

Newton’s favorite verse was Acts 17:28; he knew it was Stoic poetry; he tried to use this to explain how gravity could work across ‘empty’ space

Boyle Called his units is gases corpuscles rather than atoms because

he did not want his theory used to support Epicurean philosophy Left an endowment for Christian lectures to be given in London

opposing Epicureanism

Epistemological Reaction: Skepticism Begins in Seventeenth Century, but finds most

eloquent voices in Eighteenth Century Neither science nor religion can provide certain

knowledge Voltaire (1694-1778) becomes a skeptic

Satirizes “best of all possible worlds” Shaken by Lisbon earthquake of 1755

David Hume (1711-1776) Sharp attacks on natural religion or deism But equally sharp against presumptions of science

Philosophical Giant: John Locke Epistemology: how do we know?

Through our senses and more specifically our experiences At birth mind is a blank slate Simple ideas come from senses, mind builds more complex ideas from

simple ones But experience can be communal; does not have to be personal

Theology; deeply religious, believed that revelation was ‘real’ Above human reason (revelation) Contrary to reason According to reason

Political Science Man born with God-given rights of life, liberty and possessions (broadly

defined) Second Treatise on Government profoundly influential Letter on Toleration Strongly believed in natural law as basis for human laws: Carolina

Constitution

18th C French and American Political Philosophy Based upon John Locke

Puritan sermons in 18th C America frequently referred to “the great Mr. Locke”

Voltaire considered Locke one of the most important men of the previous generation

One of Jefferson’s three heroes (the other two being Bacon and Newton)

John Adams thought John Locke one of most important men who ever lived

Emphasize individual liberty and rights over duty to society

American Revolution:New Political Structures American Revolution (1776-1781), based on

philosophy of John Locke (1632-1704) Champion of individual rights Religious toleration

Not clear (still isn’t) what is relation between religion and politics in America Most States had an official religion; see for instance John

Adams’ Constitution of Massachusetts First Amendment to Constitution says only that Congress

will not establish a religion; Thomas Jefferson extends this to separation of Church and

State (1802)

French Revolution (1789-1799):Extreme Enlightenment Impetus comes from group of 18th C French philosophers:

philosophes (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Turgot, Condorcet)

Philosophes embraced John Locke and science; encouraged by American Revolution Franklin, Paine, Jefferson and Adams in France; Adams writes against Turgot and Condorcet and notion of progress

without sense of duty Jefferson supports the philosophes and the Terror

Use it as a weapon against ‘throne and altar’ Voltaire’s ‘Smile of Reason’ turns into glare of tyranny Individual rights and toleration get replaced by suspicion of ‘enemy

of people’ and a new ‘religion’; Active persecution of Church

American Election of 1800 Choice over:

Adams vs. Jefferson: Role of Religion in Society and American view of French Revolution

Category Adams Jefferson

Belief in God Yes; God active in men’s lives.

Maybe; but even so, God not active in men’s lives.

Natural Law Basis of government. Natural rights more important.

Human nature and reason Fundamentally flawed. Human nature and reason are perfectible; humanity is always making progress.

Rule of majority Majority rule should be tempered by constitutional protections of minorities.

Majority should rule as directly as possible.

Role of constitution Fundamental bedrock of civil government that should be enduring; order in society is very important.

Should be rewritten every generation; an occasional revolution is a good thing.

Role of religion in civil society

Very important for moral leadership; all religions should be tolerated although the State may favor one.

Religion is detrimental to civil society; should be completely separated from politics.

Epicurean Philosophy in Intellectual America Jefferson’s acceptance of Epicureanism has become

increasingly prevalent in American culture Ethics based on personal pleasure

although in contemporary society pleasure is often defined as momentary fleeting pleasure, rather than long term peace of mind

Importance of individual rights over common good (abortion) Self-sufficiency of individual is primary virtue, not

harmony of society Importance of science and technology; progress of

human mind God is not recognized as important in people’s lives

19th and 20th C New Nationalisms 19th and early 20th C period of violent revolutions in Europe (France,

Italy, Germany, Russia) Also a period of violent revolutions and wars of

independence throughout Western Hemisphere, Asia and Africa

Growth of labor movements opposed to oppression of laissez faire capitalism

Under the pretense of ‘will of the people’ new totalitarian regimes form in many countries

Marxism develops a theory of history and society that portrays religion as a phase that enlightened peoples will out grow

No child of 20th C can think that Enlightenment has led to a golden age: Shoah, gulags, racial wars, World Wars, etc., etc., etc.

Catholicism’s Response

Syllabus of Errors, 1864 Series of anathemas of Enlightenment views Crude and ineffectual

Vatican I (1866-1870) Reaffirmed that we can have sure knowledge in faith and morals

(infallibility of Pope, Thomism as official theology) Reaffirmed that religion is important to society’s well being Reaffirm the importance of natural law

Increased spiritual devotion: Lourdes 1858, Fatima 1917 Vatican II (1962-1965)

Toleration defined as toleration of religion against secular societies trying to prevent religious practice

Concern about new economic systems and materialism, whether Marxist or capitalist, that in fact undermine dignity of individual and families

Renewal of liturgical practices; often based upon early Christian practice