Learning: Principles and ApplicationsChapter 9

Classical Conditioning•Learning is a relatively permanent

________ in a ___________ that results from experience.

•Classical conditioning – a person’s or animal’s old _________ becomes attached to a new ____________.

Classical Conditioning•Ivan ________ discovered classical

conditioning by ___________.•He was actually studying _________ of dogs

and realized that they started ___________ at the mere sight or smell of food. He decided to investigate further

Classical Conditioning – Process• A _________ stimulus is used; one that did not

cause the desired reaction before conditioning occurred (___________)

• An __________ stimulus is introduced (food), which produces an unconditioned response (salivation). This is a _______.

• ________ many times.• Remove the __________ stimulus.• Now, the conditioned _________ (tuning fork)

produces the conditioned ________ (salivation) without the food being present.

Classical Conditioning - Necessity•Classical conditioning helps animals and

humans:•Adapt to the __________•Avoid _________(As we discuss classical conditioning, these points will be explained in greater detail)

Principles of Classical Conditioning•Acquisition occurred best when Pavlov would

introduce the food within ___ seconds of ringing the tuning fork.

•Pavlov also used other unconditioned stimuli, such as the sight of a _____. The dogs started to generalize similar stimuli, such as an ____, and would perform the conditioned response.

•He taught the dogs to _______ between the circle and the oval by only providing the food at the sight of the ______

Principles of Classical Conditioning•After repeatedly presenting the

conditioned stimulus (CS-tuning fork) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS – food), the conditioned response (CR – salivation) would _______ and become ________.

•Spontaneous _________ can occur after a rest period. When the CS is presented again, the CR returned, but not to the same ______. (less salivation)

Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior• Little Albert was ________ to fear lab rats

(conditioned response) by striking a steel bar with a hammer (unconditioned stimulus) just as he started ________ with the lab rats (conditioned stimulus). He was not previously afraid of the lab rats (unconditioned response).

• Children were ___________ to not wet the bed by placing a pad with an alarm under them. When a child had a full bladder (CS) and would wet the bed, the alarm (UCS) would wake up the child (UCR)

Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior•Food _________ – When someone gets ____,

they normally attribute it to something they ate.

•Usually a _____ food (even if that wasn’t the _______ of the illness)

Behaviorism•Is the attempt to understand behavior in

terms of ____________ between observable _____ and observable responses

•Behaviorist – psychologists who study only those behaviors that they can ______ and _______.

•________ instead of _________.•Not concerned with unobservable ______

processes

Classical vs Operant Conditioning•Classical conditioning – a stimulus that

originally did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired with one that does. The experimenter presents the CS and UCS __________ of the participant’s ________.

•Operant conditioning – relies on _________ for behavior that will either encourage or discourage the behavior from happening again. The participant’s behavior __________ the programmed outcome to occur.

Operant Conditioning•Learning in which a certain action is

_______ or _________, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence

•Operant is used because the subject _______ on or causes some _______ in the environment. Depending on the effect, the learner will repeat or eliminate these behaviors to get rewards or avoid punishment

Reinforcement•B.F. ________ – psychologist most closely

associated with operant conditioning•Believed that behavior is influenced by

______ and _________.•Reinforcement – a _______ or event that

increases the likelihood that behavior will be ________.

•Some examples of reinforcers are social ______, money and extra ________.

Reinforcement•Positive reinforcer – Something the

learner ______ is given when a desired _______ occurs

•Negative reinforcement – when something ________ is taken away if the learner performs the _______

•Negative reinforcement is NOT _________

Reinforcement•Primary reinforcer – one that satisfies a

biological _____ such as _______, thurst, or sleep. (ex. food)

•Secondary reinforcer – Anything, paired with a primary reinforcer, that has acquired ______ through conditioning (ex. money, praise, status, prestige)

Schedules of Reinforcement•Continuous schedule – reinforcement

happens _____ time the behavior ______•_____ schedule – reinforcement happens

____ of the time the behavior happens•Partial schedule is the most ______

because the learner cannot _______ when the next reinforcement will occur, so they learn to be persistent.

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement•Fixed-ratio –a specific _______ of correct

responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. (ex. People get paid after working for so many days)

•Variable-ratio – an _________ number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained. (slot machines)

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement•Fixed-interval – a specific amount of _____

must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement (classrooms – you may study a lot right before a test, but not much after one)

•Variable-interval – ______ amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement (trying to get in touch with a friend)

Shaping•Reinforcement is used to sculpt _____

responses by rewarding close actions, then waiting and rewarding an even closer action.

•Teach just about any animal to do an ______ trick as long as they are physically capable of doing so

Chaining•Response chain – learned ________ that

follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next (ex. Swimming)

Negative Reinforcement•Negative reinforcement – something

_______ is taken away, causing the behavior to be repeated

•Example: A child doesn’t want to eat spinach for dinner, so she cries and makes faces. The mother takes away the spinach, reinforcing the behavior to happen again when spinach is offered at a later date.

Punishment•Unpleasant consequence occurs and

________ the frequency of the behavior that produced it.

•Disadvantages:•Produce unwanted side _______ (rage,

aggression & fear)•_________ of the punisher •Does not teach appropriate and

acceptable behavior when used _______.

Social Learning•Process of altering _______ by observing

and imitating the behavior of ______•Two types: cognitive learning and ________

Cognitive Learning•The mental processes involved in how to

obtain, _______ and ________ information•Cognitive map – a mental ______ of spatial

relationships or relationships between events

•Latent learning – ________ of a behavior tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior

Learned Helplessness•When a person attempts to control a

situation and _____, resulting in a belief that the situation is uncontrollable

•Can lead to giving up, lowered self-esteem, or __________

Modeling• Learning by imitating others; _________ behavior• Three types:• 1) we do what others are doing; no learning is

taking place• 2) observational learning – ________; watch a

model perform then the learner duplicates their actions

• 3) disinhibition – observer watches someone else do a behavior without __________, they will do it themselves (helps in curing phobias)

Behavior Modification•Well-defined _____ to change people’s

actions and feelings•First step - Define the ______ in concrete

terms•Uses ______, operant conditioning and

classical conditioning to obtain appropriate behavior

Computer Assisted Instruction•Uses ________ conditioning•Student shows he or she has learned

information, student is given ________ reinforcement with new information, choices or point rewards

Token economies•Desirable behavior is reinforced with

valueless _________, which can be saved and exchanged for valued rewards

•Improved conditions in prisons, mental hospitals, halfway houses and _________

Self-Control•_______ systems of rewards and

punishments•First step – define the _________ in

concrete terms•Second step may be to set up a behavioral

__________