Lecture 13: Theological and Intellectual DevelopmentsAnn T. Orlando

19 April 2011

Introduction

History Review Early Modern Physics and the Church New Political Theories New Moral Perspectives Real question: how do we ‘know’ and what is

relation to belief in God Enlightenment answer is one of either presumption or

despair In my opinion we are no longer doing history, but

modern (contemporary) analysis

Political Developments in Europe (1500 – 1850) England: Tudors, Revolution, Restoration with

broader democracy, American Revolution, King as head of State

France: Strong Kings, Revolution, Napoleon, Restoration, Revolution, Democracy, sometimes King as head of State

Germany: Separate Duchies, Revolution, Strong National Leader (Bismarck), King as head of State

Italy: Separate states; Revolution; National Unity with Democracy, end of Papal States, King as Head of State

Papacy

Paul III, pope 1543-1549 Concerned about reform of Church Approved Jesuits Called Council of Trent

Popes 17th and 18th C faced with rising ‘national’ Catholicism Gallicanism (France) Febronianism (Germany) Josephism (HRE)

Tension between national interests and universal Church interests leads to suppression of Jesuit order in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV

After Napoleon, Catholic countries view papacy as politically stabilizing force; Congress of Vienna, 1815, restores Papal States

Papacy becomes increasingly ‘conservative’ in reaction to European political and ideological turmoil during 18th and 19th C

Development of a new secular philosophy: Enlightenment Science (as we now define it) as the basis for knowledge

Human reason can figure it (anything, everything) out; is always making progress

Devalue history, tradition Toleration as the basis for political-religious relationship

Religion, unlike scientific discoveries, cannot be ‘proved’; all of equal value (or of no value)

Separation of Church and State Individual rights, not duty, as basis for political systems and

society Social contract not natural law as basis of legal system

Liberal enlightenment becomes an alternative to established religions

The Enlightenment Emphasis on Science Before Enlightenment ‘science’ meant any

area of human knowledge During the Enlightenment it comes to mean

investigation of nature by our senses through inductive reasoning and then applying mathematical models to describe observations

Philosophical Developments During the 17th C (Early Modern) Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

Empiricists: Knowledge is from senses Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Galileo (1564-1642) Pierre Gassendi (1597-1655) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) John Locke (1632-1704)

17th C Philosophy: Rationalists Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Mathematician and founder of analytic geometry and algebra “I think, therefore I am” Dualistic approach to mind and body

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Mathematician and founder of laws of probability Member of Jansenists: heretical Catholic group that was very

Augustinian Pascal’s Wager on the existence of God

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) Mathematician and founder of calculus Because God is all good, this must be the best of all possible

worlds Complex metaphysics; many similarities to Stoicism

Church and Physics in the Thirteenth through the Seventeenth Century Just as scholastic theology relied on Aristotle, so did medieval

physics Earth-centered cosmology All substances composed of matter and form No change to celestial spheres beyond the moon Velocity is inversely proportional to density of medium through

which an object moves; therefore a vacuum is impossible Solar, lunar, stellar and planetary motion relative to earth

computed using epicycles Ptolemy (2nd C AD), Alexandria Very, very accurate Math very complex see

http://astro.unl.edu/naap/ssm/animations/ptolemaic.swf (University of Nebraska)

17th C Empiricist Philosopher:Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) The modern idea of technological “progress” (in

the sense of a steady, cumulative, historical advance in applied scientific knowledge) began with Bacon’s The Advancement of Learning

Vehemently opposed to Aristotle Champions inductive logic based upon

extensive observation; proceed from particular to general

New Observations in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Copernicus (1473 – 1543) speculates that the earth

circles the sun Makes math easier

Galileo’s Telescope allows observations of heavens that calls older physics into question Reveals changes in sun, moons of Jupiter Earth revolves around the sun

New understanding of velocity (Galileo) Dropped balls fall at same rate, regardless of weight Velocity of a body not defined by resistance of medium

Experiments with gasses leads to speculation about atomic theory of matter, not matter and form

Galileo (1564-1642)

Impact of Telescope Becomes obvious that entities above the sun

do change Far more variety in celestial sphere than

previously imagined Mathematical simplicity of heliocentric system very

appealing Circular orbits

Note Galileo’s contributions to physics far beyond astronomy Dynamics (pendula) Motion (weight not relevant to speed at which a

body falls, Tower of Pisa experiment) But most of all using mathematics to describe

laws of physics Galileo part of broad-based reaction against

Aristotelianism

St. Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621) Concerned about interpretation of Scripture,

especially Joshua 10 Heliocentric system okay to make math easier, Draws distinction between easier math and reality

