Lecture 2 1

Lecture 2Martyrs and Monks

Ann T. Orlando

28 February 2007

Lecture 2 2

Map of Roman Empirefsmitha.com/h1/map18rm.htm

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ChristianityEnd of First Century Christianity spread through missionary activities to urban

centers, especially with large Diaspora Jewish populations Remember, when Paul writes Romans, he is writing to a

predominantly Jewish Christian community that he did not found; he writes to introduce himself and his theology to Christians already in Roman

Christianity appeared to most outsiders (and some who considered themselves Christian) like another form of Judaism

Nero used Christians as scapegoats for fire in 64 AD Jewish Christian community was small Execution of Peter and Paul probably took place during this time

Rome quickly became the ‘capital’ city of Christianity Place where Peter and Paul died Capital of Empire “No one” left in Jerusalem

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ChristianitySecond Century Further distancing from Judaism

Example: when to celebrate Easter: on Sunday or Passover? Converts increasingly have no previous contact with Judaism

Important centers of large Christian communities and learning: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch

Christianity offers itself to everyone, including women and slaves Notable for care of poor, widows, sick (ministry of deacons) Notable because Christians are unconcerned with conventional

societal patterns (Church more important than family) Notable for willingness to die rather than sacrifice

But there is not one type of Christianity One of earliest ‘heresies’ is docetism; Jesus only appeared to be

human Another contested issues is that God the Father of Jesus is not the

Creator of OT What literature written in 1st and 2cd C about Jesus is canonical Who has authority to teach

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ChristianityThird Century Extensive persecutions; Christians seen as a threat to Empire,

especially during reign of Decius and Diocletian But this was also a period of great instability in Empire Jews not considered a threat in the same way because of Roman

respect for antiquity of Judaism Roman Society was fond of blood sports. Typical day in

Coliseum: Morning: animal fights (including devouring prisoners) Lunch: prisoner executions Afternoon: gladiators, including mock naval battles

But in spite of persecutions, Christianity continues to grow and attract converts from many different levels of society

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Early Spread of Christianitywww.studylight.org/se/maps/browse.cgi?st=170#132

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Christian Responses to Persecution 1. Intellectual: Apologies written to justify Christianity

to Roman authorities 2. Facing torture and death without apostasy; often

even looking forward to martyrdom eagerly as a proof of solidarity with Jesus

3. But, if you believed that Jesus only appeared to be human (docetists), then there seemed little reason to be a martyr yourself

4. Some did not have the courage when accused, and so apostatized and/or paid others for their libelli

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1. Response to Persecution:Apologies Type of literature that often had the form of a legal

defense It was intended for a highly educated pagan (i.e.,

philosophical) audience; often drew heavily on philosophical concepts to explain Christianity

Tried to establish antiquity and respectability of Christianity

It tried to show that Christianity was not to be feared, but encouraged good citizenship

St. Justin Martyr wrote two Apologies; Tertullian wrote an Apology

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2. Response to Persecution:Martyrdom and Christianity Martyr comes from Greek word for witness Did not actually have to die to be a martyr,

but to suffer for faith (slavery, prison, mines) Note: Romans tried to avoid creating

Christian martyrs; accused were given several opportunities to offer sacrifice

In 3rd Century, Roman authorities started issuing a receipt, or libellus to those who sacrificed; authorities also attacking Christianity as such, destroying Scripture

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Martyrs

Real desire to prove the totality of Christian faith (e.g., Origen On Martyrdom)

Those who died were (still are) considered heroes of the faith Pilgrimage to place of burial Remembering their sacrifice in “Acts”; Peter (Quo vadis);

Perpetua and Felicity; Justin Martyr Those who suffered but did not die (also known as

confessors) were popularly considered able to forgive sin of apostasy Problem for 3rd C bishops

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3. Response to Persecution:Docetists (Gnostics) Heavily influenced by Platonism

Believed that Jesus was God, and therefore could not suffer

Physical was not important; one should try to rise above the physical to the spiritual