But also concerned that circular-orbit heliocentric system not as accurate as epicycles and geocentric system ….And he was right

Galileo vs Church

Conflict begins during Pope Paul V pontificate Background of Reformation and Council of Trent

1616 “Copernicanism” condemned, De Revolutionibus placed on index Galileo told not to teach it

1623 Maffeo Barberini becomes Pope Urban VIII Admirer of Galileo

1632 Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican Published with approval of censors in Rome and Florence Made fun of Pope, who saw himself as Simplicio, defender of Ptolemy

1633 Galileo brought before Inquisition House arrest Galileo tries to defend himself using….Augustine Allowed to return to Florence after recanting

Resolution of the Physics: Elliptical Orbits By carefully analyzing data, Kepler concludes

that orbits are elliptical Mathematics of three laws of planetary motion

Kepler supported by Jesuit astronomers Description at

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/kepler.html

Enlightenment Mythology of Galileo “Despite all its enlightenment about other

matters, the eighteenth century was almost a golden age for the invention and diffusion of myths about Galileo’s trial.” – Finocchiaro, Retrying Galileo, 111 Galileo held in prison Galileo had his eyes gauged out Galileo had to live on bread and water

Situation Today: Benedict XVI and Sapienza 20th and 21st Centuries no strangers to embellishing Galileo affair

Bertold Brecht, Galileo, expands on clash of faith and reason Most recently the controversy around Pope Benedict XVI

planned visit to Sapienza University in January 2008 Physics faculty protest Pope’s visit because of reputed

comments he made in 1992 about Galileo; ‘authoritative’ reference was a wikipedia article

Pope cancels visit Rector of Sapienza eventually acknowledges criticism

misdirected, and invites Pope to return

The Giant of the Scientific Age: Isaac Newton The most famous man in Europe in his

own day and thereafter until Einstein Founder of calculus Fundamental discoveries in optics,

mechanics, gravitation Very deeply religious;

Focuses on Biblical exegesis, not physics, at end of his life

But rejected Jesus as divine; considered himself an Arian

Alexander Pope: “Nature and nature's laws lay hid by night; God said let Newton be and all was light”

Key Difference Between 17thC and 18th C Enlightenment Figures 17th C Enlightenment Figures

Scientists and Philosophers Devout Christians (Arians)

18th C Enlightenment Figures Political philosophers and activists Deists or atheists

Why rise of Deism, why not just atheism? Religion needed to enforce morality among ignorant

masses To rescue science; there is order in the world and we can

know what it is; that is Intelligent Design

Despair of knowing

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) Huguenot His Historical and Critical Dictionary was single most popular

work in 18th C David Hume (1711-1776) Dialog Concerning Natural Religion

Published after his death Attacks both religion and science (i.e., attacks deism) Severe attack against Intelligent Design Skepticism is the only acceptable intellectual stance

Voltaire, Lisbon Earthquake Poem Voltaire starts as a deist, becomes an atheist and a skeptic

Deeply connected with skepticism was problem of evil and theodicy (a term invented by Leibniz in opposition to Bayle)

Voltaire (1694-1778)

François-Marie d'Arouet, Pen name Voltaire Deeply influenced by Englishman Lord Bolingbroke,

living in exile in France Introduces Voltaire to importance of Locke and Newton Introduces Voltaire to a libertine life-style Influence re-enforced when Voltaire exiled to England

Upon return to France, Voltaire wrote Lettres Philosophique Highly dangerous by authorities Championed Newton over Descartes; bitterly opposed to

Leibnitz Group of French intellectuals gathered around Voltaire,

know as the philosophes Bitterly opposed to Throne and Altar, “Crush the infamy” Set the social and political agenda for the French

Revolution Deeply shaken by Lisbon earthquake, All Saints Day

1755 Deeply bitter toward “best of all possible worlds” Candide and Lisbon Earthquake Poem

New Political Philosophy: John Locke Primarily found in Two Treatises on Government

May have been written to justify revolt against Charles II

First Treatise starts with Adam and shows that no one was appointed ruler by Divine right (against Bishop Fulmer) God created man, and we are God’s ‘property’; It is illicit to destroy another’s property: no suicide or murder But must also ‘develop’ and use wisely property

Political Philosophy (cont.)Second Treatise on Government Purpose of political power: ‘Political power, then, I take to be a right

of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws, and in the defense of the common-wealth from foreign injury; and all this only for the public good’

God endowed his ‘property’ man with means of survival: life, liberty and man’s own property

If there is no government, then people live in a ‘state of nature’ example: American wilderness

But it is allowable to ‘take property’ which has not been developed Allowable to have slaves as property who are conquered in a just war Children are property of parents until age of reason

Second Treatise (cont.)

With more sophisticated development of property, man developed a money based economy which required more complex contract laws and the necessity of civil (NOT ecclesial) governments

Legitimate civil government then should derive its right to rule from the common desire of a collection of individuals to protect and legitimately administer their property Social contract theory of government More positive view than Hobbes

If civil government does not uphold these rights, then it is illegitimate and should be changed Through rebellion and regicide if necessary

Locke and Religion in Society

Religious ‘truth,’ because it was built upon many levels of ideas was probably, not absolutely true

Many different religions demonstrate that there is no one universal Religion

Thus, religion is a private matter without connection to public life and the securing of life, liberty and property

All religions should be allowed as long as they do not adversely affect property rights and civil government Catholicism should be curtailed because of Catholic claims to be

‘over’ temporal, civil affairs Atheism should be discouraged because atheist may not be

trusted to keep their word in a contract

New Moral Order: Utilitarianism What utilitarianism rejects

Virtue as basis for ethics Religion as basis for right conduct Natural Law

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) Embrace Epicurean pleasure and pain as basis for human

conduct Motives for action based on self-interest

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Studied Bentham, also embraced Epicurus Extends Bentham to principle of greatest good for greatest

number Greatest good defined by society

19th and 20th C New Social Orders 19th and early 20th C period of violent revolutions in

Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Russia) Also a period of violent revolutions and wars of

independence throughout Western Hemisphere, Asia and Africa

Under the pretense of ‘will of the people’ new totalitarian regimes form in many countries

Marxism develops a theory of history and society that portrays religion as a phase that enlightened peoples will outgrow

No child of 20th C can think that Enlightenment has led to a golden political age: Shoah, gulags, genocide, World Wars, etc., etc., etc.

How Western Intellectual Thought Has Changed

Before Treaty of Westphalia Human law based on natural

law as a subset of God’s eternal law

Focus on individual duties as a member of society

Science means any systematic field of study, theology

Absolute truth does exist Natural law Religion and government NOT

separable

After Treaty of Westphalia Law based on protection of

individual’s life, liberty, property

Focus on individual rights in social contract

Science means only physics, chemistry, biology

Only empirical truth exists Laws of nature Religion purely private

Pope Pius IX

Papacy 1846-1878 Considered a liberal, but shocked by revolutions of

1848 Negotiates Church rights with many European

governments (concordats) Issues Syllabus of Errors condemning much

enlightenment thought Promotes Thomism as ‘official’ theology of Church Convenes Vatican I in 1869 Loses Papal States in 1870 Beatified along with John XXIII in 2000

Catholicism’s Response

Syllabus of Errors, 1864 Series of anathemas of Enlightenment views Crude and ineffectual

Vatican I (1866-1870) Reaffirmed that we can have sure knowledge in faith and morals

(infallibility of Pope, Thomism as official theology) Reaffirmed that religion is important to society’s well being Reaffirm the importance of natural law

Increased spiritual devotion: Lourdes 1858, Fatima 1917 Vatican II (1962-1965)

Toleration defined as toleration of religion against secular societies trying to prevent religious practice

Concern about new economic systems and materialism, whether Marxist or capitalist, that in fact undermine dignity of individual and families

Renewal of liturgical practices; often based upon early Christian practice

Reading

Skim McManner Ch 8 1. Robert Bellarmine Letter on Galileo available at

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1615bellarmine-letter.html 2. Blaise Pascal Pensees Series III available at

http://www.classicallibrary.org/pascal/pensees/pensees03.htm 3. Locke A Letter Concerning Toleration available at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-

reldem?id=LocTole.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all

OR Second Treatise on Government Chapters 1-5 (Section 1-76) and Chpater 12 (Sections 143-148) available at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/LocTre2.html

4. Thomas Jefferson Letter to Danbury Baptist Association available at http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html

5. Voltaire Lisbon Earthquake in The Portable Voltaire. Tran. Ben Redman. New York: Viking Press, 1962. 556-569. Course Pack

6. John Adams Commonwealth of Massachusetts Constitution Preamble and First Part available at http://www.mass.gov/legis/const.htm Suggested Paper Topic 13: Compare Pascal and Voltaire OR; what should be the relation between

faith and science; OR what is the relation between religion and politics? Skim Pius IX Syllabus of Errors available at http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9SYLL.HTM