Martyrdom had little value Knowledge (gnosis) of faith was a secret revealed

by God to individual, not taught and open to all Docetists were bitterly fought by ‘orthodox’

Christians, especially bishops

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4. Christian Response to Persecution:Apostates (or Lapsed) Very often, after persecution subsided,

apostate wanted to return to Church Some sought forgiveness from martyrs Some Churches refused to allow them to

return; Church only for pure: Donatists Some wanted them to be rebaptized Church needed a uniform policy

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Major Shift in Roman Empire: Constantine the Great Literally overnight, the Roman Empire goes

from persecuting Christians to favoring them Changes due to Constantine

Political Ecclesial Social

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Constantine the Great: Political Power Key battle in Constantine’s take-over of entire

Empire was battle of Milvian bridge over Tiber in Rome against Maxentius, son of Maximian in 312. Constantine credits his victory to a vision he had in which

he was told to go into battle with the Christian symbol Troops carry chi-rho on their shields

By 313 Constantine has captured all of the Empire and officially declared that Christianity was to be tolerated (Edict of Milan)

‘Gives’ most of Rome to the Catholic Church (Vatican, St. Paul outside the Walls, Lateran)

Establishes Constantinople (on site of ancient Byzantium) as his new capitol

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Constantine the Great: Ecclesial Power Builds Churches, with his mother Helen, in Holy Land (Church of

Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, Church of Nativity in Bethlehem) Moves against the Donatists in North Africa Calls Council of Nicea to decide between Athanasius and Arius

on relation between Father and Son; Council supports Athanasius and Son as ‘one in being with the Father’: The Nicene Creed

Dies in 337 (after murdering his wife and eldest son); baptized by (an Arian) bishop shortly before he dies

Reaction of Church: Eusebius of Caesarea: the Christian kingdom has arrived Also some concern about people entering Church for political, not

spiritual, reasons

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Major Social Changes in 4th C Due to Constantine Christian clergy given tax relief Churches could receive legacies Sunday as a day of rest Bishops could act as judges in their diocese (Roman

administrative province) Christian could not charge another Christian interest

on a loan (sin of usury) Crucifixion prohibited No branding of prisoners because mars image of

God

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Pelagian Controversy: Introduction The Key Players

Monk Pelagius, from England, d. 419 in Constantinople His disciple, Julian of Eclanum, bishop in Sicily, d. 454 Opposing both, Augustine of Hippo, d. 430

Key Elements Free will Sin Grace Justification Predestination

Key Biblical passages in disputed interpretation: Genesis and Romans (in fact exactly what we read for First Sunday of Lent)

Both Pelagius and Augustine write a Commentary on Romans footnote: a primary source for Pelagius’ theology is his letter to

Demetrius, a Roman nun

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Pelagian Controversy: Issues Free will

Pelagian: humanity has total free will; as long as we know what is right we can do what is right;

Augustine: yes we have free will, but our ability to know and act is darkened by sin

Augustine also often means by free will a will freed from the inclination to sin

Sin Pelagians: Adam’s sin was his personal sin; sin is always a willful

personal act committed against God by someone who should know better and be able to do better; within our own power to avoid sin

Adam’s sin was a ‘disease’ that entered into humanity; only God’s grace can cure this disease; only with God’s grace can we really know and do the right

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Pelagian Controversy: Issues (cont.) Grace

Pelagians: external enlightenment from God (e.g., Gospels) so we can know the good; also reward for doing good

Augustine: grace is needed to do good Justification

Pelagians: justified through our good works; it’s all up to us Augustine: only God’s freely given grace can justify

Predestination Pelagians: God does not predestine us; infants not Baptized go

to heaven Augustine: Because of original sin, all justly condemned (massa

damnata); by his graciousness, God elects a few for salvation; Baptism a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for salvation

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Legacy of Pelagian Controversy Catholic (Western) Church at Council of Orange,

529 accepts Augustine’s views on free will, grace, sin,

justification; accepts necessity of Baptism accepts predestination of elect, but refuses to say anyone

is predestined to hell (i.e., rejects double predestination) These issues are doctrinal flash point of

Reformation; all sides will claim Augustine for their own

See CCC

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Spirituality after Constantine Problems:

How to lead a truly Christian life when martyrdom is no longer an option; how to become a saint?

It had become too easy, too socially and politically important to be a Christian

Solutions: The Way of Jesus Monasticism Pilgrimage Stages of Spiritual Development Types of Spirituality

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Development of Monasticism:

Early 4th C Desert Monks (from Greek for solitary), primarily in Egypt: anchorites withdrawn from society Most famous: Anthony (251-356), Athanasius (Bishop of Alexandria, opposed Arius) wrote a

very influential life of Anthony, example: Augustine Confessions Book VIII

Communal monasticism: cenobitic Many attracted to this way of life, come together in groups Rule of St. Pachomius (286 – 346) Pachomius’ sister, Mary, establishes an Egyptian

monastery for women

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What’s a Rule

Prescribes the way of life for the community Includes what prayers are said when Defines balance between work, study, prayer Community organization (abbot, monks,

novices) and how leaders are selected Process for acceptance into community How new communities are created Relation between community and diocese

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Later 4th C Monastic Developments Three Cappadocians: Basil, Gregory of

Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzan Famous for Trinitarian theology Basil’s Rule for Monks But the smartest, most spiritual one, The Teacher,

was Macrina (sister of Basil and Gregory of Nyssa) established a convent in her home

Augustine organizes his clergy in Hippo as in a monastery, writes a Rule

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Early 5th C Monastic Developments John Cassian (360-435),

Born in France, spent time as an anchorite in Egypt

Brought Pachomius’ Rule back with him Made it available in West in his Divine Institutes

and Conferences Wrote against Augustine in the Pelagian

controversy Revered as a saint in the East, but not the West

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6th C Monastic Developments St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547)

Hugely influenced by Pachomius via John Cassian Established an order of Monks, now known as Benedictines,

governed by his Rule Founded a monastery outside of Rome, Monte Casino Sister, Scholastic, founded an order of nuns to follow the Rule Most popular religious order in West until 13th C

Pope St. Gregory Great (546-604) Benedictine Wrote a life of Benedict Reformed Roman clergy around monastic model Earliest extant life of Gregory written by a nun in Whitby, 8th C

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Pilgrimages

A way to become closer to Jesus and the martyrs Started with remembrance of acts of martyrs and celebrations at their

burial places After Constantine, more far reaching

People who could not give up their life to enter monastery Needed some special way to demonstrate their faith Also way to atone for sins Starts with Helena, Constantine’s mother, in Jerusalem

Remember, 5th C pilgrimage nothing like 21st C pilgrimage Dangerous: very high probability of death Expensive Very arduous and tedious (lasting year or more)

Most famous early record of pilgrimages by Egeria, 4th C woman Born in Spain or France Spent 3 years on pilgrimage Her journal gives earliest description of liturgies in Jerusalem during

Holy Week

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The Idea of Spiritual Progress Both monasticism and pilgrimages encourage

following the Way of Jesus Development of approaches to spirituality

Biblically based, usually with a highly allegorical interpretation

Intended to be accessible to everyone, found in homilies

Well defined steps in approach to spiritual life

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Major Elements to Spiritual Progress Three Stages

Purgation Illumination Unity

In different authors, there may be several steps within each stage

Gregory of Nyssa (and many others, including Origen, rabbis, Bernard of Clairvaux) Commentary on Song of Songs Proverbs first stage (purgation) Ecclesiastes second stage (illumination) Song of Songs third stage (unity)

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Types of Spirituality

Both types include purgation, illumination and unity stages Spiritual masters suggested steps for both ways Apophatic (via negativa)

Move toward God away from creation; God as transcendent Discourages use of senses; Emotions suppressed Heart is only satisfied with God Bridal mysticism Example: Monasticism

Kataphatic (via positiva) Approaching God through creation; incarnation and passion of

Jesus Encourages use of sense; Emotions are excited God has a history in the world Service mysticism Example: Pilgrimages